COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

8.1 Coastal processes

lithology (rock type) – hard rocks such as granite and basalt give rugged landscapes (Giant’s Causeway). Soft rocks such as sands
and gravels produce low, flat landscapes (Nile delta).

geological structure – concordant coastlines occur where the geological strata lie parallel to the coastline. Discordant coastlines
occur where geological strata are at right angles to the shoreline.

processes – erosional landscapes contain many rapidly retreating cliffs, whereas areas of rapid deposition contain many sand
dunes and coastal flats.

sea level changes – advancing coasts due to deposition and/or relative fall in sea level. Retreating coasts due to erosion and/or
drowned by a rise in sea level.

human impacts – some coasts are extensively modified, whereas others are more natural.

ecosystem types – mangrove, coral, sand dune, saltmarsh and rocky shore add variety to the shoreline.

Wave generation and characteristics: fetch, energy, refraction, breaking waves, high and low energy waves, swash, and
backwash.

Waves result from friction between wind and the sea surface. Wave height is an indication of wave energy. It is controlled by wind
strength, depth of sea, and fetch (the distance of open water a wave travels over).

Waves of oscillation (in deep open sea) are forward surges of energy. Although the surface waves appear to move, the water
particles are actually moving in a roughly circular orbit within the wave.

The wave orbit is the shape of the wave. It varies between circular and elliptical. The orbit diameter decreases with depth, to a
depth roughly equal to wavelength (the distance between neighbouring crests or troughs), at which point there is no further
movement related to wind energy - this point is called the wave energy.

● swell waves are characterised by a lower height and a longer wavelength.

● storm waves are characterised by a short wavelength, greater height and high frequency.

Waves of translation are waves reaching the shore. As waves move further up the onshore, the wave base comes into contact
with the seabed. Friction slows down the wave advance, causing the wavefronts to crowd together. Wavelengths are reduced
and the wave height increases. The shortening of the wave causes an increase in wave height (wave shoaling). Thus a breaker is
formed.
spilling breakers - associated with gentle beach gradients and steep waves (wave
height relative to wave length). They’re characterised by a gradual peaking of the
wave until the crest becomes unstable, resulting in a gentle spilling forward of the
crest.

plunging breakers - tend to occur on steeper beaches than spilling breakers, with
waves of intermediate steepness. They are distinguished by the shore-ward face
of the wave becoming vertical, curling over and plunging forward and downward
as an intact mass of water.

surging breakers - found on steep beaches with low steepness waves. In surgeon
breakers, the front face and crest of the wave remain relatively smooth and the
wave slides directly up the beach without breaking. In surging breakers, a large
proportion of the wave energy is reflected at the beach.

Once the breaker has collapsed, the wave energy is transmitted onshore. The
swash will surge up the beach, with its speed gradually lessened by friction and the
uphill gradient. Gravity will draw the water back as the backwash.

● constructive waves tend to occur over a gently shelving sea floor (formed from fine material such as sand). These waves
have been generated far offshore.

● destructive waves are the result of locally generated winds. They move onshore up a steeply shelving coastline (formed
from coarse material such as gravel or shingle), creating a rapid increase in friction and thus a steep plunging breaker.
Due to the rapid steepening and curling of breaker, the energy of the wave is transmitted down the beach, breaking
down the beach material.

constructive waves destructive waves

low frequency (6-8 per minute) high frequency (12-14 per minute)

gradual increase (gentle offshore slope) rapid increase (steep shelving coastline)

spilling breaker plunging breaker

strong swash weak swash

weak backwash strong backwash

 TIDES AND THE TIDAL CYCLE

Tides are regular movements in the sea’s surface caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and Sun on the oceans. Tides are
influenced by the size and shape of ocean basins, the characteristics of the shoreline, the Coriolis force and meteorological
conditions. Low spring tides occur just after a new Moon. High spring tides occur after a full Moon when the Sun and the Moon
are aligned.

Neap tides occur when the sun and moons are at right angles to each other, there is least
gravitational pull, meaning the tidal range is at its lowest. The neap tide occurs 7 days after
the spring tide.

Spring tides occur when the sun and the moon align to create the greatest gravitational pull on
the sea.

