Now with rapid urbanisation paired with space constraints, more buildings are growing taller

vertically, which makes fire safety and rescue a highly complicated mission in high-rise
residential buildings. In a few instances of residential fire breakouts in big cities, fire officials
could not clearly determine the cause of the fire and the buildings were found lacking in fire
safety equipment and detection systems. Leading causes of fires in residential societies are
believed to be cooking gas mishaps/explosions and electrical short circuits.

Let’s understand the measures required to keep our high-rise residential buildings and their
occupants safe in case of emergency fires.

Fire safety requirements in residential buildings

All residential buildings are classified as Category A (including lodgings, dwellings,

dormitories, flats and hotels) and require prior approval from the Director of Fire (or his
official) before construction. After examining the required fire safety features, an Officer
issues a NOC to the builder.
Every high-rise building (15 metres high and above according to the National Building Code)
should have the following built-in fire fighting features and equipment:

 Wet riser: a vertical pipe connected to the water tank built underground
 Down commer: vertical pipeline for overhead tank
 Dry riser: vertical pipeline kept dry at all times so the water doesn’t freeze.
 Hydrant: horizontal pipeline connected to the water tank.
 Water tanks: Underground water tank (capacity between 50,000 to 2,50,000 litres)
and terrace water tank (capacity between 10,000 and 20,000 litres).
 Automatic and manual fire alarm systems.
 Fire detection system.
 Manual/automatic sprinkler system.
 Fire extinguishers
 Stand by the generator as an alternate power source (to run corridor lights,
pressurization fans, blowers, etc).
 2-way communication for evacuation scenarios.
 (public address system)
 Escape routes
 Illuminated exit signs
 First aid fire fighting appliances
 Hose reels and boxes

Staircase provisions and rules

According to the fire safety rules for high-rise residential buildings, each high-rise building
should have two staircase exits with a width of 1 to 2 metres so that there’s no panicked
rushing in case of an evacuation. One of the other staircases can be used as a fire escape route
if the fire has broken out in one.
The staircase should be enclosed, properly ventilated and not be made to extend to the
basement (a separate staircase should lead from ground to basement) to stop fire and smoke
from spreading.
Fire doors should be made with 2-hour fire resistance and placed on escape routes and at the
entrance of the lift lobby and staircase.

Elevator usage and provisions

Even though rules state that every high-rise building should have a lift that can carry 545 kgs,
as a rule of thumb, lifts are not used for evacuation during a fire.

High-rise buildings should also have one high-speed Fire Lift which should be installed with
“Fireman Switch” so that the firemen can reach floors faster than regular lifts.

Fire detection system and sprinklers

 As per the risk present in the area, complex and simple detection mechanisms are to
be installed.
 Automatic detectors, interlinked public address (2-way comms) and speaker mike
should be present on every floor.
 Each floor can have its own automatic sprinkler system however they are a MUST-
HAVE in basement, parking, piped gas system installation where the risk of
combustible substances is really high.
 Fire dampers, corridor lights, boiler room should be installed as per the requirements
laid out by NBC.

Evacuation and safety measures

Each high-rise building should have its own fire safety plan and evacuation procedure that
should have instructions on how to avoid starting fires, how to extinguish fires and finally,
how to escape them when they break out. Fire safety plans should include emergency
services (local numbers of fire, police, ambulance, etc).

A residential building can organise different types of fire drills like surprise drills,
confidential drills, silent drills once a year to check escape readiness.
Make sure that your building has an automatic sprinkler system. If not, urge the MC to install
one.

Typically, a high-rise building deploys a phased evacuation procedure where residents are
warned using multiple warning systems. Residents of the floor where the fire originates, and
the floor above and below, are signalled and moved to four floors below the floor where the
fire originates.
Common causes of fire in Buildings

1. Cooking equipment
2. Heating
3. Smoking in bedrooms
4. Electrical equipment
5. Candles
6. Curious children
7. Faulty wiring
8. Barbeques
9. Flammable liquids
10. Lighting
11. Spark from oven
12. Careless throwing of burning cigarettes or bidi end
13. Naked lamp
14. Electric shock circuit
15. Burning charcoal
16. Smoldering fuel
17. Misfiring of engine
18. Bursting of stove
19. Over heating of electric appliances.

