PRACTICAL JOURNAL

PROGRAM: TYBA PSYCHOLOGY – SEMESTER V

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-2024
COUSE CODE: UAMAPSY508
COURSE NAME: PRACTICALS IN COGNITIVE
PROCESSES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING - PAPER
VIII

Name: VIDHI PARAG SHAH

SAP Number: 40310210117

Roll Number: 109

 Exam Seat No: _______________

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the experiments entered in this journal as have been signed were performed by

Miss/Mr. __________________________________________________________ of the

S.Y.B.A / T.Y.B.A Class Div: ___ Roll No: ________ in the Psychology Laboratory of Mithibai
College during the year ____________

She / He has completed the course of required number of experiments in the subject Psychology as
prescribed by the University of Mumbai in SEMESTER ____________

Teacher in-charge Head, Department of Psychology

Date: Date:
 INDEX

SR No. Experiment Date Page no. Signature

20/06/23
1 False Memory

24/08/23
2 Encoding specificity
Picture Word
11/09/23
3 Interference

03/10/23
4 Research Proposal
EXPERIMENT 1
FALSE MEMORY
False memory
Matlin (2005) defined memory as “the process of maintaining information over time.” Memory
of an individual can be distorted in various ways such as, the emotional states or levels of stress
experienced can influence storage and retrieval of memory. The expectations of a person or leading
questions similar to some kind of event or memory can also influence memory and may implant false
memories. Moreover, memories which are similar may get mixed or merged. False memories are
defined as remembering events that never happened or remembering them quite differently from the
way they happened (Roediger and McDermott, 1959, p. 803).

Pioneering research by Elizabeth Loftus

Elizabeth Loftus’ (1975) research on eyewitness testimony is one of the major components that
make up the studies on false memory. She is regarded as a pioneer in the field. She believed that it was
the way the questions were framed by the attorneys that majorly influenced the person’s testimony of
what they witnessed.
To investigate this, she conducted an experiment with 45 participants. Participants were shown
7 clips of car accidents, ranging from 5-30 seconds. Then, the participants were asked to describe what
they had just witnessed (as though they were an eyewitness themselves). The leading question asked
here was, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted each
other?” It was inferred that participants who had heard the verb ‘smashed’ would report a higher speed
than the participants who were in the ‘contacted’ condition. Results showed that this was indeed the
case, as participants in the ‘smashed’ condition reported the highest speed. The verb had influenced
their memory of the event. In a follow-up study, 150 participants watched a minute-long video of a car
driving through the countryside, followed by 4 seconds of a car accident.
Participants were later asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed/hit each
other”. A week later, participants had to respond to the question of if they had seen any glass in the
video. Despite there being none, participants in the smashed condition were more likely to report
seeing broken glass than not. This study demonstrated how memory is easily distorted.