- tides are greatest in bays and along funnel-shaped coastlines

- in the northern hemisphere, water is deflected to the night of its path
- during low pressure systems, water levels are raised 10 centimetres for every decrease of 10 millibars.

The difference between high and low tide is called the tidal range. Tidal range varies with distance from the amphidromic point
(place where there is no tidal range) and according to the shape of the coast; the strength of tidal currents varies enormously.

The tidal range has important influences on coastal processes:

- controls the vertical range of erosion and deposition
- time between tides affects weathering and biological activity
- influences velocity of tidal flow

A tidal bore is a surge that occurs along a coast where a river empties into an ocean or sea. A
tidal bore is a strong tide that pushes up the river, against the current. It gets stronger as the
channel funnels. The coast’s tidal range must be quite large, usually at least 6 metres. When all
of these conditions are met, a tidal bore is formed. e.g Severn Bore, which occurs in the Severn
Estuary between Wales and England.

Rip currents are important for transporting sediment. They can be caused by tidal motion or
by waves breaking along a shore.

A cellular circulation is caused by differences in wave height parallel to the shore. Water from
the higher sections of the breaker travels further up the shore and returns back through the
points where lower sections have broken. Once rip currents are formed, they modify the
beach by creating cusps, which perpetuate the currents.

STORM SURGES

Storm surges are changes in the sea level caused by intense low-pressure systems and
high wind speeds. For every drop in air pressure of 10 millibars, sea water is raised 10
centimetres. During tropical cyclones, low pressure may be 100 millibars less than normal,
raising sea level by 1 metre. In areas where the coastline is funnel-shaped, this rise in level
is intensified. During high tides, the results can be devastating. They are particularly hazardous in low-lying areas. Surges are
common in the Bay of Bengal, on the south-east coast of the USA and in Japan.

WAVE REFRACTION

As wave fronts approach the shore, their speed of approach is reduced. Usually, due to the interaction between onshore wind
direction (and therefore direction of wave advance) and the trend of the coast, the wave fronts approach the shore obliquely. This
causes the wave fronts to bend and swing around in an attempt to break parallel to the shore. The change in speed and distortion
of the wave front is called wave refraction. If refraction is completed, the fronts break parallel to the shore. However, due
primarily to the complexities of coastline shape, refraction is not always totally achieved - this causes longshore drift, the gradual
movement of sediment along the shore. As the swash moves in the direction of the prevailing wind, whereas the backwash moves
straight down the beach following the steepest gradient.

Marine erosion: hydraulic action, cavitation, corrasion/abrasion, solution, and attrition.

HYDRAULIC ACTION – air trapped in crack/joints is compressed as the wave (force of the water) hits. Huge pressure increase erodes,
causing detachment or crack enlargement.

CAVITATION – as the wave retreats, pressure drops. Air bubbles form, expand and explode causing a huge pressure release. Air in
cracks/joints rapidly expands also

ABRASION – sand and shingle is hurled by the wave at the cliff, causing rubbing of material.

SOLUTION – water made acidic by barnacles and limpets erodes weak rocks such as limestone.

ATTRITION – larger particles collide and rub together, causing a mutual erosive action.

Sub-aerial processes: weathering and mass movement.

weathering:
→ weakens rocks on the cliff, increasing the likelihood of a mass movement occurring.

FREEZE-THAW – extreme expansion/ contraction of rock or water in cracks crumbles rock

OXIDATION – rusting of rocks containing iron compounds

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING – salt bearable (halophilic) plants and animals anchor themselves to the coast, expanding cracks (limpets,
salt plant root systems)

CHEMICAL WEATHERING – acids in water and sea bird excrement cause the break down of rocks in-situ

SALT WEATHERING – salt water enters cracks in the coastline and evaporates leaving salt crystals. Crystals dramatically expand and
contract with temperature
 mass movement
→ triggered by rainwater or undercutting by marine processes.
Type depends on moisture, gradient and rock type.

SOIL CREEP – movement of soil particles downhill due to wetting

and freezing.

MUDFLOWS – an increase in and pore water pressure leads mud to

flow over underlying bedrock.

ROCK FALLS – weathering increases crack size and allows

rainwater to penetrate. Crack widens until it can no longer be
supported and falls.

