Teaching Schedule of SES- 505 (Soil Survey)

Course Outline
Program B.Sc(Hons) Agri. Course instructor Dr. Hamaad Raza Ahmad and Dr.
Shamsa Kanwal

Semester 5 th E-mail hamaadkhan@@uaf.edu.pk

Name of Course Soil Survey

Course No. SES-505
Credit hours 3(2-1)
Follow up B.Sc(Hons) Agriculture

Category Major Course

Objectives 1. The specific objectives of the course are

2. To provide know how about the soil and landscape, soil maps, their purpose and
characteristics.

3. To make them aware of different kinds and types of soil survey and its importance

4. To develop know how about aerial photograph, their types and use in soil survey.

5. Interpretation of soil survey report

6. Introduction to GIS and Remote Sensing

 Teaching strategies
Sr.NO. Week Articles covered Contents to be delivered Pages
1 Ist Enrollment
2 2nd Introduction: Soil Survey, definition soil, Soil survey manual 1962 1-42
Modern concept of soil, Soil forming factors (Climate, Parent Soil survey manual
material, Topography. Relief, Time, Site) 1995 15-31
3 3rd Soil, Horizon, Profile (O, E, A, B, C, W, R) Definition Soil Soil survey manual 1962 15-21
Classification, Categories of Soil Classification Soil survey manual
1995 88-92
4 4th History of Soil Soil Survey in Pakistan, Soil order found in Pakistan Soil survey manual 1962 43-70
and their extent in Pakistan
5 5th Types of Soil Survey: Single purpose, Basic soil survey, Soil Science National foundation
Reconnasance Soil Survey, Semi detail, detailed and ultra
detailed soil survey
6 6th Introdustion to Aerial photographs: Use of Aerial photos in soil Soil survey manual 1962 71-122
survey. Types of aerial photographs
7 7th Advantages; characteristics: obliqueness, tilt, crab, drift and Notes will be given
displacement; stereoscopic vision theory
8 8th Aerial phot Interpretation: Recognition elements; Sahpe, Size,
Color, Texture, Pattern, Shadow, Site,
9 9th Mid Exam
10 10th Methods of aerial photo interpretations; Pattern analysis,
Elemental Analysis, Physiographic analysis land forms, slope,
relief, drainage pattern, vegetation and color tones.

11 11th Soil Survey Operations: Prefield studies, Field Opertaions, Soil Survey for development-FAO, 56-59
Repoert writing, Soil mapping legand. Soil Survey Reports
12 12th Reconnaissance Soil survey reports; Basic principles; Summary, Soil Survey for development-FAO, 56-59
Conlusions, Recommendations; Soil Survey Reports
13 13th Topgraphic maps, Concept of contour lines, Slope calculation Soil Survey and land evaluation 128-139

14 14th Introduction to Geographic Information System and Remote

Sensing
15 15th Final Exam
 Soil Survey
 Soil and Landscape
 Purpose, character and Identification of
boundaries
 Kinds and levels of soil survey
 Field operations and requirements
 Aerial photographs, their types and
applications
 Stereoscopes, types and vision theory
 Mapping Legend (Interpolation of soil survey
reports
 Application of GIS and Remote sensing in soil
survey
Soil
Soil is any substance which supports plants. “Soil is the upper most loose
portion of earth’s crust which supports plant and living organisms”.
Not everything “capable of supporting plants out-of-doors” is soil.
Bodies of water that support floating plants, such as algae, are not soil,
but the sediment below shallow water is soil if it can support bottom-
rooting plants such as cattails or reeds (grass land plants).
Modern Concept of soil
“Soil is defined as the collection of natural bodies occupying parts on
earth surface that has properties due to integrated effect of climate and
living matters acting upon the parent material as condition by relief
(topography) over a period of time”.
Soil upper limit is air or shallow water. Where as, Its lower limit most
difficult to define. The lower limit of soil, therefore, is normally the lower
limit of biologic activity, which generally coincides with the common rooting
depth of native perennial plants (Grow summer and Spring die back autumn
and winter).
NATURAL BODIES: That contain living matter and are capable
of supporting plants.
Topography
“Difference in elevation b/w upland and lowland valley of of an area”.
 SOIL SURVEY
“Systematic examination description, classification and mapping of a soil of an
area” A soil survey describes the characteristics of the soils in a given area,
classifies the soils according to a standard system of classification, plots the
boundaries of the soils on a map, and makes predictions about the behavior of
soils. It also includes different uses of the soils and how the response of
management affects them are considered. The information collected in a soil
survey helps in the development of land-use plans and evaluates and predicts
the effects of land use on the environment.
Systematic Examination
• Examining soil in a specific order. It includes:
• Soil forming factors
• Soil profile: Description – (Soil properties, pH, Textures, Color).
• Factors were defined by Jenny in 1941
• 𝑆 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝐶𝑙, 𝑂, 𝑃𝑀, 𝑡, 𝑅
• S= Soil (x,y)= Coordinate Location
• f= Function , Cl= Climate, O= organism, PM= Parent material
• t= Time, R= Relief. In arid and semi-arid regions low Rainfall, high temperature,
salts are accumulated at the surface. In humid regions High rainfall, salts are
leached down due to rain.
1. Parent material
Parent material is the unconsolidated initial material from
which soils develop.

