Ze => Ss ea iP Das ee, ~ ~~ F yorer 12 = gesearch Data Organization ~ jnterpretation, and Discussion “SS Research data need to by i: jnd discussion. This cha ter Organized properly in order to facilitate correct ter will orient the students on h. imerpretaton ; research data. on how to organize, present, and intended Learning Outcomes (ILO At the end of this chapter, students are expected to: Show the correct way of organizing research data. pire oe jperoret the meaning of the results. pply the skill of integrating di ions to i pri dla gathered ig documentations to generate meaningful discussions | B tucace [7 Organizing Qualitative and Quantitative Data The purpose of this Chapter is to explain the meanings of the results generated in your study, Itrationalizes strongly held concepts prior to the conduct of the study. In the previous Section, the results generated by the employed research instruments were then orga Presented, and analyzed based on the specific problems of the study. The organized data that Were presented in tabular or graphical form were then ready for analysis and interpretation. Itshould be noted that findings that are not analyzed have no meaning: moreover, analysis Of data without interpretation will have no meaning to the readers. nized,The interpretation phase involves working with the data, se. ‘arching for patterns. organizing them, breaking them into manageable units, coding, organtzing, synthesizing, classilying and have them closely examined for their meanings. (Gall, et. AL 2007 and Best. 1990) It will test the researchers’ ability and knowledge of the topic being undertaken. The researcher must be discerning of the characteristic, patterns, relationships, differences that the data from the findings might reveal. The researcher may speculate oF elaborate further factual information about the data source. One's range of knowledge about the topic chosen ' for the study and the volume of related literature reviewed will be put to a test. There are many questions coming from different perspectives that one might have about $ the data collected. The data collected were to answer questions posed earlier. The bases in the examination of data involve decision to be made on specific problems and objectives of the study as well the hypotheses. The purpose here is to interpret the meaning of these data represented numerically or narratively from the table. The analysis and interpretation will show to the reader the type of information these data communicate. Interpretation of Qualitative and Quantitative Data The purpose of basic research is to develop solid foundation of reliable knowledge from which researches can be built by students doing it the first time. The data gathered from the findings should be reduced, meaning, it should be broken into smaller units or categories, The appropriate method for analyzing data will depend on whether you are conducting a qualitative or quantitative research. According to Johnson and Christensen (2000), qualitative data are non-numerical data such as words and pictures, while quantitative data are numerical data. These are straightforward definitions. The researcher following these approaches tends to view research differently, Although different, both approaches will be employed in this chapter to generate meanings to important knowledge. 1. Interpreting Quantitative Data Discussions will focus on the explanations of the collected numerical data. The approach involves deductive method as it focuses on theory testing and hypothesis testing (Johnson & Christensen, 2000). Quantitative measure reduces measurement to numbers. In quantitative survey results, variables are set of categories or codes of data with assigned numerical values relating to one information. Thus, in a questionnaire that asks (male or female), the variable being sought is gender variable. The different variables associated with quantitative measures are the nominal, interval, ordinal and ratio. Each can be used with different techniques in different ways. As a researcher, you will act as a go between the data you have gathered and the public who will be interested tanding. in your work. Your role is to present a summarized data to facilitate unders The data will be meaningful to them if they were counted, compared, differentiated or summarized. That's why, aside from ensuring that you have basic knowledge of statistics, ond Discussion am Cocapren 12: Reesarch Dean Orgonization, incenprensoe”it ts also important that you have a way with words to describe collected data. It i to gather data from respondents when questionnaires are provided with aquestia ee statements and response choices with instruction to make judgment about each ii . ‘These response choices (Matthews, et, al. 2007), summated rating scales (Johnson, 2000) or rating scales are also called Likert scales. The Likert scale Is composed of matt ‘ items that are designed to measure the same idea or construct. Research May use for points to eleven rating scale. Indicated below are examples of response categories for rating scales (Johnson, 2000), using 4 point (see Column B) and 5 point rating scale (shown in Column A, C and D), These are just few of th y a interpreta it of the commonly used rating categories CATS : a | Ped aT ua Agree TE Definitely true | 5 | Very Often 5 | Alot more likely Probably true 4| Somewhat more | likely 3 | No difference Somewhat