ROTATIONAL SLUMPS – an increase in soil moisture plane to slip by

throughflow and baseflow.

Marine transportation and deposition: sediment sources and characteristics, sediment cells, and longshore drift.

sediment sources:

• cliffs → erosion increased by storm events and tsunami and higher sea levels, can contribute up to 70% of beach sediment if
high energy waves and weak cliffs

• offshore bed → tides, currents and constructive waves bring sediment from offshore and nearshore zones

• backshore → aeolian transport of fine sands from dunes, sandbars and other beaches

• rivers → direct deposition on steeper gradients, normally during flood events

• drift along coast → longshore drift moves sediment from one coastal area and supplying it to an adjacent

• human action → beach nourishment and other hard engineering maintains sediment equilibrium

characteristics:
- types: cobbles, coarse sand, fine sand and mud
- particle size
- particle roundness
- particle distribution on the beach. waves sort the material. Constructive waves push up, destructive pull down, wind
blows sand up over berms (aeolian transport)

LONGSHORE DRIFT – leads to sediment moving gradually along the shore; the swash moves sediment up the beach in the direction of
the prevailing wind, while the backwash moves straight down the beach in the direction of the steepest gradient. The net
movement is downdrift.

SEDIMENT CELLS – a dynamic equilibrium system of inputs, processes and outputs. All operate within a closed system therefore
changing an input would change the processes and outputs (not balanced). They vary in size.

operation:
- sediment is supplied from a range of sources
- ‘conveyor belt’ system moves sediment along coastline, dictated by wave direction (fetch is vital)
- movement processes require high energy waves
- sediment deposited at the cell boundary when movement is prevented (headland) or sediment momentum reduces
(estuary)
 - sediment can only be lost out to sea, primarily by seaward currents (enhanced by river flows) removing mud, silt and
sand out to deep sea

OCEANSIDE LITTORAL CELL IN SOUTH CALIFORNIA

Inputs into the Californian sediment cell include:

- river deposits
- sediments from cliffs
- materials for beach replenishment
- north-south longshore drift.

Irregular and variable river supplies have been further reduced by 33 per cent due to dam construction. Most of the material
supplied for beach replenishment is fine-grained silt and sand.

Each year, rip currents and offshore currents move 100 000 m3 of sediment into the La Jolla submarine canyon and over 200 000
m3 of material drifts southwards. In addition, seasonal variations in constructive and destructive waves redistribute coastal
sediments, and sea levels are rising 6-15 millimetres each year.

Human impacts:
- Dams have reduced the supply of sediment to the beaches by 33 per cent.
- Buildings, swimming pools, boats, private protection schemes and roads are destabilising the cliffs.
- Oceanside Harbour in the north is blocking the southward movement of sediment and most is now diverted to offshore
currents and to the La Jolla submarine canyon.

HUMAN ACTIVITY AND LONGSHORE DRIFT – WEST AFRICA

Ocean currents along the coast of West Africa have removed huge amounts of beach material along the coast between Ghana
and Nigeria. This has affected settlements, tourism and industry.

→ The coastal retreat has been blamed on the construction of the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in Ghana. It is just 110
kilometres from the coast and prevents about 40% of flow from reaching the coast. Thus, there is less sand to replace that which
has already been washed away, so the coastline retreats due to erosion by the Guinea Current.

→ In addition, mining of sand and gravel from beaches and estuaries further reduces the natural coastal protection. Towns such
as Keta, 30 kilometres east of the Volta estuary, have been destroyed as their protective beach has been removed.

Problems in Togo:
- The use of artificial breakwaters (which obstructs the natural flow of the Guinea Current from west to east) causes the east side
(downdrift) to be open to erosion (beach and local infrastructure). A 100 metre stretch of the main Ghana-Benin highway was
destroyed in just 24h.
- Erosion near the holiday resort of Tropicana caused the sea to advance 100 metres towards the holiday complex. Ironically, the
erosion uncovered a bed of resistant sandstone, which now protects the resort, but is not as attractive as before.
- Kpeme, 18 kilometres to the east of Tropicana, is a port from which most of Togo's processed phosphate is exported, accounting
for more than half of Togo's foreign exchange.
- The jetty at Kpeme was threatened with erosion. To manage the risk, engineers have reinforced the foundations of the jetty with
boulders. The boulders now trap sand and stop it from moving down the coastline. As a result, towns further east, such as Aneho,
are now even more at risk from erosion. The coastline near Accra has been eroding at up to 6 metres a year, whereas other areas
have retreated by as much as 30 metres a year. If Togo were to protect its coastline by preventing the movement of sand
eastwards, it might lead to an increase in erosion in Benin, where the foundations of oil wells may be threatened.
 8.2 Characteristics and formation of coastal landforms