The nature of parent material greatly influences soil

characteristic.
Parent material influence soil formation by its following
properties/characteristics:

 Rate of weathering
 The nutrients
 The particle size
Rate of weathering
Rate of weathering varies with climate

In humid regions, high rainfall provides an environment

favorable for the growth of trees and more will be the
rate of weathering.

In contrast semi arid region, grasslands are dominant

with native vegetation less rainfall results shallow
deposition of basic cations
The nutrients
Parent material also influences the quantity and type
of clay minerals present in soil profile. Soil
developed from potassium rich parent material may
have illite as the dominant clay mineral.
 The particle size

sandstones give rise to sandy and shale’s to clayey soils. The less the
soil developed the grater will be the effect of parent material on the
soil properties.
 The particle size

sandstones give rise to sandy and shale’s to clayey soils. The less the
soil developed the grater will be the effect of parent material on the
soil properties.
Climate
average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of time as
determined by temperature, precipitation, wind velocity and other morphological
factors. of an area over a period of time.
Effect through
Rain fall
Temperature
Wind
Temperature
The biochemical changes are sensitive to temperature. These changes are favored
by temperature range of 20-30oC. Temperature also influences the organic matter
content of the soil. Decomposition of organic matter is more at higher
temperatures that leads to less build up organic matter in soil. That is why organic
matter is generally low in soils of dry region like Pakistan
Rainfall/ Moisture
Rainfall is the source that provides moisture. In areas receiving low rainfall, there
is shallow accumulation of carbonates in the soil, in humid areas, acid soils are
developed under conditions of intense weathering and leaching. Erosion caused
by water may remove upper fertile portion of soils and may deposit it some other
places. A soil is said to be developed when it has detectable layers (horizons),
such as accumulated clays, organic colloids, or soluble salts that have been
moved by water.
Wind
Wind can affect soil development through erosion as it may decrease the
depth of soil developed and may damage the vegetation. In sandy areas
like Cholistan the destructive effects of winds are more pronounced.
Climatic region
Climate also influences the natural vegetation. humid regions, high rainfall
provides an environment favorable for the growth of trees. In contrast, grasslands
are dominant with native vegetation in semi arid regions and shrubs of various
kinds in arid areas. In these areas the vegetation is not dense enough to In
protect soil from wind and water erosion.
Living organisms
• The activities of living plants, animals and the decomposition of their wastes
and residues have marked influence on soil development. Soil organism plays a
major role in soil profile differentiation through
• Organic matter accumulation
• Profile mixing
• Nutrient cycling
• Soil structure stability
• Burrowing animals such as moles, earthworms, ants, and termites are highly
important when they exit in large numbers. Soils having large numbers of
these animals have fewer but deeper horizons because of the constant mixing
within the soil profile. Microorganisms present in the soil attack plant and
animal residues producing organic materials. These along with an abundance
of plant roots to help bind soil particles into stable aggregates. Similarly,
certain microorganisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen into compounds useable
by plants. These provide an increase in nitrogen content of soil
Topography
• Topography is the difference in elevation or slope between the uplands and
low lands of a valley or it is the earth’s surface contour. Some time we called it
relief.
• Topography of a land can hasten or delay the work of climate forces. In smooth
and flat surfaces excess water is removing less rapidly than in areas of steep
slopes. Soils having steep slopes encourage natural erosion of the soil surface
which reduces the possibilities of the development of a deep soil. On the other
hand, if water stands for part or all of the year on gentle slopes there will be
more vegetation and organic matter accumulation resulting in the
development of a deep soil profile. The water standing for a long period of
time on depression may cause salt deposition as it evaporates.
• Topography also determines the type and amount of vegetation. E.g. in
northern hemisphere, higher plants and more vegetation is present on north
facing slopes but small shrubs are present on the south facing slopes.
Look at effect of slope on profile characteristics and depth of soil
Topography – erosion & deposition
Time
• The length of time for which the material has been subjected to weathering and the changes in soil mass,
affects the soil formation. The time required for a soil to develop the distinct layers (horizons) depends upon
all other factors of soil formation (climate, nature of parent material, living organisms and topography).
Horizons tend to develop more rapidly under warm, humid and forested conditions where there is enough
water to move clay, humus and other colloids downward. Under ideal conditions, recognizable soil profile
may develop within 200 years, under less favorable conditions, the time may extend to several thousand
years.
SOIL PROFILE
McDonald, R. C., Isbell, R. F., Speight, J. G., Walker, J., and Hopkins, M. S. (2009).
‘Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook.’ (3rd Ed). CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood VIC 3066
Australia

