Waves

A wave is a small and gentle ripple or a huge and destructive thrust of water on the sea and
ocean. Waves are formed by wind blowing across the surface of the sea or other large body of
water. The friction between the wind and the surface of the water causes the water to move in a
circular motion

(N.B. As the wave moves into shallow water, it breaks. When the depth of the sea is less than the
height of the wave, friction with the bottom increases and the wave slows down. The wavelength
becomes shorter and the front of the wave becomes steeper. The top of the wave then tumbles
forward. When this happens, the wave is said to break. This is the only time water is thrown
forward by the wave.)

(N.B. When the wave breaks, the water which is thrown onto the beach is called the swash. The
water which drains back into the sea is called the backwash. Waves which have a swash which
is stronger than their backwash are called constructive waves. They deposit material onto the
shore. Waves which have a backwash which is stronger than their swash are called destructive
waves. They erode the coastline.)

Terms
Coast: It is the margin of the land where it meets the sea. The zone or strip of land extending
from the coastline, which borders the sea to where the land rises.

Shore: The zone lying between the low water mark and the base of a cliff where the action of the
sea is in operation.

Fetch: The stretch of open water over which the wind blows constantly.

Wave refraction: This is a change or bending in the direction of the wave front from its original
position/direction. (Decreased wave height or energy –reduced power to erode; increased wave
height – greater erosive power).

Types of Waves:

Constructive waves: These are a series of waves which move gently or slowly in towards the
coast at a rate of 6-8 minutes. They are widely spaced, normally flat, low in height and move
material up the beach thereby helping to build up the beach. This type of wave is called swash.
Swash is the rushing or movement of water up the beach. This results in material being carried
up the beach.
N.B. The swash is greater than the backwash. Materials are pushed up the beach.

Destructive waves: These are a series of waves which follow each other in quick or rapid
succession at the rate of 10-15 minutes. They are close together and break frequently having a
vertical plunge which removes or drags the material down the beach or seaward. This type of
wave is very steep and strong and is called backwash. Backwash is water moving down the
beach and taking with it material. It is a destructive wave because it removes or take material
away from the beach.
N.B. The backwash is greater than the swash. Materials move down the beach.

Waves transport materials or load by way of swash, backwash and longshore drift. Longshore
dift is the combination of the swash and backwash where materials of sand, shingle etc are
brought along the beach and coast by waves which break obliquely or slantly or sideways. This
oblique breaking of the waves thus cause the swash to bring material up on the beach sideways,
while the backwash takes it straight back down.

Work of waves
Waves carry out three work. They are:
1. Erosion
2. Transportation
3. Deposition

Erosion
1. Corrasion/Abrasion
2. Attrition
3. Hydraulic Action
4. Corrosion/Solution

Abrasion: This is where the material carried by the wave are thrown or hurled against the coast
or base of cliffs causing it to erode.

Attrition: This is the process where rocks/small stones and other materials are broken down
into smaller rounded pieces along the coast by hitting or being thrown against each other.

Hydraulic Action: This is where water hitting against the cliff face traps air in cracks and cause
them to be compressed. The constant compression and expansion as a result of the pounding
wave adds pressure which cause the rocks to break.

Corrosion/Solution: This is where the acidic nature of the sea water dissolves the minerals in
rocks along the coast.

Features produced by wave erosion:

1. Cliffs 2. Wave-cut platform 3. Caves 4. Arches 5. Blowholes
6. Stack 7. Bay 8. Headland

Cliffs
A cliff is a high and steep rock face located along the coast. A cliff is formed where the land
meets the sea in the form of a steep drop. Pounding waves at sea level therefore begins to attack
the rock and so undercut or erode the area of the rock where erosion or the attack is concentrated
by cutting a notch in the rock. Continuous erosion occurs at the notch thereby undercutting it
causing it to cut inwards or become further indented or more pronounced. This results in a
overhang (rock which hangs over the water without any support below) developing. The
overhang then collapses/falls off due to continuous undercutting from pounding waves. A steep
rock face called a cliff is therefore formed.

Wave-cut platform
This is a gently sloping area of bare rock often filled with debris (sand, pebbles etc.) extending
seaward from the base of a cliff. This occurs where erosion or attack by waves takes place at the
base of a cliff creating a notch (cut or indentation). Continuous erosion along the notch undercuts
the rock resulting in it cutting inwards or becoming further indented. This results in a overhang
(rock which hangs over the water without any support below) developing. The overhang
collapses/falls off due to continuous undercutting from pounding waves. Further erosion by the
waves results in more undercutting at the base of the cliff and the formation and collapse of
overhangs resulting in the retreat of the cliff(reduction of the cliff towards land) such that a
stretch of gently sloping bare rock resembling a platform called a wave-cut platform develops.
The platform may later become filled with debris e.g. pebbles, silt, sand and even vegetation.

This occurs where the sea erodes the base of a cliff. The action of the wave creates a notch or
indentation in the cliff base as the water weakens and digs out sections of the rock. Continuous
erosion cause the notch to become bigger and extend further into the cliff while the sea takes
away the material dug out. Eventually, a flat area of rock or platform begins to be formed as the
wave erodes the rock, the cliff above the notch is no longer supported by a rock mass (overhang
occurs) and so it eventually collapse leaving behind a flat piece of rock joined to the receding
cliff.
Cave

A cave is a hollow indentation or dug out section along the coast or headland caused from wave
action along joints, fissures or other lines of weakness.
A cave is formed where a line of weakness, a crack, fault or joint along the coast or headland is
weakened continuously by the action of the sea. Caves occur where the waves pound or crash
against the crack continuously such that the pressure/force placed on the rock cause a notch to
occur and the undercutting or eroding of pieces of rocks which are broken off and washed away.
The waves continue to pound the coast/headland such that a hollow or tunnel or indentation
begins to form or extend into the rock/headland. This is referred to as a cave.