1. Cooking equipment
Pots and pans can overheat and cause a fire very easily if the person cooking gets distracted
and leaves cooking unattended. Always stay in the room, or ask someone to watch your food,
when cooking on hotplates.
2. Heating
Keep portable heaters at least one metre away from anything that could easily catch fire such
as furniture, curtains, laundry, clothes and even yourself. If you have a furnace, get it
inspected once a year to make sure it is working to safety standards.
3. Smoking in bedrooms
Bedrooms are best to be kept off limits for smoking. A cigarette that is not put out properly
can cause a flame, as the butt may stay alit for a few hours. It could burst into flames if it
came into contact with flammable materials, such as furniture.
4. Electrical equipment
An electrical appliance, such as a toaster can start a fire if it is faulty or has a frayed cord. A
power point that is overloaded with double adapter plugs can cause a fire from an overuse of
electricity. A power point extension cord can also be a fire hazard if not used appropriately.
Double check the appliances and power points in your home.
5. Candles
Candles look and smell pretty, but if left unattended they can cause a room to easily burst into
flames. Keep candles away from any obviously flammable items such as books and tissue
boxes. Always blow a candle out before leaving a room.
6. Curious children
Kids can cause a fire out of curiosity, to see what would happen if they set fire to an object.
Keep any matches or lighters out of reach of children, to avoid any curiosity turned disaster.
Install a smoke alarm in your child’s room and practice a home escape plan with your
children and family in case there was a fire.
7. Faulty wiring
Homes with inadequate wiring can cause fires from electrical hazards. Some signs to see if
you’ve bad wiring are: Lights dim if you use another appliance; For an appliance to work,
you have to disconnect another; Fuses blow or trip the circuit frequently Have a licence
electrician come and inspect you house, or contact your landlord if you have any of the above
occurrences.
8. Barbeques
Barbeques are great for an outdoor meal, but should always be used away from the home,
tablecloths or any plants and tree branches. Keep BBQs regularly maintained and cleaned
with soapy water and clean any removable parts. Check the gas bottle for any leaks before
you use it each time.
9. Flammable liquids
If you have any flammable liquids in the home or garage such as petrol, kerosene or
mentholated spirits, keep them away from heat sources and check the label before storing. Be
careful when pouring these liquids.
10. Lighting
Lamp shades and light fittings can build up heat if they are very close to light globes. Check
around the house to make sure. Lamp bases can become a hazard if they are able to be
knocked over easily, and so should be removed if they are. Check that down lights are
insulated from wood panelling or ceiling timbers.
Types of fire detectors, how they work
In this post we will see the different types of fire detectors that exist today in the
professional market of the Fire Protection sector. An analysis of each type of fire detector
will be made to understand which are the most optimal according to the type of fire expected
in each location. We will differentiate the following types or classes of fire detectors:

1. Smoke detectors: optical, photoelectric and ionic.

2. Temperature detectors: thermal and thermovelocimetric.
3. Flame detectors: infrared, ultraviolet and combined IR+UV.
4. Linear infrared detectors.
5. Gas detectors.
6. Detector cable or temperature sensor for fires.

What is a fire detector, definition

A fire detector is a device that detects the presence of a fire. This can be done in several
ways, including the following:

 Smoke detectors use an optical or electrochemical sensor to detect smoke.

 Combustible gas detectors use an electrochemical cell or catalytic sensor to detect
combustible gases in the air.
 Ionization smoke detectors are capable of detecting large and small particles in the air,
as well as large amounts of smoke. Disused due to the use of radioactive components.

What is a fire detection system

A fire detection system is an electronic system made up of different types of devices and
whose objective is to preventively detect a fire in its most incipient phase, and to issue
alarm signals to the user personnel of the installation to try to prevent it from spreading.

These systems are normally made up of a central processing unit, known as a Fire
Panel, auxiliary elements such as modules or power supplies, and field elements such as
alarm buttons, sirens and detectors.

A fire detection system can constitute an independent system in itself (small installations) or
form part of a larger system (medium or large installations). An example of a small
system might be a home system, where smoke detectors can be linked to each other and to
your home security alarm, so that when a detector activates its alarm, it reaches the user
through the control panel.

The larger and more complex systems can be, for example, multi-bay or multi-building
installations, with several fire panels interconnected with each other through a redundant
network, where a combination of detection and communication according to the fire forecast
of each location.

The installations can also be of the conventional or analog type, the first of which is a
system in which several detectors are joined together to emit an alarm, normally ignoring the
exact presence of the start of the fire. It is the simplest system. On the other hand, the much
more technologically developed analog system unequivocally identifies the triggering of the
alarm, so it is known exactly which detection system equipment has communicated or
detected the fire warning.

MORE INFO ON FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

1. Smoke detectors: optical, photoelectric and ionic

Optical smoke detectors

An optical smoke detector is a device that detects smoke generated in a fire and is drawn into
the detector, so that by using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to illuminate the surrounding
area of the smoke chamber detector analysis. The LEDs are connected to a photodetector,
typically a photodiode array or a single photodiode. The photodiode converts the reflected
light into electricity, and the generated voltage is used to determine if there is smoke in the
protected location.

They are the most widely used detectors due to their versatility, and are
especially indicated in locations where a fire that quickly generates smoke can be
expected, such as fabric warehouses , wood, and in general almost any product that does
not have liquid, gaseous or chemical components.

A widely used variety is the optical-thermal dual technology detector, for locations that
generate smoke during normal use, such as a car park, so that the detector will activate an
alarm once both technologies have exceeded their limits. thresholds.
Photoelectric smoke detectors

These detectors use light to detect smoke, but respond faster than optical detectors because
the detection technology is simpler.The speed with which these devices react makes
them ideal for areas where protection against fires that are expected to grow rapidly is
needed, such as kitchens.