Erosional landforms:

CLIFFS – mass of high rising rock (almost vertical) formed due to weathering and
erosional processes in coastal environments. Cliff profiles are variable (different
bedding and jointing). If beds dip vertically, a sheer cliff face is formed. If beds dip
steeply seaward, steep shelving cliffs with landslips are formed.

· composite cliffs are composed of more than one rock type. Shape of the cliff
depends on strength and structure of rock, relative hardness and the nature of the
waves involved.

· bevelled cliffs is another type of composite cliff.

1. A vertical cliff was formed due to marine processes in the last interglacial
(warm) period, sea levels were higher than today.
2. During subsequent glacial (cold) phase, sea levels dropped, and periglacial
progresses such as solifluction and freeze-thaw affected the former sea
cliff, forming a bevelled edge.
3. When sea levels rose again during the following interglacial, there was
renewed wave erosion, which removes the debris and steepens the base
of the cliff, leaving the upper part at a lower angle.

WAVE-CUT PLATFORM – narrow, flat base of a cliff.

- erosion from waves concentrated around high-tide line.
- hydraulic action and corrasion create a wave-cut notch.
- as the notch becomes deeper (and sub-aerial weathering
weakens the cliff from the top) the cliff face becomes unstable
and falls under its own weight through mass movement.
- leads to a wave-cut platform to be formed as the cliff retreats,
which is normally exposed at high tide.

CAVES, ARCHES, STACKS & STUMPS

 Depositional landforms:

SPITS – a long narrow strip of land which is formed when longshore drift causes the
beach to extend out to sea, due to a change in direction of the coastline.

The length of the spit depends on any changing currents or rivers, which will
prevent sediment from being sited. A change in wind direction can cause the end of
the spit to curve (recurved end). Over time, the recurved end may be abandoned,
and a new spit will form on the old recurved end, so on. This creates a spit with
multiple recurved ends, called a compound spit.

OFFSHORE BARS – an offshore region where sand is deposited, as the waves don't have
enough energy to carry the sediment to shore. They can be formed when the wave
breaks early, instantly depositing its sediment as a loose-sediment offshore bar. They may also be formed as a result of backwash
from destructive waves removing sediment from a beach.

TOMBOLOS – a spit that connects the mainland to an offshore island. Tombolos are
formed due to wave refraction off the coastal island reducing wave velocity, leading to
deposition of sediments. They may be covered at high tide if they are low lying.

CUSPATE FORELAND – a single ridge where longshore

drift occurs in the opposite directions, two spits
merge into a triangular protrusion along a coastline
or lakeshore. Their formation is also dependent on dominant and prevailing winds working in
opposite directions. Formation can also occur when waves are diffracted around a barrier.

TIDAL SEDIMENTATION IN ESTUARIES – An estuary is the point where a river meets the ocean. Deposition occurs in river estuaries due to
the change in water velocity from a river to an ocean. When the flow of water from the river meets with the incoming tides and
waves from the sea, the water flow virtually ceases so the water can no longer carry its sediment in suspension. As most of the
sediment is small and fine it leads to a build up of mud which, over time, builds up until it is above the water level. Deposition also
occurs as a result of flocculation. Pioneer plants colonise this area, leading to more sediment becoming trapped. This colonies the
transition zone between high and low tide. Mudflats and salt marshes may
develop as a result of sedimentation.

MANGROVES – trees that are adapted to grow in saline, low oxygen conditions. They
develop in coastal swamps in tropical regions, and environment around them is
constantly changing with the tides. Mangroves can stabilise shorelines with roots
and protect areas from erosion, as well as providing an environment for wildlife.

SALT MARSHES – In sheltered bays or behind spits, salt and minerals will build up.
Vegetation may establish, further stabilising the salt marsh. Similar to sand dunes,
salt marshes can stabilise through vegetation succession.