less likely 4 | Fairly often Probably false Definitely false 2 | Hardly ever z [ Never Take note of the above examples, particularly Column B. It shows a balanced distribution of rating scales where distribution of two positive scales and two negative scales are evenly distributed. Same pattern could be done, with a five-point scale, where the researcher may just eliminate the middle or third scale in a row. Hence, Column A will appear like this; Strongly Disagree A lot less likely 4 = Strongly Agree 3 = Agree 2 = Disagree 1 = Strongly Disagree Or if a choice is for three-point scale, from a five-point scale, eliminate the topmost Positive and the bottom most negative scale, that leaves you the middle three. For example, in Column A, where the researcher decides to use the three-point scale, the Scale categories should be: Agree Neutral Disagree 1 2 3‘The use of multiple ratings provide more reliable scores to a bigger partic, ‘or one time collection. The results/answers derived quantitatively will attempt to “conn ‘ the questions/problems sought early on in the study. With the use of adjectival rating scales, finding in statistical reports are given appropriate meanings. ‘a teacher would like to find out how many students in her class frequent the library, we could use the information in dividing the class into three of four groups ranging from “frequent user” to “hardly ever user”. The teacher could use this variable to explore whether there are differences in academic performance among students who are “frequent users’, “seldom users” or “hardly ever users"! If “seldom users” turned out to have 67% above average performing students, that would be an » interesting finding indeed! ; For example, 2. Interpreting Qualitative Data : In qualitative research, data are non-numerical, meaning they are either in words or pictures, The data that were collected from observations, interviews, documents, pictures, and forms are voluminous. It requires data to be reduced to certain patterns, categories or themes, which are then interpreted using some schema. This means that data will have to be broken down into smaller pieces so that a larger and consolidated picture can emerge (Johnson, 2000). To do this, a researcher will have to focus at the many dimensions, behaviors or phenomena being observed. The researcher is operating in the exploratory mode of research, because little is known about the phenomenon being studied. In qualitative approach, data from respondents or co-researcher or informants are treated in somehow unique way. The researcher should always “think with the data being gathered,” because analysis of qualitative data largely depends on the interpretation of the raw data (Matthews & Ross, 2010). In most qualitative approach, data collection and data analysis occurs at the same time. It is then advisable for the researcher to keep an index card handy (field notes) to record ideas and concept that crop up during data collection. Here, the researcher uses induction method to explore why certain phenomenon operates, or look into specifics or insights in order to develop “big picture”. From field notes, data are organized, coded and ideas are pieced together to work with key ideas. At this point, the researcher is processing the data known as thematic analysis. Thematic analysis, according to Grbich (2007), is “a process of segmentation, categorization and relinking of aspects of data prior to final interpretation.” Interpreting qualitative data is facilitated by researcher's ability to capture In words, stories, accounts, explanations of co-researchers. That is why, besides notebooks, diaries, gadgets like tape recorder and now cell phones, are excellent tools to record informant's accounts. Transcription of recorded interviews are put alongside with other co-researchers or in some case documents are put alongside each other to describe, get meaning and explore data for meanings. In interpreting data gathered through interview, @® Cuapree 19. Recess Pose Orserinntion. Interprecation, ond DARthe researcher should have direct contact with and close to M under study says Patton (1990, in Johnson & Christensen, 2000), mevand phenomenon Excerpt from the research of Fr; Domdom (2006), developed in the study. One of the themes, “poverty” emerged from th interpretation of the “live experience of student-assistants”. The foen assistants of the Universities "life stories" were explored, Their life stori out from repeated interviews. Encoded transcriptions of the interviews seventeen co-researchers were coded for similarit the field notes the researcher jotted down during by the researcher could be laborious but once the (from interview, documented events, observation) were established, common theme(s) emerged. The researcher will now work out with key ideas or themes to identify meanings that emerge as basis for further interpretation, illustrates one of the many themes Tesearcher’s ‘mer student- es were culled from each of the ntly resorting to Interviews. This process attended to links between Pieces of information les while conseque Example of a Discussion of one Common Theme: Poverty The co-researchers narrated memories Of poverty. (a) Benjie remembered his father selling slippers in Caloocan in order to have some money for the family. (n) Rem, (g) Anthony and (e) Che narrated incidents wherein the experience of poverty was real Their situation might