Ionic (or ionization) smoke detectors

These devices are similar to photoelectric devices in that they respond quickly without
relying on a complicated scanning mechanism; however, its sensors work by measuring ion
levels in the surrounding air, not visible light as its counterpart technologies do.

This means that ionic detectors tend to be more effective in fires where a large amount of
smoke is not expected, being especially used in chemical environments, although it should be
noted that it is a type of detector that is currently withdrawn from the market, due to
environmental restrictions, since it is an element that uses a small amount of radioactive
material to function, so there is a tendency to replace it and special waste management.

Aspiration detector systems

It is not a type of detector that uses a technology other than optical or ionic, but rather these
are systems that are made up of a detector with different detection technologies to which
the smoke is conducted through a system of pipes and suction pumping to the analysis
area.

This equipment manages to cover large areas and volumes, and its operating principle is
to suck in air from the protected area through calibrated holes in a pipe system, so that it
reaches the detector chamber in yes, and so in case of detecting smoke, depending on the
technology available, it will activate or generate the corresponding alarm to the fire detection
and alarm system.

2. Temperature detectors: thermal and thermovelocimetric

Thermal detectors

They are used to detect high temperatures, activating an alarm signal once the predefined
temperature threshold has been exceeded in your camera.

These sensors can be platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs) or thermocouples, which

detect temperature change in a wire.

They are especially indicated in locations where high temperatures occur during normal
activity or where there are sudden increases in temperature, such as ovens or kitchens.

Thermovelocimetric detectors

The thermovelocimetric (TV) classes of fire detectors are a type of smoke detector that uses a
thermistor to detect the temperature rise of a fire. A thermistor is a semiconductor whose
electrical resistance varies with temperature. The thermistor is placed in a stream of air and
connected to an electronic circuit, which measures changes in voltage as the temperature of
the air increases. When smoke enters the air stream, it absorbs heat and lowers its
temperature. This causes the change in voltage measured by the thermovelocimeter detector
circuit, which activates an alarm signal.

The most common use of this type of detector is in car parks where you do not want to use
the optical-thermal one or in kitchens where the normal thermal one is not used and where it
is not foreseen that there may be sudden changes in temperature such as an oven

3. Flame detectors: infrared, ultraviolet and combined IR+UV

These models of flame detectors use infrared or ultraviolet light sensors to detect the
characteristic spectrum of a flame. They are often combined with smoke detectors to create
a more effective fire detection system.
IR infrared flame detectors

An infrared (IR) flame detector is a device that detects infrared radiation (heat) emitted by
flames. Infrared flame detectors contain an emissive sensing element that converts infrared
radiation into electrical output signals.

UV ultraviolet light flame detectors

Ultraviolet flame detectors use a combination of light sensors, filters, and photodetectors
to detect the ultraviolet light emitted by flames. A beam of light is directed through the
area monitored by the detector and if an object blocks the light in any way, it will cause a
break in the beam and trigger an alarm. The detector can also be used to detect smoke using
an infrared filter that removes all visible light from the beam.

Ultraviolet flame detectors are the most suitable for use in areas with risk of fire or
explosion, such as oil refineries, chemical plants and warehouses. They can also be installed
in kitchens.

Combined infrared plus ultraviolet IR+UV flame detectors

Combination Infrared and Ultraviolet Flame Detectors are a type of fire detector that uses
ultraviolet and infrared light technology to detect the presence of flames.

These detectors are commonly used in areas where there are sparks or flames, such as
kitchens, bathrooms, garages, utility rooms and workshops.

4. Linear infrared detectors

Linear infrared detectors or commonly called “smoke or linear barriers” are a type of
detector that uses beams of infrared light to detect objects. The detector is made up of two
parts: an emitter and a receiver. The emitter is a device that emits infrared rays, while the
receiver detects the reflected rays.
When an object obstructs the path between the emitter and the receiver, the light beam
is interrupted. This interrupt is detected by the controller and used by the controller to trigger
an alarm or other action.

Linear infrared barriers can be installed at entry points such as doors or gates, although
their main use is for the protection of large areas such as warehouses, where a typical
installation of detectors optical or thermal could mean a huge installation cost.

Other elements that are installed in large areas are aspiration detection systems, which we
have already analyzed above.

5. Gas detectors

Gas detectors are used to detect the presence of combustible gases. Gas detectors are used in
industrial applications, but are also becoming more common in residential applications.

Gas detectors are designed to detect the presence of explosive and toxic gases. A good
example is carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that can kill
if present in high enough concentrations.

Especially indicated in habitual smoke and CO areas such as a car park, or advisable in
homes if they have combustion heating systems.

6. Fire detector cable or temperature sensor

The cable of a fire detector or temperature sensor is made up of two parts: the primary and
the secondary conductor. The primary conductor is usually copper, while the secondary is
aluminum.