1. Algal Stage - Gut weed and Blue green algae establish as they can grow on bare mud, which their roots help to bind together.
2. Pioneer Stage - Cordgrass and Glasswort
grow, their roots begin to stabilise the mud
allowing the estuarine to grow.

3. Establishment Stage - saltmarsh-grass and

Sea asters grow, creating a carpet of
vegetation and so the height of the salt marsh
increases.

4. Stabilisation - Sea thrift, Scurvy grass &

Sea-lavender grow, and so salt rarely ever gets
submerged beneath the marsh.

5. Climax vegetation - Rush, Sedge & Red

fescue grass grow since the salt marsh is only
submerged one or twice a year.

BARRIER BEACHES – occurs when a beach or spit extends across a bay to join two headlands. This traps water behind it leading to the
formation of a brackish lagoon which is separated from the sea. As well as forming from present day processes, some barrier
beaches may have formed due to rising sea levels after the last glacial period, when meltwater from glaciers deposited sediment
in the coastal zone. If a barrier beach becomes separated from the mainland, it becomes a barrier island.

BEACHES – created when sediment is deposited near the coastline when waves lose thor energy. They stretch from roughly the low
tide to the high tide line. Larger sediment is found toward the top of the beach where it has been left from winter storms. The
backwash is often weaker than the swash as the water quickly percolates into the sand. As the backwash isn't as powerful, the
larger sediment remains at the top of the beach. Scree near the cliffs as a result of mass movement processes and weathering
means that angularity increases towards the cliff.

The effectiveness of transportation is dependent on the angle of the prevailing wind in relation to the land and leads to the
formation of different beach types:

● swash-aligned → wave crests approach parallel to the coast, so there is

limited longshore drift. Sediment doesn’t travel far along the beach.
Wave refraction may reduce the speed of high energy waves, leading to
the formation of a shingle beach with larger sediment.
● drift-aligned → waves approach at a significant angle, so longshore drift
causes the sediment to travel far along the beach, which may lead to the
formation of a spit at the end of a beach. Generally larger sediment is
found at the start of the beach and weathered sediment moves further
down the beach through longshore drift, becoming smaller as it does, so
the end of the beach is likely to contain smaller sediment.
SAND DUNES – occur when prevailing winds blow sediment to the back of the beach. The formation of dunes requires:
- plentiful supply of sand
- large tidal range to allow the sand to dry
- strong winds to transport sand particles through saltation
- an obstacle to trap the sand e.g. a plant, seaweed or driftwood
- plants are central to the formation, growth and character of sand dunes

1. embryo dunes → upper beach area where sand starts to

accumulate around a small obstacle (driftwood, wooden peg, ridge of
shingle). Pioneer species such as sea rocket are resistant and able to
survive in the salty sand, with its deep tap roots to obtain available
moisture and help bind the dunes together. They have waxy leaves to
retain moisture and withstand wind. (Shells can release calcium which
can produce more grassland).

2. yellow dunes → as more sand accumulates, dune grows (tallest of

dune succession). Vegetation develop on the upper and back surfaces
which stabilises the dune. Situated above level of high tides, where
wind speeds are reduced and soil is less alkaline. Dying organic matter
from pioneer plants adds nutrients and hummus to soil, allowing
marram grass to grow.

3. grey dunes → sand develops into soil with lots of moisture and nutrients as vegetation dies, enabling more varied plant growth.
Here there is lower pH of the soil, higher hummus content, and sand is no longer accumulating.

4. dune slack → the water table rises closer to the surface, or water is trapped between hollows between dunes during storms,
allowing the development of moisture-loving plants such as willow grass.

5. heath and woodland → sandy soils develop as there is a greater nutrient content, allowing for less brackish plants to thrive.
Trees such as oak trees will grow (plants from earlier stages die out because of competition for light and water) with the coastal
woodland becoming a natural windbreak to the mainland behind. Here, the soil is acidic, maritime influence is minimal and it is
well sheltered from winds.

The role of sea level change in the formation of coastal landforms.