have been brought about by natural occurrences like the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo as told by (m) Lala or the experience of typhoon that brought hunger for several days to the family (o) Joan. Poverty was also described in unfortunate events, the fire that ruined the livelihood for (a) Benjie, the untimely death of a father for (d) Adie or with parents losing job or having no permanent income to support the needs of the family. Another face of poverty as a number of co-researchers describe it is the size of the family. Brothers and sisters were going to college at the same time with limited or no resources at all as what happened with (b) Malou and (f) Cecile. (c) Ogie and (i) Maricel tried to describe poverty with staying at home having no income and (h) Arnold with his losing his permanent work. Separation from family at a young age is perceived as an abnormal situation as described by (j) Henry or the need to do summer job in @ beach resort as experienced by (k) Pando. Poverty was also narrated in the things that they had and had been deprived of. For (i) Marianne the advent of her mother’s sickness was the beginning of the disintegration of her family. Her father hao erie his job as a seaman to attend to her ailing mother. She had relatives who ace vee one and her siblings but that is the last resort one would like to happen to him oF simopiee distributed to the care of relatives. (d) Adie had a strong mother, one can en be the agony she went through, but he missed her motherly warmth at n'9 uck into the with the policy of orphanage that took them. The poverty was real; it has consciousness and has affected families. -omply (Corarren 12: Research Data Oreanization. internreretian and DizcussionIn the aforecited excerpt, the cot Y ¢ the researcher all vee concepts that unfolds naturally. In other words, the researcher is already interpreting the data while gathering it! As the researcher became immersed in the experiences narrated by each of his subject-respondents, researcher can already interpret the meanings of the data through genuine exploration of etalls and specifics, The interview guide, the follow-up questions, then probing questions give cue to the key concept to be formed. A researcher's personal insights are also part of the inquiry ang are critical to understanding of the phenomenon. The in-depth analysis of the narratiog stay foc ncept of “poverty” was built from the experiences of the co-researchers. It describes what the word “poverty” means to them, During is on a face-to-face interview, the researche; must in an interview derived new meanings to the study. Interpretation Related to the Statement of the Problem To interpret the data generated by a survey questionnaire, let us cite from an actual study conducted to demonstrate interpretation of data related to one of the specific problems in the study. An excerpt from the study conducted by Bohan (2013) illustrates this concern. Table 1 presents answer to the problem: What is the level of writing proficiency of students? Now peruse Table 1 and read what the table conveys. It identifies the level of proficiency among students learning Chinese language. The writer of the paper discussed each context and not merely stating it but is analyzing and interpreting it as well. Presented in Table 1 is the result of the writing test given to the students in a Chinese class. Table 1 Students’ Writing Proficiencies BUT) ees CLE ieg Content 3.39 Level 3 Good to Average Organization 2.15 | 0.79 Level 2 Fair to poor Vocabulary | 154 | 0.50 Level 1 Very poor Language Use | 1.72 | 0.45 Level 1 Very Poorerty memes | Very poor eee el ‘ Fair to Poor Excellent to Very Good - Level 4 Good to Average - Level 3 Fair to Poor - Level 2 Very Poor - Level 1 Bie T rey ra bia 0.50 Level 1 ewe Table 1 shows the students’ writing proficiencies in five areas. In terms: of Content, (X=3.39), it shows that the students are Good to Average in the area of content, which means that they have some knowledge of the subject and their knowledge of the subject matter is in the adequate range. In terms of Organization (X=2.15), the students are Fair to Poor in the area of organization which means that they are non-fluent and their ideas are confusing and disconnected. In terms of Vocabulary (X=1.54), The students are Very Poor in the area of vocabulary which means that what they are doing is essentially translation; they have little knowledge of Chinese vocabulary. Language Use (X=1.72), the students are Very Poor in the area of language use which means that they virtually have no mastery of sentence construetion rules, and Lastly, in terms of Mechanics (X=1.54), the students are very poor in the area 0! mechanics which means that they have no mastery of conventions of the Chinese langu: an of 2.06 with its corresponding standard deviation of 0.68, indic: ” tt identifies the level of proficiency The composite me: that students’ writing proficiency is at “fair to poor’ Chinese students in English language at Level 2. The standard deviations are small which implies that the students hi abilities in each of the five areas. __Jj ave homoge Source ot English the case of the rest! i’ 3.39 and the corres! s indicated below ‘The data In the table showed five proficiencies. Take ponding proficiency in terms of Content with mean value equivalent to standard deviation at 0,49. The researcher interpreted the