The two conductors are separated by an insulator which prevents them from touching and
creating a short circuit. In addition, it also prevents fire or smoke from reaching the control
panel, where it could damage it or cause it to shut down prematurely during a fire emergency.

There are two types of connection methods used for this type of detector: single pole and
multipole connections.

This type of detector is usually installed on the ceiling or wall.

Temperature sensors in general are devices that measure the temperature by contact of a
surface, a liquid or a gas. They have many applications, such as controlling the temperature
of an engine’s coolant so that the engine does not overheat. Temperature sensors are also
used in heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems to ensure that the temperature
remains at a comfortable level for the occupants.

Many cars use a thermistor to control the temperature of their heating systems. The sensor is
attached to a circuit board inside the car and when it detects that the temperature has dropped
below its set point, it turns on the heating.
Types of Fire Suppression Systems
Fires can be some of the most destructive events for a home or business. It can rip away
photos, keepsakes, and important information you can never replace. You must protect your
home and business fire suppression systems.

1. Water-Based Fire Suppression Systems

One of the most common fire protection systems uses water to knock out fires. You’ve likely
seen sprinkler systems in many businesses and some homes. Water is housed in a reservoir
and or connected to the water supply.
The system detects the fire and sprays a water mist or heavier water level to put out the fire.
The most significant advantages are it’s inexpensive in comparison to other types and easy to
replace, but it can also cause severe water damage and should not be used around electronics.

2. Chemical Foam Suppression Systems

One of the most common places for fires to start is in the kitchen because of a cooking
mishap or hot grease. Chemical foam systems are designed for these types of conditions.
They are placed under cooking canopies, cause minor damage, and are easy to use.

It’s more expensive than several other systems and requires pipework and fittings made from
stainless steel.

3. Pneumatic Heat Detection Tube

Fire extinguishers are standard fire suppression devices, but they are manual use. The
pneumatic heat detection tube is an extinguisher with a fire detection system. Once the
temperature reaches a certain level, it blows a small hole in the pipe, and the extinguisher
foam puts out the fire.

This is inexpensive and easily installed, but it’s only effective on small fires. It’s also small
and easily transported to another location.

4. Pressurized Gas System

With a pressurized gas system, the gas is kept as a liquid under pressure using liquid nitrogen.
When a fire is detected, the system releases the gas, and it has a chemical reaction with the
fire to extinguish it.

This is ideal for server rooms and other areas with high-end electronics. It’s compact since
the gas is under pressure, and it doesn’t cause an oxygen reduction. It’s an effective
firefighting technology.

5. Foam Deluge Systems

A foam deluge system is used in areas where water suppression isn’t possible such as
transformers and oil tanks. When a fire is detected, water mixes with the foam to expand it
and fire.

This is perfect for outside areas, but it does create a large mess that requires clean-up.

Fire Extinguishers. Fire extinguishers are required for putting out fire and it involves the
breaking of the fire triangle.
Basics principles on which fire extinguishers works:
-Smouldering: It involves removal of oxygen or decreasing presence of oxygen.
- Cooling: It involves the process of reducing heat or removal of heat.
-Starvation: It involves the removal of fuel from the scene of fire .
Fire extinguisher is quite like a giant aerosol can. It has two different substances inside. One
of them is sold, liquid, or gas substance for fighting the fire. The other substance is called a
propellant and is a pressurized chemical that makes the fire- fighting substance come out
when we press the fire extinguisher handle.
Fire safety is an essential component of building safety. Measures taken to Prevent and
reduce the likelihood of a fire, which may result in death, injury or property damage are Fire
Safety measures.
Life and Fire safety systems installed in commercial, industrial and public buildings for the
safety of occupants in the event of fire or emergency are the essential fire safety measures.
Buildings shall be planned, designed and constructed to ensure fire safety in accordance with
National Building Code of India. The schemes of buildings shall also be approved by the
Chief Fire Officer.
Two important Fire safety measures
Important Fire safety measures are-
 Active measures: Measures implemented after completion of the building.
 Passive measures: Measures included in structural design of the building.
Basic fire safety measures required in any multi-storey building
Following are the basic fire safety measures required in any multi-storey building as per the
National Building Code(NBC):

1. Fixed carbon-di-oxide/foam/water spray extinguishing system must be placed

and maintained in easily accessible places in buildings.
2. Proper Fire alarm system must be installed at each floor in all buildings of 15m.
and above in height, and residential buildings above 24m. Height.
3. Electrical codes shall be complied with to prevent overheating, ignition due to
electrical faults, short-circuits.
4. Every building shall have a fire exit at every floor which will be directly
connected to ground. It should be an external staircase separate from the main
entrance. It should be built with fire proof or non-combustible material.
5. A down comer is a pipe for fire-fighting made within a building which is
directly connected with the water tank on the terrace of the building.
6. Installation of dry riser to provide water at each floor in the event of fire.
7. Proper storage of hazardous and flammable materials which are needed in the
building to avoid fire.
8. Conduct fire drills at regular intervals to understand the evacuation process in
case of fire. These drills shall be done in the presence of a qualified fire officer
and trained staff.
9. Periodic inspection of buildings by authorised officer for violations, making sure
that orders are complied with, prosecution or closure of buildings that are not
complying.
10. A meeting point where people can gather or must report to during an emergency
or a fire.
FIRE RESISTING PROPERTIES OF COMMON BUILDING MTERIALS

Fire resisting properties of common construction material

Fire resisting properties of common building materials such as stone, brick, timber, cast-iron,
glass, steel and concrete are mentioned below.