Soil profile is a vertical section of a soil from the soil surface through all its
horizons to parent material.
TYPE OF SOIL OBSERVATION
The soil profile may be described from the following
P Soil pit
E Existing vertical exposure
C Relatively undisturbed soil core
A Auger boring
soils are examined for a wide variety of purposes, the depth of examination in practice frequently may not
exceed 1.5–2 m.
HORIZONS
A soil horizon is a layer of soil, approximately parallel to the land surface, with morphological properties
different from layers below and/or above it.
O horizons
These are horizons dominated by organic materials in varying stages of
decomposition that have accumulated on the mineral soil surface. They
are usually divided into Oi, Oe and Oa horizons.
Oi horizon consists of undecomposed organic debris, usually dominated by
leaves and twigs. The original form of the debris can be recognized with
the naked eye.
Oe horizon consists of organic debris in various stages of decomposition.
The original form of most of the debris cannot be recognized with the
naked eye.
Oa Fully decomposed
p subordinate horizon

These are horizons dominated by organic materials in various stages of

decomposition. They have long been known as Peat (recognizable plant material;
Muck: completely decayed plant material not recognizable) .

A horizon (Humus mixed with mineral faction)

Formed at the surface or below an O layer as a result of illuviation

(deposition) of organic material into mineral sub soil and usually darker in colour
than the underlying horizons, Characteristics of A Horizon: accumulation of
humified organic material mixed with mineral fraction Having properties resulting
from cultivation i.e. disturbance
A1 horizon
Mineral horizon at or near the soil surface with some
accumulation of humified organic matter, usually darker in
colour than underlying horizons and with maximum biologic
activity . It may be divided into two sub-horizons
A11 horizon is usually the more organic, or darker colored at
uppermost portion.
A12 differs in either hue(spectral color), value (Brightness) or
Chroma (purity) from the A11, usually being lighter in colour
A2 horizon
Mineral horizon having, either alone or in combination, less organic matter,
sesquioxides, or silicate clay It is usually differentiated from the A1 horizon by its
pale colour
A3 horizon transitional horizon between A and B, which is dominated by
properties characteristic of an overlying A1 or A2.
E horizon
Mineral horizon from which silicate clay, iron, aluminum or some combination of
these have been leached. Sand and/or silt sized quartz or other resistant minerals
remain there and become concentrated. An E horizon is generally lighter in color
than the A horizon and is found below the A horizon
Eluviation: Movement of materials out of a portion/layer of soil profile as in E
horizon.
B horizons
These are horizons consisting of silicate clay, iron, aluminium, organic material.
B1 horizon transitional horizon between A and B, which is dominated by
properties characteristic of an underlying B2.
B2 horizon in which the dominant feature is one or more of the following:
Residual concentration of Fe , aluminum or humus, either alone or in
combination. Maximum pedogenic organization different structure can
identified. It may be divided into sub-horizons (e.g. B21, B22, B23).
B3 horizon transitional horizon between B and C material in which
properties characteristic of an overlying B2 dominate
C horizons
These are layers below the solum (Layers under goes soil forming
condition usually AB) of consolidated or unconsolidated material, usually
partially weathered, little affected by pedogenic processes, and either like
or unlike the material from which the solum formed. The C horizon lacks
properties characteristic of O, P, A, B or D horizons
D horizons
These are considered here to be any soil material below the solum that is
unlike the solum in its general character, is not C horizon, and cannot be
given reliable horizon designation.
R horizons
These horizons consist of moderately strong to very strong rock (such as
bedrock. R horizons may have cracks but these are few enough and/or fine
enough that few roots penetrate. It is usually too strong to dig with hand
tools, even when moist.
Transitional horizons
Are the layers of soil between two master horizons.
Types of transitional horizons