on the Legend provided in interpreting the results. based result a!Good to Average in the area of content”... “it shows that the students are , 's analysis of the numerical data Presented £ researcher’ ee interpretation of the findings. tatement above shor I the hows the fi in Table 1. The succeeding statement S! which means that they have some knowledge of the subject and their knowledge of the subject matter is in the adequate range.” ‘ ‘As can be gleaned from the sample eanings of the result of the study. sete a ne now that design of your study analysis and interpretation cited earlier, you can determi and the way in which the data are analyzed are closely related. (What is the level of students’ writing The findings of the whole table conveyed hs of Bohan’s (2013) study. Take for proficiency?) is indicated in the last two paragrap! emphasis the item that was stated in the findings on; “The composite mean of 2.06 with its corresponding standard deviation of 0.68, indicates that students’ writing proficiency is at “fair to poor’. It identifies the level of proficiency of students in writing the Chinese language at Level 2. The standard deviations are small which implies that the students have homogenous abilities in each of the five areas.” Therefore, the interpretation of the meanings of the findings is found in the way* the findings are specified in the composite mean or overall mean. There is a need for the researcher to be inquisitive and to ask questions and seek out information about data. And: since data are in numerical form, it is important that you should have knowledge of. statistics4, Now, there are other issues that you, as a researcher, must be aware of to be considered as a researcher. The findings in your study may not produce conclusive findings that you can depend on, this means that you need to seek out information from other sources. It meat that there could be written literature or studies conducted on the same topic, conducted im a different way. To find meanings to the result of the study, you will merge your findings with information obtained from cited literature with the intention of forming a new body knowledge (Mathews & Ross, 2010). In this section, relate your findings to other simil studies you have reviewed. This is the interpretation part of the study. At this point you caf tell the reader about some points raised in the previous literature that may support your omen ths 7 show how important your study is and by doing so, it will ~~t another study, that of Umagat (2014) showing inte Now, let us look 2 rpretat findings from the study supported by literature searched. Noteworthy is the inclusin of the authority referred t0 in the study: ion of an, ws the perception of pupil-respondents on the effe ineir academic performance. eMect Of teacher/schoot Table 2 influencing Academic Performance in Terms of Te feacher/School Expectation fat] ae Teacher adjusts standards to level of pupils [ 2.744 | 1.032 | Grestément | Teacher ensures that pupils know their expectations Teacher doernrsesanind | 2654 | 1360 | orca | [a [cence | Very Great Extent = 3.50 - 4.00; Great Extent = 2.50 - 3.49; Slight Extent = 1.50 - 2.49; None at all = 1.00 - 1.49 The table is revealing the fact that teacher/school expectations greatly influence the academic performance of the students, based on the composite mean value of 2.781 with corresponding standard deviation of .684. Pupil respondents are close in their perception on teachers’ high expectations. This result affirms Lynch’s expectation theory (2011) focu! ‘on how teacher treat students. Teachers often expect less from students of certain, etn and cultural backgrounds. When teachers expect students to perform poorly, they approac” teaching in ways that align with their low levels of expectations. ‘The findings generated meaningful interpretation as the study unfolds 2" formance in a Muslim-domins* impact of ethnic differences on the academic per! environment. It necessitated that researcher must clearly present inform t researchers have contributed to the subject and attributed to others throu citations and reference, thus, making the findings more meaning! ict an established literatur’ at could be opened for furthi cussion on he researcher's discussi¢ n oF ed literature rev hh dow gh docu e. When this happens er validation In some studies, findings may contradi findings the researcher is presenting a new concept thi Excerpt from the study of Cruz (2013) showed t on students at risk for EBD in terms of affective strength. She cit not Supportive of her findings. Let us take a look at Table 3. the jew that W2STable 3 Risk for Emotional or Behavioral ptives: 1 strengths of Students at peaiies aeons in Terms of Affective Strength Arr SE eal It’s okay when people hug me. Tlet someone know when my feelings are hurt ask for help when I needed it Icare about how others feel When I have a problem, | talk with others about it. Not Much like you 1 feel close to others Much like you 2.076 | . Much like you let people know when | like them 2.967 [+98 Much like you Composite Mean Legend: Very much like you = 2.50 - 3.00; Much like you = 1.50 - 249; Not much like you = .50 - 1.49; Not at all like you =0. - .49 Table 3 shows assessment of affective strength reveals an overall mean value of 2.967 with corresponding standard deviation of .508 and interpreted to mean “Much Like you”. This could mean that