1. STONE

The stone is a bad conductor of heat. But it suffers appreciably under the effects of fire. The
stone is also liable to disintegrate into small pieces when heated and suddenly cooled. Granite
explodes and gets easily disintegrated in case of a fire. Limestone is easily crumbled even by
ordinary fire. Sandstones of compact composition with fine grains can generally stand
moderate fire successfully without the formation of serious cracks.

2. BRICKS

It is found that bricks are not seriously affected until very high temperature of 12000C to
13000 C are reached. This is due to the fact that a brick is a poor conductor of heat. If the type
of mortar and quality of workmanship are good, brick masonry generally offers good
resistance to fire. However, a brick has its own structural limitation for use in buildings.

3. TIMBER

As a general rule, structural elements made of timber ignite and get rapidly destroyed in case
of fire. Further, they add to the intensity of fire. But timber used in heavy sections may attain
a high degree of fire-resistance because timber is a very bad conductor of heat. This is the
reason why time is required to build up sufficient heat so as to cause a flame in timber. In
order to make timber more fire resistant, the surfaces of timber are sometimes coated with
certain chemicals such as ammonium phosphate and sulphate, borax and boric acid, zinc
chloride, etc. such a treatment on timber surfaces retards the rise of temperature during fire.
The timber cam also be made fire-resistant by the application of certain paints on its surface.

4. CAST IRON

This material is rarely used as structural material at present. This material flies into pieces
when heated and suddenly cooled. Hence, when this material is used in construction, it is
covered either by brickwork of one brick thickness or any other fire resisting material such as
concrete.

5. GLASS

This material is a poor conductor of heat and its expansion due to heat is small. Cracks are
formed I this material when heated and then suddenly cooled. Reinforced glass with steel
wire is ore fire-resistant than ordinary glass and it can resist sudden variation in temperature
without the formation of cracks. Wired glass, even if it breaks, keeps the fractured glass in its
original position.
6. STEEL

Steel is a good conductor of heat and hence, it is rapidly heated in case of fire. It is found that
steel loses its tensile strength with the increase in heat and the yield stress of mild steel at
6000C is about one-third of its value at normal temperature. Hence, under intense fire, the
unprotected steel beams sag, the unprotected steel columns buckle and the structure collapses.
Steel completely melts at a temperature of 14000C. It is also found that if the surface paint is
not specially made fire-resistant, it assists in spreading the flame on the surface and thereby it
adds to the intensity of fire.

If steel plate or sheet form is fixed to framework, it becomes affective is resisting the passage
of flame. Such construction is widely adopted in manufacturing fire-resisting doors and
windows.

7. CONCRETE

Concrete has got very good fire resistance. The actual behaviour of concrete in case of fire
depends upon the quality of cement and aggregates used. In case of reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete, it also depends upon the position of steel. Larger the concrete cover,
better is the fire resistance of the member.
There is no loss in strength in concrete when it is heated up to 250°C. The reduction in
strength starts if the temperature goes beyond 250°C. Normally reinforced concrete structures
can resist fire for about one hour at a temperature of 1000°C. Hence cement concrete is
ideally used fire resistant material.

Fire Resistant Construction.

Construction of a completely fireproof structure may turn out to be a bit costly, but it is
always possible to build structures with significant fire resistance at an acceptable budget.
This can be achieved by considering fire resistance requirements of buildings. For instance,
choosing suitable construction materials, taking certain precautions in the construction of
buildings, and installing fire alarm systems and fire extinguishers wherever necessary.

It is demonstrated that these requirements can decline the effect of the fire load in a building
substantially i.e. keep fire load to the minimum possible. The term fire load indicates the
amount of heat liberated in kilojoules per square metre(kJ/m2) of the floor area of any
compartment by the combustion of the content of the building including its own combustible
part. It is determined by multiplying the weights of all the combustible materials by their
respective calorific values and dividing that with the floor area.
1. Using Suitable Materials
Properties of Fire Resistant Materials

1. It should not disintegrate under the effect of heat.

2. It should not expand under heat so as to introduce unnecessary stresses in the
building.
 3. The material should not catch fire easily.
4. It should not lose its strength when subjected to fire.
Fire Resistance Characteristics of Common Building Materials
There are several materials which are commonly used in the construction of buildings. Fire
resistance characteristics of these materials are discussed below:

Stone
It is a bad conductor of heat. Sandstones with fire grains can resist fire
moderately; Granite disintegrates under fire; Limestone crumbles easily and most of the
other stones disintegrate during the cooling period after they get heated by fire.
Brick
Bricks can resist heat up to 1200°C. At the time of construction, if a good quality mortar is
used to bind the bricks, fire resistance of the structure improves manifold.