Another one of her many studies called as the ‘Lost in the Shopping Mall’ experiment. In this
experiment, Loftus and Pickrell (1995) were able to convince the Ps that they had been lost in the
shopping mall as a child. The aim of the study was to implant false memory through suggestion to test
the existence of false and repressed memories. (Steve Mendez, 2014) Suggestibility entails generating a
false recollection. It occurs when someone else is influencing us, whether consciously or
unconsciously.
Loftus requested three stories about each of the 24 participants from their families between the
ages of 4 and 6. The fourth tale was then based on the participant's visit to the mall. Loftus requested
information from the participants' families about a mall they visited as kids. Participants were told that
they were testing the ability to recall specifics from early experiences. First, written descriptions of the
four events—three actual and one made up—that each participant's relatives had described were
delivered to them. Then, individuals were instructed to list the specific occurrences that they could still
clearly recall. In an interview, they were asked to recall as much as they could about the four memories
after being reminded of them. A week later, a second interview was conducted using a similar process.
Participants were asked to judge how clear their memories were at the conclusion of both interviews.
At the ending of the study, Participants were told that one of the four memories was false, and
the participants were asked to identify it. Although participants found the false memory to be
significantly less clear, 5 out of 24 participants remembered that the lost in the mall experience as real.
This may seem like a fairly poor ratio, it does at least demonstrate the feasibility of implanting false
memories given the relatively minimal amount of suggestion or compulsion used in the interviews. In
1996, Hyman and Pentland conducted a follow-up study with additional participants and a broader
focus on recollections. This study discovered that between 20% and 40% of participants could have at
least one type of false memory implanted, depending on the experimental factors.
Research on recovered memories
Recovered memories can also be false even if they might be recalled in detail. One such case
was of “Jane Doe”. She was videotaped in 1984 recalling specifics of sexual abuse she had suffered at
her mother’s hands. In 1995, Jane was 17 and was videotaped again. Though she did not originally
recall the abuse, she soon did, and the case was considered one of recovered memory and verified.
However, Loftus and Guyer (2002) later used public records and newspaper clippings to locate Jane’s
family. Here they learned that this case was not one of repressed/recovered memory at all. New
evidence showed that the abuse had not occurred at all and had simply been planted in her mind by
individuals who wished to separate her from her mother. This case raised questions about the
authenticity of even allegedly true recovered/repressed memory incidents and served as a cautionary
tale for the future.
Misinformation effect
Similar to retroactive interference effects, the misinformation effect is created in three simple
steps: presentation of the original events, intervening events meant to mislead the participant, and a
memory test. A filmed sequence of events could be shown to the person, followed by a post-event
question with a misleading implication. When later evaluated, a number of participants remembered the
inferred events as truly occurring.