Sea levels change in connection with the growth and decay of ice sheets. Eustatic change refers to a global change in sea level. At
the height of glacial advance 18000 years ago, sea level was 100-150 metres below current sea level. The level of the land also
varies in relation to the sea. Land may rise as a result of tectonic uplift or following the removal of an ice sheet. The change in the
level of the land relative to the level of the sea is known as isostatic adjustment or isostacy. Parts of Scandinavia and Canada are
continuing to rise at rates of up to 20 millimetres/year.
A simple sequence of sea-level change can be described:
1. Temperatures decrease, glaciers and ice sheets advance and sea levels fall, eustatically.
2. Ice thickness increases and the land is lowered isostatically.
3. Temperatures rise, ice melts and sea levels rise eustatically.
4. Continued melting releases pressure on the land and the land rises isostatically.

Features of emerged coastlines:

- raised beaches, such as the Portland raised beach
- coastal plains
- relict cliffs, such as those along the Fall Line in eastern USA
- raised mudflats, for example the Carselands of the River Forth.

Submerged coastlines include:

RIAS – such as the River Fal - drowned river valleys caused by rising sea levels during the Flandarin
Transgression or due to a sinking of the land.

FJARDS – or 'drowned glacial lowlands'.

FJORDS – such as Milford Sound on the west coast of South Island,

New Zealand, and the Oslo Fjord - glacial troughs occupied by
the sea; common in uplifted mid-latitude coasts, notably
Norway, Greenland and Chile - an early view was that they were tectonic in origin; this has been
rejected and replaced by drowning of U-shaped valleys.
 8.3 Coral reefs

Characteristics, distribution and formation of fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls.

Characteristics:
Coral reefs are calcium carbonate structures that live only in tropical
seas, where temperature, salinity and lack of turbid water are
conducive to their existence. Corals occupy less than 0.25% of marine
environment, yet they shelter more than 25% of all known marine life.

Development:
All tropical reefs begin life as polyps - tiny, soft animals, like sea
anemones - which attack themselves to a hard surface in shallow seas
where there is sufficient light for growth. As they grow, many of these
polyps exude calcium carbonate, which forms their skeleton. Then as
they grow and die these ‘rock’-forming corals create these reefs.

Polyps have small algae, zooxanthellae, growing inside them. There is

a symbiotic relationship where the algae gets shelter and food from
the polyp, while the polyp also gets some food via photosynthesis.

Types:
fringing reefs - those that fringe the coast of a land mass. Usually
characterised by an outer reef edge capped by an algal ridge, a broad
reef flat land and a sand-floored ‘boat channel’ close to the shore.
Many fringing reefs grow along shores that are protected by barrier
reefs grow along shores that are protected by barrier reefs grow along
shores that are protected by barrier reefs and are thus characterised by organisms that are the best adapted to low wave-energy
conditions.

barrier reefs - occur at greater distances from the shore and are commonly separated from it by a
wide, deep lagoon. Barrier reefs tend to be broader, older and more continuous than fringing reefs.

atolls - rise from submerged volcanic foundation and often support small islands of wave-borne
detritus. They are confined to the flanks of submerged oceanic islands, whereas barrier reefs may also
flank continents.

patch reef - small circular or irregular reefs that rise from the sea floor of lagoons behind barrier reefs or
within atolls.

Theories of coral formation:

● Darwin-Dana → reef grows upwards, while land goes down reef goes up.
● Murray → waves hitting coral and pushing them into land making them more stable.
● Daly → once conditions started to warm and sea level was rising, previous coral reefs (dead by glaciacion) provided a
base for the upward growth of coral.
Value of corals:

Coral reefs are among the most biologically rich ecosystems. The great barrier reef in Australia has: 400 species of coral, 1500
species of fish, 4000 species of mollusc and 6 species of turtle. They are able to thrive under poor nutrient conditions.

• seafood: in LICs, coral reefs contribute about one quarter of the total fish catch, providing food for up to a billion people in Asia.
If well managed, corals can yield on average 15 tonnes of seafood per km2 per year.

• new medicine: coral extracts have been used to develop treatments for asthma, arthritis, cancer and heart disease.

• other products: economic goods ranging from corals and shells made into jewellery and tourism curios, to fish and corals used in
aquariums; and sand and limestone used by the construction industry.