Timber
Any structure made of timber gets rapidly destroyed under the action of fire. Timber
enhances the intensity of fire. Use of heavy sections of timber in buildings is not desirable.

To make timber more fire resistant, the surface of timber is coated with chemicals such as
ammonium phosphate and sulphate, boric acid and borax. Sometimes fire-resistant paint is
applied to the timber surface used in the building to improve the resistance.

Concrete
Concrete has a very good fire resistance. The actual behaviour of concrete in an event of fire
depends upon the quality of cement and aggregates used during construction.

In the case of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete, the position of steel too
influences the fire resistance ability. Larger the concrete cover, better is the fire resistance of
the member.

Concrete doesn't lose much of its strength up to the temperature of 250°C. The reduction in
its strength starts when the temperature goes beyond 250°C. Normally, reinforced concrete
structures can resist fire for about one hour at a temperature of 1000°C. Hence, cement
concrete is ideally used as a fire-resistant material.

Steel
It is a good conductor of heat. Steel bars lose their tensile strength and begin to yield at the
temperature of around 600°C. They completely melt at 1400°C. Steel columns become
unsafe under a prolonged action of fire. Under a constant action of fire, steel reinforcement
weakens the reinforced concrete structures.

Hence steel columns are usually protected with brickworks or by encasing them in concrete.
Reinforcement in concrete is protected by concrete cover whereas steel grills and beams are
applied with fire resistant paint.
Glass
It is a poor conductor of heat. It expands during heating and when it cools down, cracks begin
to generate in glass. Reinforced glass with steel wire is more resistant to fire and during the
cooling process, even if it breaks, fractured glasses stay in their original positions.

Aluminum
It is great conductor of heat. It has got higher resistance to fire.

Asbestos Cement
It is a non-combustible material and possesses high fire resistance.

2. Taking Precautions in Building Construction

 Dimensions of building components

 Compartmentation
 Fire-protection materials
 Exit requirements as per NBC of India which involves Provision of sufficient exits to
every building to permit safe escape in the case of fire, exits should be free of
obstruction, and provision of adequate illumination(lighting).
3. Provision of Fire Alarm Systems and Fire Extinguishers
These are active measures used which include fire alarm and detection systems or sprinklers
that require either human intervention or automatic activation. They help control fire spread
and its effect as needed at the time of the fire.

Provisions for Evacuation.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘egress’ has its origin from Latin ‘egressus‘ gone out. It means the action of going
out of or leaving a place. Emergency egress is a method of exit which people can access
safely in an emergency. Emergency access and egress are critical during an emergency
situation such as fire. During a fire, timing and quick response are essential to save lives and
property. Unobstructed egress ensures that building occupants can exit a building to safety,
Every building or structure, new or old, designed for human occupancy shall be provided
with exits sufficient to permit the prompt escape of occupants in case of fire or other
emergencies.

An applicable egress strategy is considered as one of the key fire safety aspects, especially in
high rise buildings. As occupants increases, the time taken to evacuate the building will also
increase. It may be remembered here that above certain heights, the vertical distance to be
travelled by an occupant may subject them to additional risks. In such cases, the egress
system may require re-evaluation in order to consider alternate strategies, such as relocation,
refuge areas, role of elevators, etc.

The primary objective for any fire related egress design is to provide appropriate facilities to
allow occupants to move from the area of hazard to a place of relative safety, from which
access to a place of ultimate safety can be achieved. The concept of areas of relative safety is
an important one for tall building egress design, because escape to ultimate safety could take
a considerable amount of time to achieve. The stairways, separate fire compartments, areas of
refuge, etc. are all examples of places of relative safety. It may be reminded here that an ideal
place of relative safety or ultimate safety is a location outside of the confines of the building
at street level.

2.0 STATUTORY PROVISIONS

As far as India is concerned, the National Building Code (NBC), 2005, is the principle code
dealing with the provisions of means of egress. Besides, many State Governments, notably
Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have made fire safety
regulations and most of the provisions in these rules are based on the National Building Code.
Various Local Bodies in India, have also brought out Development Control Regulations
(DCR) which also follow the provisions of the National Building Code, 2005.

3.0 MEANS OF EGRESS

A means of egress is a continuous and unobstructed way of exit travel from any point in a
building or structure to a public way and consist of three separate and distinct parts: the way
of exit access, the exit, and the way of exit discharge. In other words, emergency egress is a
continuous and unobstructed way of travel from any point in a building or structure to a place
of comparative safety. A means of egress may include horizontal and vertical travel routes
including intervening rooms, spaces, doorways, hallways, corridors, passage-ways, balconies,
ramps, stairs, enclosures, lobbies, escalators, courts and yards.

3.1 Components of Egress

A means of egress components consists of three separate and distinct parts, viz.: (i) The Exit
Access; (ii) The Exit and; (iii) The Exit Discharge.