Implanting effect
Fake photographs are one among the most brilliant and most effective methods for creating
highly unlikely false memories. In a study, a fabricated image of the participant and a relative had been
placed onto a prototype image of a hot-air balloon was displayed to subjects. Family members verified
that the incident never took place. The test subjects were shown a fake picture and instructed to recall
everything they were able to recall without missing anything, regardless of how insignificant it may
seem. After two further interviews, 50% of the individuals could recollect the false hot-air balloon trip
completely or at least partially. Some added sensory aspects of a childhood hot-air balloon journey that
had never actually taken place to their accounts. These investigations and several more like them
demonstrate that humans are capable of forming memories and beliefs about things that in all
likelihood never happened to them (Loftus, 2003).
Frederic Barlett
Bartlett (1932) is credited to have conducted the first experimental investigation related to false
memories. Bartlett’s (1939) work was crucial to the understanding of reproductive and reconstructive
memory. Reproductive memory is the accurate, rote production of material from memory and
reconstructive memory emphasizes the active processing of filling missing elements while
remembering with errors frequently occurring (Roediger and McDermott, 1959, p. 803). Most of the
early work done under false memory follows suit from Bartlett’s work, where researchers have studied
false memories with the use of sentences, prose passages, slides sequences, or videotapes.
Frederic Bartlett carried out a very well-known study known as "The War of the Ghosts." The
study focuses on how people create memories and recall events depending on the knowledge and
understanding they have of their surroundings and the world at large. In this study, participants were
read a Native American legend and instructed to continually retell it over the course of a few days,
weeks, months, and years. It was discovered that whenever the participants tried to recall the narrative
by narrating it, they altered a few details in the sequence of events. Additionally, it was discovered that
participants created new information more frequently and altered the facts of the story when there was
a longer interval between the last time the story was recalled and the most recent time it was recalled.
Bartlett described this process as distortion. He discovered that there were three different types of
distortions. These distortions are as follows: -
Assimilation would occur when the story narrated by the participants became more and more
similar to their cultural expectations. The participants altered the details of the story unconsciously, so
that it could be consistent with their cultural norms and beliefs. Levelling was another type of distortion
where the participants’ narration of the story became shorter as they would ignore or eliminate
information from the story, they did not find important. The third type of distortion observed was
Sharpening. In here, participants while narrating the story, changed the order of events to make sense
of the story along with using emotions or terms that were similar or familiar to their culture. As a
result, the story was reproduced in an increasingly distorted manner, but as it got shorter, less obvious
aspects were overlooked or explained away. (Wagoner, 2017)
DRM Paradigm
Deese (1959) was interested in predicting the occurrence of extralist intrusions in single-trial
free recall. He created 36 lists, each including 12 words. Each list was composed of 12 primary
associates of a critical (non-presented) word. For example, for the critical word needle, the list of words
included thread, pin, eye, sewing, sharp, point, pricked, thimble, haystack, pain, hurt, injection. These
lists were used to find out the probability with which the participants would recognize the critical word.
Deese’s paradigm of using a list of words along with the critical word is the basis for Roediger and
McDermott’s work.
Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted 2 experiments based on Deese’s work. In
experiment 1 they examined free recall and false recognition of critical non-presented words and the
confidence with which subjects accepted or rejected the critical non-presented word as being part of the
study lists. As part of experiment 1, Roediger and McDermott (1995) attempted to replicate Deese’s
experiment of the false recall by using six lists that produced among the highest levels of erroneous
recalls. Students heard a list consisting of 12 words that were associated to a non-presented, critical
lure. They then engaged in immediate recall after each list for a period of 2 ½ minutes. After the
completion of all 6 lists, they engaged in a brief conversation with the experimenter followed by a
recognition tests over both studied and non-studied items (consisting of weakly related words,
unrelated words and the critical non-presented lure words). They were also expected to rate each word
in the recognition test and indicate their confidence that the word had appeared on the list. They were
given a 4-point rating scale for the same, which included options like 4 for sure it was an old item, 3 for
probably old, 2 for probably new, and 1 for sure it was new. In the end, the list of critical words was
read out to them and they were asked to raise their hands if they recognized these words from the list.
Several participants raised their hands. They were informed that these words were not presented to
them. The experimenters found that the subjects falsely recalled the critical items at a high rate. On the
recognition test, participants had a 86% hit rate. The false alarmrate was much higher for the critical
non-presented words than for other weakly related words that were presented, which was more than
false alarms for unrelated words.
When rating their confidence as to whether the word was presented during the earlier phase in
the experiment, the studied words were given an average rating of 3.6, non-presented critical lures were
rated as 3.3, whereas, average confidence ratings for weakly related words (1.8) and unrelated words
(1.2), indicated that participants were confident that they were not seen in the earlier phase of the
experiment. Experiment 2 , sought to (1) extend findings to a wider set of materials, (2) examine the
effect of recall on the subsequent memory test,(3) determine the false-alarm rates for the critical non-
presented items when the relevant list had not been presented previously, (3) obtain subjects' judgments
about their phenomenological experience while recognizing non-presented items : remember (one in
which the subject can mentally relive the experience - perhaps by recalling its neighbors, what it made
them think of, what they were doing when they heard the word, or physical characteristics associated
with its presentation ) vs know (subjects are confident that the item occurred on the list but are unable
to reexperience its occurrence) judgments
In experiment 2, participants were shown the list and instructed that after they heard a specific
sound (either a knock or a tone) they should either begin recalling the list of words shown or begin to
solve math problems given to them. They were not informed prior to the presentation of the list
whether they would be expected to recall the list or solve the math problems given. Thus, half the lists
were followed by recall, the other half were followed by the solving of math sums. This procedure was
repeated for 16 lists of words. After all the lists were completed, participants went through a
recognition test, wherein they made “old-new” judgments and “remember-know” judgments (for words
marked as old) based on the list of words shown to them (consisting of studied words, non-studied
words, non-presented critical lures and non-studied, critical lures not associated with any list presented
earlier). “Remember” judgments must be made for words they vividly remembered as being part of the
lists shown earlier and “know” judgments were used when participants knew the words were shown to
them but lacked the remember feeling. Participants recalled the non-presented critical words even more
often as compared to Experiment 1. Interestingly, the act of recall, during the initial phase of the
experiment, boosted further recognition, in the latter phase of the experiment, making the hit rate (as
well as “remember” judgments) more than those lists that were followed by the task of solving math
sums. In addition, the act of recalling the critical lure during the initial phase, also boosted it’s false
recognition at the time of the recognition test, and were accompanied by “remember” judgments as
compared to those lists that were followed by the task of solving math sums. These false alarms created
by the critical lure, were similar to the trend seen in the hit rates. The false recognitions were also
accompanied by great confidence.
Several explanations for the occurrence of false memories, has been provided in the research.
Underwood’s Implicit Associative Response
Underwood’s (1965) Implicit Associative Response Theory (the IAR theory) has its roots in the
concept of spreading activation which means when a word is studied, the meaning of that studied item
is activated and the words associated to the studied item are also implicitly activated. To account for
associative memory illusions, IAR theory suggests that subjects may falsely recognize that a non-
presented associate occurred in the list because activation of the list items has spread and has
heightened activation levels of the associate.
In a 1965 study, Underwood looked at how IARs affected the verbal unit recognition accuracy.
A list of 200 words was given to college students, and they were asked to report any words they
identified that had been on the list in the past. Late in the list, certain words referred to as experimental
words or E words appeared that were close natural-language counterparts of particular phrases referred
to as critical stimulus or CS words that had previously been in the list. It was assumed that if the
experimental words had previously been elicited by significant stimulus words as IARs, they would
frequently be reported as having previously existed. This hypothesis was backed by Underwood's
findings, which showed that for three of the five classes of words investigated, false recognition of E
words was consistently more frequent than false identification of control (C) words. (Hall & Ware,
1968)
Source monitoring error theory
 The set of procedures used to assign causes to memories, bits of information, and beliefs is
known as source monitoring which is a critical everyday memory function. The feeling that a memory
has a specific source is a compelling reason for experiencing it as belonging to our personal past.
Furthermore, source-monitoring processes differentiate fact from fantasy in remembering (e.g., whether
your parents yelled at you or you only imagined they might), reliable from unreliable sources of
information (e.g., your dentist vs. some random website on google), and actions from intentions (e.g.,
taking medicines vs. only thinking about it). Disruption in any or all of these situations has serious
implications both in potential impact on event memory and on development and use of knowledge and
beliefs. Its effect can be seen in eye witness testimony where the witness mistakenly identifies
memories derived from the misleading information as memories derived from the witnessed event
itself. In a research conducted by Jacoby and his colleagues, (Jacoby et al, 1989) they found that
failures in source monitoring may give rise to the feeling that a name or a fact that is familiar from a
recent exposure was known previously. They also gave a contrasting theory of controlled recollection
and stated that if a person intentionally and consciously took efforts to recollect things then the
automatic process of familiarity wouldn’t distort the source attribution.