Horizons have dominated properties of one master horizon and have also
subordinate properties of the adjacent master horizon. The designation is by two
master horizon capital letters:
The first letter indicates the dominant master horizon properties
second letter indicate the subordinate characteristics.
e.g. If the transition horizon is in between A and B having the properties of both
A&B. The designation of BA indicate that B horizon properties are dominated.
2. Separate components of two master horizons are recognizable in the horizon
and at least one of the component materials is surrounded by others. The
designation with two Capital letters along a slash between. the first letter
designated with the material of higher volume in the transition horizon. e.g. A/B,
E/B or B/E.
• Types of Parent Material
• Sedentary- Not transported either by water or air but fall on same rocks.
• Transported- Transported through Colluvial “Gravity”. Alluvial material transported by
“water”. By wind or air- Eolian, Adobe, Loess (Silt), Sand dunes, Volcanic ash (Common in
Japan).
• TIME 200 Years are required to soil develop, when all the other factors are favorable. Soil
is developed when horizon/profiles are differentiated.
• Gentle Slopes have more vegetation.
• Soil Profile:
• “Vertical section of soil through all its horizons upto C horizon or Bed Rock”.
• Horizon:
• “A layer of soil which is parallel to the soil surface but it has different properties
from upper layer and from lower layer”.
Soil Classification:
“Systematic grouping or arrangement of soil into groups or categories on basis of
their properties”.
Categories of Soil Classification: It includes:
1. Order
2. Sub-order
3. Great Group
4. Sub Group
5. Family
6. Series (Contain higher characteristics)
• Soils are further defined below series by phases on basis of texture, slope, stoniness etc.
• Soil Series:
• “Where first soil profile is defined” or “Group of soils having similar arrangement of
horizons within profile except texture- texture may be different e.g. Lyallpur soil series.
• Phase: This is further differentiation below soil series level named Stoniness, slope and
Texture”.
• Soil association:
• “When two or more than two soil series occur in repetitive patterns e.g. Shadara-
Sultanpur soil association”.
• Soil Complex:
• “When two or more than two soil series occur in such a combination that you can’t
differentiate individual soil series”.
History of Soil Survey in Pakistan
• There are different organizations or consultant agencies conducted soil survey in different
interval like:
• DLR (Directorate of Land Reclamation), Directorate of Forestry
• FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), UNDP (United Nation Development Program)
• 1934-1939 DLR conducted soil survey to access the soil salinity in country. They concluded
that soil salinity is associated with depth of water table in canal irrigated areas. Shallow
water table contains more salts than deeper water table. 1952-1955 DLR conducted soil
survey with help of FAO experts to map the country areas using aerial photographs. Their
main aim was to access the problem of salinity and water logging. In these soil survey, soil
series were identified on basis of sub soil texture alone. During 1957 reports were
published based on exploratory soil survey conducted by FAO and DLR and soils were
classified on basis of texture.
1950 PID (Punjab Irrigation Department) also conducted soil survey to
access salinity and water table in Punjab province.
In early 1960’s soil survey work was transferred to WAPDA under which
water and soil investigation division (WASID) was established. They classified
soils on basis of texture, salinity and water logging.
1962 Department of Soil Survey was established by Ministry of Agriculture
Govt. of Pakistan in association with FAO and UNDP to access soil resources
of country.
During last three decades, the department of soil survey conducted
different surveys in country.
1990 Department of soil survey conducted the Reconnaissance survey
under major parts of country. The main features of soil survey were:
Agriculture research stations and forest lands were studied in detail.
Stereoscopic Examination:
Physical survey is best survey. Aerial photographs are used, these
are not 100% true images but give clues about the area.
 • Types of Soil Survey
• There are following types:
• Single Purpose Soil Survey:
• Is carried out for a specific purpose and only those soils characteristics are
studied which are associated to achieve the survey objective. e.g. DLR carried out
survey to find out the extent of soil salinity in the country. The utility is limited to
specific purpose. It is not possible to drive land capability classes on basis of this soil
survey.
• Basic Soil Survey:
• Collection of data on fundamental soil properties and then classifying the
soils on basis of significant differences among these properties.
• Types of Soil Survey on basis of Intensity of Observations and Scale:
• These are:
• Exploratory Soil Survey:
• Is carried out to get the idea about soil resources of the country. In this survey soil
groups are identified in the field and are shown on the maps. Sometimes soil groups
are made on basis of soil texture, parent material and Physiology.
• 1:500000 to 1:5000000 cm
• Reconnaissance Purpose Soil Survey:
• In reconnaissance survey individual soil series and phases which are
identified in field they mapped as soil association. In soil survey reports the
soil association are described as a component of soil series and phases
where its position in the landscape is also mentioned. Soil boundaries will
also be drawn on aerial photos. Field observation intensity 1-2 sq.km
• Scale: 1: 100,000 to 1: 2,50,000
• Uses
• To mark areas which have high potential
• To formulate developmental plans of country
• To compile information on district level
• Limitations
• Not helpful to identify soil series on farm level
• Not use as source to advise farmers
• Semi detail Soil Survey:
• It provide more detail compared with reconnaissance soil survey. Its scale is
I:50,000. Soil series and phases here also recognized and mapped but intensity of
observations is 2-4 sq. km.
• USES
• Detail developmental plans
• Assessing their feasibility
• Field investigation on infiltration rate and permeability of different horizons
laboratory analysis of soil sample is also carried out.
• Detail Soil Survey
• This type of soil survey is done for farm level planning. Phases of individual soil series
are shown on maps and boundaries between soils are checked, In addition to soil
series and phases, few soil complex are also shown on maps.
• Scale 1:10,000 to 1: 25, 000
• Mapping unit soil series/ phases
• USES
• For farm level planning
• To guide/advise the farmers
• Utra-detail soil survey