3.1.1 The Exit Access:

The Exit Access is “that portion of the means of egress system that leads from an occupied
portion of a building or structure to an exit”. It includes halls, corridors, aisles, and other
walking or escape paths.

3.1.2 The Exit:

Exit is a passage, channel or means of egress form any building, storey or floor area to a
street or other open space of safety. It includes exterior exit doors at ground level, exit
enclosures, exit passageways, exterior exit stairs, exterior exit ramps, vertical exits, horizontal
exits and outside exits.

 Vertical Exit: A vertical exit is a means of exit used for ascending or descending,
between two or more levels, including stairways, smoke proof towers, ramps and fire
escapes.
 Horizontal Exit: A horizontal exit is an arrangement which allows alternative egress
from a floor area at or near the same level in an adjoining building or an adjoining
part of the same building with adequate fire separation. The width of horizontal exit
shall be same as for the exit doorways.
  Outside Exit: An outside exit is an exit from the building to a public way, to an open
area leading to a public way or to an enclosed fire resistant passage leading to a public
way.

3.1.3 The Exit Discharge:

The exit discharge is “that portion of a means of egress system between the termination of an
exit and a public way which is a street, alley, or other paths dedicated for public use”.
Normally a door to the outside or into a protected corridor leading to the outside.

4.0 NUMBER OF EXITS

The number and size of various exits shall be provided in the building is decided on the
occupants in each room and floor, based on the Occupant Load, Occupant per Unit Exit
Width, Travel Distance and Height Of the Buildings as per provisions of building bye-laws.
For Occupant Load, Occupant per Unit Exit Width and Travel Distance reference may be
made to 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 of Part 4 NBC, 2005.

4.1 Occupant Load

4.2 Occupant per Unit Exit Width
4.3 Travel Distance

5.0 GENERAL EXIT REQUIREMENTS:

An exit may be a doorway, corridor; passageway(s) to an internal staircase, or external
staircase, or to a verandah or terrace(s), which have access to the street, or to the roof of a
building or a refuge area. An exit may also include a horizontal exit leading to an adjoining
building at the same level. Lifts and escalators shall not normally be considered as exits.
Every exit, exit access or exit discharge shall be continuously maintained free of all
obstructions or impediments for full use in the case of fire or other emergency. Every
building meant for human occupancy shall be provided with exits sufficient to permit safe
escape of occupants, in case of fire or other emergency. In every building or structure, exits
shall comply with the minimum requirements of this part, except those not accessible for
general public use. No building shall be so altered

6.0 ESCAPE STAIRCASES

All buildings, having area more than 500 sq. meters on each floor shall have a minimum of
two staircases. They shall be of enclosed type; at least one of them shall be on external walls
of buildings and shall open directly to the exterior, interior open space or to an open place of
safety. Further, the provision of alternative staircases shall be subject to the requirements of
travel distance being complied with.

6.1 Doorways
Every exit doorway shall open into an enclosed stairway or a horizontal exit of a corridor or
passageway providing continuous and protected means of egress. No exit doorway shall be
less than 1000 mm in width except assembly buildings where door width shall be not less
than 2000 mm. Exit doorways shall be not less than 2000 mm in height. It shall open
outwards, that is, away from the room, but shall not obstruct the travel along any exit. No
door, when opened, shall reduce the required width of stairway of landing to less than 900
mm. Overhead or sliding doors shall not be installed.

6.3 Corridors & Passageways

Exit corridors and passageways shall be of width not less than the aggregate required width
of exit doorways leading from them in the direction of travel to the exterior. Where stairways
discharge through corridors and passageways, the height of corridors and passageways shall
be not less than 2.4 m. All means of exit including staircases, lifts, lobbies and corridors shall
be adequately ventilated.

6.4 Internal Staircases

As per the NBC, 2005, the internal wall of staircase shall be of brick or reinforced concrete
with a minimum of Two hours fire rating. Access to main staircase shall be through a fire
/smoke check door of a minimum 2-hour fire resistance rating. Fire resistance rating may be
reduced to One hour for residential buildings (other than hotels and starred hotels).

No gas piping, electrical panels or AC ducts shall be allowed in the stairway. However
service shafts/ducts may be permitted. Electrical shafts/ducts shall have not less than Two
hours fire resistance. The minimum headroom in a passage under the landing of a staircase
and the staircase shall be 2.2 m.

1. No living space, store or other fire risk shall open directly into the staircase or
staircases.
2. External exit door of staircase enclosure at ground level shall open directly to the
open spaces or through a draught lobby, if necessary.
3. The main and external staircases shall be continuous from ground floor to the terrace
level.
4. Lifts shall not open in staircase.
5. No combustible material shall be used for decoration/wall paneling in the staircase.
6. Beams/Columns and other building features shall not reduce the head room/ width of
the staircase.
7. The exit sign with arrow indicating the way to the escape route shall be provided at a
suitable height from the floor level on the wall and shall be illuminated by electric
light connected to corridor circuits.