● This cave is found on the coast of California, USA

This diagram shows how a cave can develop into an arch and eventually a stack

Arch
An arch is a tunnel-like structure that exist where caves form on either side of an exposed
headland (Area of rock jutting out into the sea) or cliff and eventually meet. An arch is formed
where wave action attacks both sides of an headland at the same time creating notches which are
further undercut or eroded by wave attack. In time hollowed out tunnels/caves occur developing
on either side. Continuous erosion and undercutting by waves cause both caves to enlarge and
eventually meet or runs right through the headland resulting in a tunnel-like structure or a
continuous hollow. The resulting feature is called an arch.
 ● This arch is found on the west coast of St. Lucia, near the city of Castries

Stack
This is a steep-sided rocky island or an isolated pillar of rock which has been separated/detached
from a headland/mainland. A stack is formed when continuous wave action erodes the top of an
arch which is unsupported such that it weakens and collapses. This therefore results in a piece of
rock detached or separated from the main rock area.
 ● This arch and stack is found near the village of Etretat, France

Bay
This is a wide-mouthed recess, indentation or space set back from a coastline. It is formed along
a discordant coastline where the water is deep, has destructive waves and where waves approach
quickly and at an angle such that the coastline of alternating resistant and less resistant rock is
subjected to attack from wave action. As the waves pound the coastline it erodes the less
resistant/softer rock, creating notches and undercutting and removing material continuously over
a period of time resulting in a wide indentation or hollow between a headland and rock mass. It
can also be formed along a concordant coastline where the coastline has resistant rocks but has
weak points. Wave action therefore attack and erode the resistant rock and erode the points of
weakness behind them leaving recesses called bays in them.

Headland
This is a large piece of resistant rock that is attached to the mainland but which juts or emerges
into the sea. It is formed along a discordant coastline where the water is deep, has destructive
waves and where waves approach quickly and at an angle such that the coastline of alternating
resistant and less resistant rock is subjected to attack from wave action. As the waves pound the
coastline it erodes the less resistant/softer rock, creating notches and undercutting and removing
material continuously over a period of time resulting in wide indentation or hollows called bays
leaving behind the projections of hard/resistant rocks called headlands into the sea (with bays on
either sides sometimes). . It can also be formed along a concordant coastline where the coastline
has resistant rocks but has weak points. Wave action therefore attack and erode the resistant rock
and erode the points of weakness behind them leaving recesses called bays in them and sections
of the resistant rock jutting out as headlands. (They are few in number along this coastline).
Features formed by wave deposition
Here sand, shingle etc are laid down where:
i. low energy waves occur
ii. rapid coastal deposition occurs further along the coast thus providing an abundant
supply of material
iii. a river enters the sea
iv. tidal currents meet each other

i. Spit iii. Bars v. Mud flats vii. Barrier Islands

ii. Beaches iv. Tombolos vi. Salt marshes

Spit

A long narrow ridge of sand or shingle that is joined to the coastline at one end only.
A long narrow build up or accumulation of sand and shingle with one end joined to the mainland
and the other projecting out to sea e.g. The Palisadoes AirStrip in Kingston Jamaica. They
develop where material carried along the coast by longshore drift is deposited where:
i. there is a sudden bend in the coastline
ii. the sea is shallow
iii. currents are gentle
iv. there is a change in the direction of the coastline.
These are formed when material is deposited along the coastline by longshore drift. Where there
is a bend in the coastline constructive waves move sideways depositing material along the
shallow bend of the coastline such that it extends out in the sea.
Dungeness Spit, Washington

Beaches
This is the build up of material along the cliff line and the sea at the coast. A beach is made up of
fine particles of shingles, shells and sand and smaller stones such as pebbles. They occur where
the shape of the coastline along with the slow and gentle movement of constructive waves
deposit material on the coast building up a gently sloping coastline.. Storm waves or high tides
may however throw larger material “stones” up the beach. Bayhead beaches may however be
formed when constructive waves deposit material between two headlands. The picture below
shows a bayhead beach in Brazil.

● This bayhead beach is found in Buzio, Brazil

Bar
This is similar to a spit, however, it is a submerged (others appear above the waves) build up or
accumulation of sand, pebbles etc which stretches across a river mouth or bay or the deposit of
materials extending across a bay or river mouth and which lies parallel to the coast. N.B. They
may straighten a coastline and trap water in lagoons (shallow water separated from the open sea).
They were are formed in shallow waters where longshore drift due to constructive waves gentle
move material up and down the coast and deposit material parallel to it based on the change in
the shape of the coastline. They may be stabilized by vegetation and grow large enough to
become barrier islands.
 ● A sand bar off the coast of Barton in the Philippines

Tombolos

This is a beach which extends outwards to join with an offshore island or where a spit joins an
offshore island to a mainland or a bar which joins an island to the mainland. It is formed by
longshore drift where constructive waves move material of sand, shingles etc along the coast
based on the change in its shape, in an up and down sideways and linear manner such that
material is deposited to join an island in the sea. The diagram below shows how tombolos are
formed.
●

● This tombolo is found near Hong Kong, China. Notice how the small island is joined to
the mainland by the deposition of sand.

“Coastal Features”