• Mapping unit again is soil series and phases but gives more detail. Scale
• 1: 5000. This type of survey conducted on an experiment station for construction of
buildings and for single crop assessment.
SOIL SURVEY ORDERS
(https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcs142p2_0542
54#orders)
Order I
Very intensively done on experimental plots, individual building sites. However,
required reviews and permits from regulatory agencies. The soils are identified or
even grid mapping. Soil boundaries are drawn. Remotely sensed data are used as an
aid in identification of soil boundary.
Mapping unit size < or equal to one hectare. Phases of soil series are identified, Its
scale is 1:15,840 or greater
Order II
Intensively done for general agriculture, urban planning. Soils are identified by field
observations and by remotely sensed data. Boundaries are verified at closely spaced
intervals. Minimum size of mapping unit is 0.6 to 4 hectare. Phases of soil series are
identified. Its scale varies 1:12,000 to 1:31,680.

Order III
Extensive done for range lands and community planning. Soil boundaries are
plotted by field observations and interpretation of remotely sensed data and are
verified. Minimum size of mapping unit is 1.6 to 16 hectare. Mapping unit
observations are soil associations and soil complexes. Its scale varies 1:20,000 to
1:63,360.
Soil order IV
Extensively conducted for general soil information's to monitor land use potential and
their management. Soil boundaries are plotted by interpretation of remotely sensed data
and are verified in field. Minimum size of mapping unit are 16 to 252 hectares. Most map
units are associations .Phases of soil series are identified. Its scale varies 1:63,360 to
1:250,000.