6.5 External Staircases

An external staircase is desirable to be provided for high rise buildings. External stairs, when
provided shall comply with the following:

1. External stairs shall always be kept in sound operable conditions.

2. All external stairs shall be directly connected to the ground.
3. Entrance to the external stairs shall be separate and remote from the internal staircase.
4. Care shall be taken to ensure that no wall opening or window opens on to or close to
an external stairs.
5. The route to the external stairs shall be free of obstructions at all time.
6. The external stairs shall be constructed of non-combustible materials, and any
doorway leading to it shall have the required fire resistance
 7. No external staircase, used as a fire escape, shall be inclined at an angle greater than
45O from the horizontal.
8. External stairs shall have straight flight not less than 1250 mm wide with 250 mm
treads and risers not more than 190mm. The number of risers shall be limited to 15
per flight.
9. Handrails shall be of height not less than 1000mm and not exceeding 1200 mm. There
shall be provisions of balusters with maximum gap of 150 mm.

In high-rise buildings, an additional staircase is recommended, as an emergency escape route.

As per NBC, Clause 4.6.2, Part – 4 for all buildings above 15 meters, in heights should be
provided with a second staircase. The width of the Fire Escape Staircase should not be less
than 1.25 meters.

7.0 FIRE DOORS

A fire door is a door with a fire-resistance rating used as part of a passive fire protection
system to reduce the spread of fire or smoke between compartments and to enable safe egress
from a building or structure. In other words a Fire Door serves as a barrier to limit the spread
of fire and restrict the movement of smoke

Doors equipped with internal windows must remain intact under fire conditions and hose
stream impact resistance. Both the door leaf (the swinging panel of the door) and the door
frame are required to meet the guidelines of the testing agency.

8.0 FIRE LIFTS

As per the “NBC, 2005” (Clause 4.15), one lift in the building shall be designed and
designated as fire lift. The fire lift shall meet the requirements specified in Annex C of Part 4,
NBC, 2005, which reads as:

1. To enable fire services personnel to reach the upper floors with the minimum delay,
one fire lift per 1200 sq. meters of floor area shall be provided and shall be available
for the exclusive use of the firemen in an emergency.
2. The lift shall have a floor area of not less than 1.4 m2. It shall have loading capacity
of not less than 545 KG (8 persons lift) with automatic closing doors of minimum 0.8
m width.
3. The electric supply shall be on a separate service from electric supply mains in a
building and the cables run in a route safe from fire, that is, within the lift shaft.
Lights and fans in the elevators having wooden paneling or sheet steel construction
shall be operated on 24 volt supply.
4. The words ‘Fire Lift’ shall be conspicuously displayed in fluorescent paint on the lift
landing doors at each floor level.
5. The speed of the fire lift shall be such that it can reach the top floor from ground level
within one minute.

Firefighting lifts are becoming more and more popular for evacuation purposes. This method
is particularly useful in super high-rise buildings, where the large vertical travel distances
result in a number of significant problems like possible increase of exposure to smoke and
fire, increased fatigue during evacuation and difficulty in safe evacuation of injured, infants,
aged or disabled occupants. This new method has been incorporated in the design of many
tall building in the world, for example Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and
Burj Khalifa in Dubai, UAE.

9.0 REFUGE AREAS

A refuge area serves as an important means to rescue the occupants in the event of a fire in
the building. As per Clause 4.12.3 of Part 4 and Annex – C – 1 – 11 of NBC, 2005, following
provisions shall apply to all high rise buildings except multi-family dwellings where refuge
area of not less than 15 sq. meters shall be provided on the external walls.

10.0 EMERGENCY ESCAPE LIGHTING

As per Clause 4.16 of Part 4, NBC, 2005, emergency lighting shall be powered from a source
independent of that supplying the normal lighting. Emergency lighting units shall conform to
IS: 9583-1981. Escape lighting shall be capable of: (i) Indicating clearly and unambiguously
the escape routes. (ii) Providing adequate illumination along such routes to allow safe
movement of persons towards and through the exits. (iii) Ensuring that fire alarm call points
and firefighting equipment provided along the escape routes can be readily located.

10.1 Illumination of Means of Exit.

Emergency lights shall be provided to the staircases and corridors. As per Clause 4.17 of Part
4, NBC, 2005, Staircase and corridor lights shall conform to the following: (a) The staircase
and corridor lighting shall be on separate circuits and shall be independently connected so
that they could be operated by one switch installation on the ground floor easily accessible to
firefighting staff at any time irrespective of the position of the individual control of the light
points, if any. It should be miniature circuit breaker type of switch so as to avoid replacement
of fuse in case of crisis; (b) Staircase and corridor lighting shall also be connected to
alternative supply.

The alternative source of supply may be provided by battery continuously trickle charged
from the electric mains; and (c) Suitable arrangements shall be made by installing double
throw switches to ensure that the lighting installed in the staircase and the corridor does not
get connected to two sources of supply continuously.

Fire Inspection Procedure for Existing Buildings