Fuzzy-trace theory (Brainerd, et al., 1995) proposes that memory traces are stored on a
continuum that ranges from verbatim information about the experience to gist information about the
experience. Verbatim traces represent the perceptual details of an experience, such as visual features,
which allow people to differentiate memories from one another. Thus, retrieval of verbatim traces
underlies the ability to recollect study item occurrence in fuzzy-trace theory. Gist information, on the
other hand, represents the commonalities among experiences that are part of an episode, and underlies
test item familiarity. As applied to the DRM paradigm, gist information represents the semantic
commonalities among a lure's studied associates, which leads fuzzy-trace theory to propose that lure
errors are familiarity based. In general, fuzzy-trace theory suggests that memory errors to unstudied
items arise from how well they match gist traces, and that memory errors are limited by the extent to
which unstudied items produce retrieval of verbatim traces. Thus, lure errors increase when they match
the gist representation of their studied associates and decrease when they inspire retrieval of the
verbatim traces of their studied associates.
Activation Monitoring theory
Roediger and McDermott however, sought to use activation/monitoring theory to explain their
findings. The theory is based on the notion that spreading activation works in conjunction with a more
controlled, monitoring process that allows subjects to make attributions about the source of the
activation. That is, when making a memory judgment, subjects may use information from heightened
activation, but must also rely on a monitoring process to discriminate those activated items that were
studied from those that were not studied. Strongly activated items may be misattributed to having
occurred in the list if there is no information to distinguish list items from critical items.
Veridical Memory
Veridical memory is the capacity to recall details that are consistent with the world around us. It
consists of mental occurrences that relate to the outside world, such as memories or beliefs. In contrast
to true to reality, veridical, and normal perception, hallucinations are frequently perceived by people as
a sort of false perception. Ageing decreases true memory and promotes false memories, according to
studies. In a study conducted by Balota et al., six 12-item lists of items from the DRM (Deese, 1959;
Roediger & McDermott, 1995) were studied and assessed on five groups of people (young, healthy old,
healthy old-old, very mild Alzheimer's type, and moderate Alzheimer's type). The results showed that
as individuals' ages and dementia severity increased, their veridical recall and recognition skills
declined. (Balota et al., 1999)
Phantom Recollection
The phantom recall model, a multiprocessing approach, contends that memory judgements are
jointly supported by one's memory of a item in its context, a more vague feeling of stimulus familiarity,
the phantom recollection of the substance, and even perceptual features of unstudied but related
objects. A person may have a vivid but false recall of an event, which is known as a phantom
remembrance. It might happen if false memories are potent enough to trigger recollective experiences.
For instance, a person might recall a certain object that was never displayed. can happen frequently in
specific kinds of erroneous recognition. It's possible that a rise in the utilization of phantom
recollection is what's causing the developmental increase in short-term false memory.