• recreational value: coral reefs are a major draw for snorkelers, scuba divers and recreational fishers.

• coastal protection: coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines through wave action and the impact of storms. The benefits of this
protection are widespread, and range from highly productive mangrove fisheries and wetlands to supporting local economies
that are built around ports and harbours.

Conditions required for coral growth.

• temperature – optimal conditions for growth are between 23ºC and 25ºC.

• depth of water – most reefs grow in waters less than 24 deep, so generally found in margins of continents and islands.

• light – prefer shallow water because the tiny photosynthetic algae that live in the coral need light; in return, they supply the
coral polyps with as much as 98% of their food requirements.

• salinity – corals are intolerant to waters with salinity levels below 32psu, and they can tolerate high salinity levels (> 42psu), as
found in the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf.

• sediment – sediment clogs up their feeding structures and cleansing systems, and sediment-rich water reduces light available
for photosynthesis.

• wave action – strong wave action ensures oxygenated water, and there is a stronger cleansing action, which helps remove any
trapped sediment and also supplies microscopic plankton to the coral. However, in storm conditions waves may be too
destructive for the coral to survive.

Threats to coral reefs (global warming, sea-level rise, pollution, physical damage) and possible management strategies.

• physical damage - from coastal development, dredging, quarrying, destructive fishing practices and gear, boat anchors and
groundings, and recreational misuse (touching or removing corals).

• overfishing - can alter food-web structure and cause cascading effects, such as reducing the numbers of grazing fish that keep
corals clean of algal overgrowth. Blast fishing (i.e., using explosives to kill fish) can cause physical damage to corals as well.

• coral harvesting - for the aquarium trade, jewellery, and curios can lead to over-harvesting of specific species, destruction of
reef habitat, and reduced biodiversity.

• sedimentation - from coastal development, urban stormwater runoff, forestry, and agriculture. Sediment deposited onto reefs can
smother corals and interfere with their ability to feed, grow, and reproduce.

• nutrients - (nitrogen and phosphorous) from agricultural and residential fertiliser use, sewage discharges (including wastewater
treatment plants and septic systems), and animal waste. Coral reefs are adapted to low nutrient levels; so an excess of nutrients can
lead to the growth of algae that blocks sunlight and consumes oxygen corals need for respiration. Excess nutrients can also
support growth of microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi, that can be pathogenic to corals.

• pathogens - from inadequately treated sewage, stormwater, and runoff from livestock pens. Bacteria and parasites can cause disease
in corals, especially if they are stressed by other environmental conditions.

• toxic substances - including metals, organic chemicals and pesticides found in industrial discharges, sunscreens, urban and agricultural
runoff, mining activities, and runoff from landfills. Pesticides can affect coral reproduction, growth, and other physiological
processes. Herbicides, in particular, can affect the symbiotic algae (plants). This can damage their partnership with coral and
result in bleaching.
• trash - from improper disposal and stormwater runoff. Trash such as plastic bags, bottles, and discarded fishing gear that makes its
way into the sea can snag on corals and block the sunlight needed for photosynthesis, or entangle and kill reef organisms and
break or damage corals. Degraded plastics and microplastics can be consumed by coral, fish, sea turtles, and other reef animals,
blocking their digestive tracts and potentially introducing toxics.

• global warming (temperature) - caused by warmer atmospheric temperatures and increasing levels of carbon dioxide in
seawater. As atmospheric temperatures rise, so do seawater temperatures. This warming causes corals to lose the microscopic
algae that produce food that corals need, placing stress on the corals, also causing coral bleaching also. Severe or prolonged
bleaching can kill coral colonies or leave them more vulnerable to other threats such as infectious disease.

• sea level rising - will cause a decrease in light reaching the coral, reducing photosynthesis of zooxanthellae.

• ocean acidification - a change in ocean chemistry in response to the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is in equilibrium with that in seawater, so when atmospheric concentrations increase
so do oceanic concentrations. Carbon dioxide entering seawater reacts to form carbonic acid, causing an increase in acidity.

Coral bleaching:
Zooxanthellae for themselves gives the coral its colour. However, when environmental conditions become stressful,
zooxanthellae may leave the coral, leaving it in an energy deficit and without colour (coral bleaching). If the coral is re-colonised
by zooxanthellae within a certain time, the coral may recover, but if not the coral will die.