Soil order V

Very extensive done for regional planning and selection of areas for more intensive study.
The soil patterns and composition of map units are determined by interpretation of
remotely sensed data . Soils are verified by some onsite investigation. Minimum size of
mapping unit are 252 to 4,000 hectare. Most map units are associations . Its scale varies
1:250,000 to 1:1,000,000 or smaller
Order of soil Survey Minimum size of mapping unit
(hectares)

First: Very intensive , Experimental <=1

plots, building sites

Second: Intensive, General 0.6-4

agriculture, urban planning

Third: Extensive, range land, 1.6-16

community planning

Fourth: Extensive for broad land use 16-252

potential and land management,

Fifth: Very extensive 252-4000

 USE OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS IN SOIL SURVEY
• An aerial photograph is any photograph taken from an airborne vehicle (aircraft,
drones, balloons, and satellites)
• Aerial photograph (AP) not a map but it gives perspective view of a portion of earth
surface. It has no true scale hence precise measurement of distance and direction
cannot be made on it. It provide three dimensional view of the earth surface.
• Advantages
• AP offers birds eye view of earth surface
• Permanent recording on a larger scale
• It can enhance spectral sensitivity compared to human eye.
• TYPES
• OBLIQUE AP
• Are taken with a cameras (often hand held) pointed downward in such a way that
longitudinal axis of a camera form an angle less than 90 degrees with the ground.
• High oblique AP represents larger area and low oblique represent smaller area of
the ground. These oblique Aps are used in Reconnaissance soil survey.
• Vertical AP:
• Are taken with fixed camera pointed downward from the aircraft in such away that
longitudinal axis of the camera is perpendicular to the horizontal surface of the
ground. It is divided into three forms
• A. Continuous strip photographs (continuous exposure) is taken at low altitude with
high speed by synchronizing the motion of camera film with the ground speed of air
craft. Good pictures are taken in poor light. It has limited use in soil mapping due to
their large scale and small coverage.
• B. Multiple lens photographs: taken using combine vertical and oblique camera
angles. The camera usually have three to five or nine lenses. One lens taken vertical
view and others oblique. It is widely used where rapid and economical coverage of
large area at a small scale is required.
• C. Single lens phot graphs: Which are taken in a series of independent overlapping
exposures and are highly recommended for soil mapping. Give very good detail of
soil features.
• Utra-detail soil survey

• Mapping unit again is soil series and phases but gives more detail. Scale
• 1: 5000. This type of survey conducted on an experiment station, for construction of
buildings and for single crop assessment.
• Flight Line and overlap
• Most aerial photography in a country is flown north and south. Flight lines are
as near straight and parallel as possible; they should not deviate from the true
direction by more than 5 degrees. Flight lines are usually continuous across the area,
with the first and last photograph on each flight line falling entirely outside the area
boundary.

• In line of flight consecutive photographs should overlap an average of 60 percent,

with no overlap less than 55 percent nor more than 65 percent. Overlap in line of
flight is referred to as endlap. The overlap between adjacent flight lines, or side lap,
should average 30 percent, with none less than 15 percent nor more than 45 percent.
DRIFT:
Lateral shift of air craft from flight line due to wind. A gap is the occurred in photographic coverage area. Or
deviation from original flight path.
CRAB:
Is the result of camera not being oriented parallel to the flight line. Results due to failure of
orientation of camera with the flight line. Edges of these photographs not being parallel to the air
base .When the air-craft is not oriented with the flight line. Photographs are not parallel to the
flight line.
• Tilt
• When the plane of the camera is not level the resulting photograph is tilted. The greater
the tilt, the more the object in the photographs are distorted in shape and size.. In standard
photography used by the USDA tilt does not exceed 50 nor average more than 20 in a 10 miles
flight line, nor average more than 10 for an entire area.
• Crab and Drift
• To maintain a true flight in the presence of side or front winds, it is frequently necessary
that the photographic aircraft fly at an angle to the flight line. The camera is rotated to
compensate for the angle of flight. Failure to do so results in crabbed photographs. Drift, a
special form of crab, results when exposures oriented to the flight line continue to be made
even though the aircraft has drifted from the flight line. Edges of successive photographs are
parallel but side stepped. Standard specifications don’t permit crab to exceed 100 from the true
flight line in any two or more pictures.
Introduction to Aerial
Photography Interpretation