Researches also suggest why false memories may not occur in some situations. Other factors
(like ageing), which may play a role in false memories as well. Firstly, studies have shown that making
list items distinctive in some way (e.g., by presenting them with pictures, or presenting them visually
rather than auditorily), false recall and false recognition is lessened (Israel & Schacter, 1997). Such
evidence supports the distinctiveness heuristic as a means of a person rejecting a candidate memory
and reducing levels of false recall or false. Second, warning participants before list-presentation about
the presence of critical non-presented items decreases false recall in the DRM paradigm, presumably
because the monitoring processes invoked during encoding are then carried forward during retrieval.
Roediger, Watson et al. (2001) found a negative correlation between veridical and false memory so that
the better remembered the list items were (presumably due in part to greater source monitoring), the
less likely subjects were to falsely remember the critical item. Lastly, activation patterns in younger
and older adults are equivalent, but that monitoring processes suffer age related. Declines in veridical
recall for older adults relative to young adults, but similar or even heightened false recall in older adults
are often seen. Finally, repetition of the study list has been shown to increase false recognition for older
adults, but to decrease false recognition for younger adults, presumably because older adults are
impaired in their ability to monitor the source of the increased activation from repetition and so have
higher false alarms.
Methodology:

Aim: To study the effect of presentation of semantically related words on false memory.
Hypothesis: There is no difference in the proportion of words recognized of the old items, related
lures, and unrelated lures.
Design: Simple Repeated Measures Design with three levels – old words, related lures and unrelated
lures. All participants went through all the three levels of the independent variable.
Operational Definition of Variables
Independent Variable: Nature of words presented was manipulated at three levels are Old Words,
Related Lures, and Unrelated Lures.