a possibility is there that students at risk for EBD may have affective strength but for reasons, are hindered in manifesting proper expression and regulation of their emotions. The low standard deviation scores reveal commonality of assessment among respondents. Most of the respondents had expressed that they “ask for help when they need it” from which we may infer the existence of meaningful relationships between them and a significant somebody. In the same way, the item, “It’s okay when people hug me” which majority of the respondents have chosen, indicates that subjects are emotionally receptive to concern and affection given them and possibly are also ready to reciprocate with a positive expression if they could see or feel that respect and sincere appreciation are given them as individuals. _The findings did not corroborate with those of Schoner-Reichl cited in Heward (2001) which says that students with EBD, as compared to peers without disabilities, have low levels of empathy towards others and have lower quality relationships. A person's affective quality enables him/her to accept affection and express feelings toward others. This ability is related to empathy or ability to detect emotio ns, to take another's perspective feel with that Person, or respond emotionally in a similar way. Perspective and to } The j s 1 asses eePonders ae not vet identified as students with EBD considering the limited, in done t | r ee strength is not remote. ‘© them. In view of this fact, the probability of affect”®iSke Jed that subject students at risk for di reveal ir EBD showed and mound that it is common to all the subject students as tsaiestedi n deviation $© «This could mean that a possibility ts there that students at risk EBD may have affective strength but for reasons, are hindered i manifesting proper expression and regulation of their emotions, The low standard deviation scores reveal commonality of assessment amo respondents.” 7 ctive strey by low stand Based on this analysis and interpretation EBD, through affective strength provided a new meaning, The researcher went to cite other characteristics that affirm th affective strength. resence of Most of the respondents had expressed that they “ask for help when they need it... “It's okay when people hug me” which majority of the respondents have chosen, indicates that subjects are emotionally receptive to concern and affection given them and possibly are also ready to reciprocate. It necessitates that researcher must clearly present information that other researchers have contributed to the subject and attributed to others through documented citations and reference. Let us take a second look at discussion of Table 3, the findings turned out to be opposed with the findings in a previous study. It is to prove the researcher's strongly held points. «The findings did not corroborate with those of Schoner-Reichl cited in EBD, as compared to peers Heward(2001) which says that students with without disabilities, have low levels of empathy towards others and have lower quality relationships...” he er source was not supported by ° .d. The emergence of new les an avenue for fu in new meaning Here, the materials used by the researcher from oth findings of the current study. It shows that new knowledge emerge knowledge when pitted against an established knowledge, provid validations, speculations, until synthesis of old and new concept would result then new body of knowledge is created.™N Interpreting Data Gathered through Testing Hypothesis In previous discussion of this section, Interpretation of research findings were based on the researchers’ attempt to describe numerical characteristics of their data with regard to the problem of the study. It is important that researcher must be familiar with basic statistical procedures to shed light and meanings to the findings. Educational research deals with two kinds of statistical data, descriptive data and statistical data (Matthews & Ross, 2010). In the previous sections, descriptive data in tabular form were presented. Now, you need to become familiar with some symbols that are used to represent in several commonly used statistical presentations. We have introduced statistical analysis as a series of techniques in presenting the findings for analysis and interpretation in § aforecited studies in this unit. This was done to explore and address the research questions that have been posed for interpretation. In case of tabular presentations, that actively assist 4 the readers of this book, they were pointed out and were considered noteworthy. However, \ there are readers who may welcome certain amount of interpretative elaboration, particularly when reading a student's thesis. Readers may want to find out relationship that exists among variables investigated. Since specific statements have been cited, it follows that investigation be made to illustrate some expectations or predictions of relationship between variables. i A hypothesis is a prediction or guess of the relation that exists among variables being! investigated (Wonnacott & Wonnacott, 1990). A hypothesis must be stated so that it is capable of being either refuted or confirmed. The result will answer relationships that exist; among variables. ti In our previously cited example, on students who would frequent the library, af perception may be formed. A study wanted to find out whether students who are “freque! library user” or “seldom library user” will differ in their academic performances. According} to Wonnacott (1990) we usually settle this argument by constructing a 95% confidence interval. In general, any hypothesis that lies outside the confidence may be judged|_ - implausible, that is, it can be rejected. On the other hand any hypothesis that lies within the confidence interval maybe judged plausible or acceptable. In conforming to the tradition, usually speak of testing at an error level of 5%. The hypothesis, according to the author (Wonnacott & Wonnacott, 1990), is Particular interest, it is called null hypothesis since it represents no difference whatso In rejecting it because it lies outside of the confidence level, we establish the important clai that there was indeed a difference between students who are “frequent user” and thos who are “seldom users”. The result is traditionally called statistically significant at the 5 significance level. Yo 4 There is problem with the term “statistically significant’ It is a technical phrase tht simply means enough data has been collected. to establish that differences do exist dee |not mea explain that, Statistically significant at the 5% significance level is the traditional phrase typically encountered in the scientific literature, It means exactly the same thing as our statistically discernible at the 5% error level, n that the difference is necessarily important. Wonnacott and associate went on to If a 5% level of significance is being used, it would be natural to speak of th hypothesis being tested at a 5% confidence level, Now, to return to our example, let ue formally conclude that with 5% level of significance, we can reject the hypothesis of aa difference, In other words, we have collected enough evidence so that we can see a difference in academic performance between “frequent library users’ and “seldom library users”. This means that the result is statistically different. In print out data of commonly used statistical package, the decision criteria for accepting or rejecting hypothesis is on the computed p-value (significance value). The p-value summarizes clearly how much agreement there is between the data and null hypothesis (H,). The p-value is an excellent way to summarize what data says about the credibility of H,. Culled out to illustrate the hypothesis testing was from another research conducted by Dumrong (2013). Table 4 Differences Based on Monthly Income: Extent of the Quality of Work Life of Administrators in the Area: Development of the Ability of the Individual Eee There is freedom to express creativity at -0.845 | 0.437 work There is opportunity to learn or be taught innovation and new technology at work _ -0.167 | -0.255| 0.809 1 Provide financial assistance to personnel -0,583 | -0.924] 0.398 to pursue higher education a i 5 |0.045°| Delegate responsibilities to personnel 1.083 | -2.665 with capabilities for the job " | -0.250 -0.441/ 0. 677 Recognize and award outstanding accomplishment of teaching personnel Over-all 71,500 |0.022° (* Significant at alpha-0.05) Source: Dumrong (2013)significant difference in the assess, As gleaned from the table treo have monthly income of more than 10,000, bo between two groups of admin’a Tacs than or equal to 10,000.00 baht per month on baht per month and -_ of the ability of the individual. The over all t-value of -1.500 the variable, Bere balty value of 0.022 is significant at Alpha 0.05. This means with the core veadence to prove that the difference in monthly income among that there are sufficient ®ve development of the ability of the individual could vary. i regards to administrators with Tere that the respondents with lower monthly income may have been in foeor ofthe ‘manner in which management of the school recognizes and rewards employees who have capabilities to do the job. In the above cited study, the null hypothesis was stated that administrators, based on their monthly income, assessed differently the QWL's development of the ability of the individual. Take note of the overall numerical data in the column with the heading “ t-value” in the table and the column with “p-value” heading . It was read, The overall t-value( t-test) of -1.500 with a computed p-value of 0.022, rejects the null hypothesis. Indicating significant difference in the assessment of significance of two groups of respondents at 0.05 level of significance. Besides the statistical analysis, additional explanation on the findings was expressed by the researcher, where, ..This means that there are sufficient evidence to prove that the difference in monthly income among administrators with regards to QWL's development of the ability of the individual could vary... It showed enough data to reject the hypothesis. In addition to the interpretation of the findings, the researcher speculated further, that; “This may seem to indicate that the respondents with lower monthly income may have been in favor of the manner in which management of the school recognizes and rewards employees who have capabilities to do the job.” This part of the discussion presented by the researcher is “what the data says”. 4 This means that there are other information that the researcher could have exploreqi an ave further meaning to the difference in the two groups’ perceptions. By citing, th¢a confidence interval in a hypothesis testing, the finding is interpreted and given new meani