Coral bleaching can be caused by increases in water temperatures of as little as 1-2ºC (if it exceeds 29ºC) above the average
annual maxima. The shallower the water, the greater the potential for bleaching. Bleaching may also be the result of changes in
salinity, excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation and climate change.

In 2005, the US lost half of its coral reefs in the Caribbean in one year due to a massive bleaching event due to thermal stress.

In 2016 and 2017, there was a mass coral bleaching that affected one third of the great barrier reef. After the bleaching, Whitsundays was
hit by Hurricane Debby, a category four cyclone. Building marine nurseries.

Management strategies to protect coral reefs:

To avoid permanent damage and support people in the tropics, it is recommended that:

- the world community reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and develop plans to sequester carbon dioxide
- damaging human activities (sedimentation, overfishing, blasting coral) be limited
- assistance be provided to LICs
- alternative livelihoods be developed that reduce the pressure on coral reefs
- local coastal management practices be introduced
- the management, monitoring and enforcement of regulations be improved
- more coral reefs are designated as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to act as reservoirs of biodiversity, including many
remote and uninhabited reefs that are still in good condition.

There are two methods of coral propagation:

→ building marine nurseries and giving coral time to grow back again and put them back into damaged sites.
→ usal coral raceways that are actually out the water. They are in controlled water tubes for 45 months and plant them back into
the wild.

Support of the government to fund ideas and projects. Government gave 80 million to protect coral in 2015.
 8.4 Sustainable management of coasts

Case study: candidates must study some of the problems of sustainably managing a stretch or stretches of coastline, and
evaluate attempted solutions (including hard and soft engineering).

Shoreline management plans (SMPs)

SMPs are plans in England and Wales designed to develop sustainable coast defence schemes. Sections of the coast are divided
up into littoral cells and plans are drawn up for the use and protection of each zone.

- planning
- coastal protection
- cliff stabilisation and ground movement studies
- control of beaches and public safety
- recreational activities and sport
- beach cleaning
- pollution and oil spills
- offshore dredging
- management of coastal land and property
- coastal infrastructure, including seawalls, esplanades, car parks, paths

Coastal defence:
hard engineering

type of aim/methods strengths weaknesses

managment

seawalls large-scale concrete curved - easily made - expensive

walls designed to reflect - good in areas of high - lifespan 30-40yrs
wave energy density - foundations may be
undetermined

revetments porous design to absorb - easily made - lifespan limited

wave energy - cheaper than seaw

gabions rocks held in wire cages, - cheaper than - small scale

absorb wave energy seawalls and
revetments

groynes prevent longshore drift - low cost - cause erosion on

- easily repaired downdrift side
- interrupts sediment
flow

rock armour large rocks at base of cliff to - cheap - unattractive

absorb wave energy - small-scale
- may be removed by
heavy storms
 offshore reduce wave power offshore - cheap to build - disrupt local ecology
breakwaters

cliff drainage removal of water from rocks - cheap to build - disrupt local ecology
in the cliff

cliff grading lowering of slope angle to - low cost - disrupt longshore drift
make cliff safer - easily repaired - erosion downdrift

soft engineering

type of aim/methods strengths weaknesses

managment

beach sand pumped form seabed to - looks natural - expensive

nourishment replace eroded sand. - short term solution

managed coastline allowed to retreat in - cost-effective - unpopular

retreat certain places. - maintains a natural - political implications
coastline

red-lining planning permission cost-effective - unpopular

withdrawn; new line of - political implications
defences set back from
existing coastline.

costs benefits

- cost of building - protected buildings, roads and infrastructure

- maintenance/reparations (gas, water, sewerage, electricity services)
- increased erosion downdrift due to beach starvation or reduce - land prices rise
longshore drift - peace of mind for residents
- reduced access to beach during works - employment on coastal defence works
- reduced recreational value
- reduced accessibility
- smaller beach due to scour
- disruption of ecosystems and habitats
- visually unattractive
- works disrupt natural processes

holderness coast → longshore drift moves material along coastline & cliffs made of clay erode easily.
- Built rock armour and two rock groynes → increased erosion on south of mappleton.
- Economic activities further away from
- Loss of propeties