Photos taken above the surface of earth to get face of the earth
Regular photography take from front while aerial photos taken from
top. In aerial photography you may have color IR photographs which is
not visible to human eye
MAP: 3D display to 2D on a paper sheet. It is usually dirctionaly and
geometrically are accurate
Aerial Photos: Has huge amount of radial distortion (Drift, Carb, tilted)
which can be corrected by GIS .
GIS: Geographic Information System.
Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements
Shape Pattern
Size
Color/Tone Site
Texture Association
Shadow
Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements
• Shape may be geometrical (square, Triangle, Rectangular,
linear, circular) or cultural (Agricultural field, roads, river)
Form of an object on aerial photograph. It helps to identify
the object
Regular and uniforms shapes often indicates the human
activities like canals, roads
Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements

• Size is measure of the

surface area of the object
• relative size is an
important clue. It may be
bigger (canal), small
(Distributary), single or
multiple.
• apartments vs. houses
• single lane road vs.
multilane
• horse tracks vs. runner’s
tracks
 Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements
• Color/Tone or hue relative brightness of an object
Measures the color characteristics of the object and is related to the light
reflected from it.\
irrigated vs. dry fields, Sand has bright tone, water has dark tone and trees are
identify by their leaves color at a particular season
 Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements
• Texture
• coarseness/smoothness
• Of the object on the aerial
photograph
• smoothness - crops, bare fields,
water, river, grass etc.
• coarseness - forest, mountain,
lava flows, etc.
• even-aged vs. old growth
Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements
• Pattern (Random or
evenly spaced)
Spatial distribution of
man made or natural
objects like row crops,
forest
 Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements
• Site
• site - relationship of a feature
to its environment
• citrus on hillside, or Ship and oil
spills
Photointerpretation: Recognition Elements

• Shadows (Use to calculate height

of an object)shadows helps to
identifying their height, shape and
orientation

Association/Site: associating the

presence of one object with another, or
relating it to its environment, can help
identify the object (e.g. industrial
buildings often have access to railway
sidings; nuclear power plants are often
located beside large bodies of water);
• Land forms:
• Natural physical features of earth surface,
mountains, rivers, plains.
• Landscape:
• Consist of visible features of land of an
area. It includes land farms, water bodies, and
buildings.
Methods of Aerial Photograph Interpretation
• Three methods:
1. Pattern Analysis
2. Elemental Analysis
3. Physiographic Analysis
• 1: PATTREN ANALYSIS
• Related to soil surface and subsurface conditions like land forms, drainage,
erosion, vegetation and cultural features .These are pattern elements. In Pattern
Analysis
• The starting point is to identify a large regional pattern which divide major
landscape units into smaller units and then examine in the local pattern elements
under stereoscope. Each element indicates a certain soil conditions and each
element studied independently.
• If on an aerial photograph you find/a radial drainage then there is strong
possibility that area on photograph is volcanoes or
• On the other hand, if there is conical hill (one or more depression) then possibility
of volcano area is uncertain.
• RADIAL Drainage: When stream radiate or diverge outward, like the spokes of a
wheel means many rods radiating from the center of a wheel called hub.
• Elemental Analysis
• Elements which have no direct relation with soil condition, but it is a point
which has a minor influence on soil properties for example vegetation.
• International training center for aerial photograph and earth dividing
these elements. Which are used for aerial photographs into six categories
1. Elements which have positive relation with soil e.g. waterlogged soil.
2. Elements related to the morphology of soil like relief, river, and
drainage.
3. Elements related to the specific aspect of soil. For example gulley
pattern soil color.
4. Elements which are related to vegetation. For example natural
vegetation, specific trees.
5. Elements related to human activities like villages, roads etc
6. Inferred elements like water, drainage.
• Physiographic Analysis
• It includes sedimentation, erosion, volcanism,
tectonic movements. Among these first two are
important.(Sedimentation, Erosion). Sedimentation
include Marine sedimentation, Lakistrine
sedimentation, Eoline (air deposited)and Alluvual
sediments. Among these alluvial is important in our
soils.
Alluvial Sedimentation.
• Alluvial fans (Productive)
• Flood plain (Very Productive)
• Delta deposits (Deposit at river mouth).