• OLD WORDS are words that the participant was exposed to during the learning phase.
• RELATED LURES are extra-list words that were not presented during the learning phase are
related to, but are related to, or semantically similar to the intra list words presented in a specific
trial (e.g. bread for words like butter, sandwich, lunch, toast, etc.)
• UNRELATED LURES are extra list words that were not presented during the learning phase, and
are not related to, or not semantically like the intra list words presented in a specific trial. (e.g. kite
for words like butter, sandwich, lunch, toast, etc.)
Dependent Variable: Proportion of words recognized on a recognition test as being a part of an initial
studied word list.
Controls:
1. Exposure time of the words remained constant across the trials.
2. On each trial, for the recognition task there were 7 words, 1 related lure, and 8 unrelated
lures.
3. On each trial, the seven words presented were semantically related to each other
4. For the recognition, task P had to identify the words by clicking on the respective words.
Once clicked the action could not be undone by the P.
5. The size of the grid, i.e. the number of the words to be learnt remained constant across all
trials.
6. The words to be learnt appeared one after the other, while for the recognition task all words
were shown together all at once.
7. There was no time limit for the recognition task.
Procedure: P read the instructions on the computer screen which were as follows,
Instructions: “If you have logged in, you'll see a rectangle below. Make sure that you can see the full
area before you begin the lab. On each trial, a sequence of words will appear, with each word
presented for one second. After the full sequence has been presented, a set of buttons will be shown,
each labeled with a word. Some of these words were on the list, and some were not. Your task is to
click or tap on the buttons to indicate which words were in the sequence. You may click or tap on the
buttons in any order. There is no way to correct mistakes, so be careful! The experiment includes 6
trials.”
At the end of the expt., P saved the data for the further analysis.
Discussion
The aim of the experiment wad to study the effect of presentation of semantically related words
on false memory. The hypothesis formulated was that there is no difference in the proportion of the
words recognised of the old item, related lures, and unrelated lures. Thus, the experimenter’s
expectation is that related lures will be recalled more, even though it was not present in the list. The
data trend revealed that the participant had recalled related lures (special distractor) significantly more
than compared to old item and unrelated lures.
Three types of words were presented to the participant, old items that were present in the list,
normal distractors were words that were not present in the original list and were not semantically
related to the intralist words that were presented in the specific trials to the participant and special
distractors that were extralist words that were semantically similar to the intralist words but were not
present in the original list. As seen in table 1 that is the data summary table (refer to appendix), the
percentage of recall for words in original list was 80.95%, for normal distractors it was 6.25% and for
that of special distractor was 100%. Table 2 that is the trial-by-trial data shows how the participant
recalled the normal distractor word in the last 3 trials whereas the special distractor word was recalled
in all 6 trials.
The above results obtained by the participant show that the data is line with the expectation of
the experiment which stated related lures or special distractors will be recalled more often as compared
to the other two items. Since group data has not been analysed we cannot determine if the null
hypothesis was rejected or retained however since the percentages of words recognised in each of the
categories of words were different from each other, the data is in-line with the hypothesis.
The results obtained by the participant could be explained with the help of “Source Monitoring
Error” Theory. The source monitoring error theory states false memories could as a result of an
individual attributes his/her memory from one source to another and later uses familiarity to judge
whether the memory they have is real or not. In the experiment, the participant too could have used
familiarity while identifying the possible words that were present on the list. Another explanation for
the results obtained by the participant could be Activation Monitoring Theory. As per this theory, when
the words are encoded by the participant and processed for retrieval, various activations related to the
words seen are also activated. This process is governed by a monitoring process which helps in
distinguishing critical items and items that were not present in the list. However, when the activations
get activated and spread, there could an implicit association form between words seen on the list and
words that got activated. In here, now when due to the implicit association when participant is
misattributes the word activated by association source monitoring failure could have occurred, and thus
the participant falsely remembers seeing the word (special distractor) on the list.
Some of the important controls of this experiment include a fixation point that appeared on the
screen at the start of every trial for a period of 5000 ms. This was done in order to ensure that the
participants pays attention to the screen and is not distracted. Another important control of this
experiment is that the number of words presented in each trial (15 words) was constant across all trials.
This is a way to maintain uniformity across trials. In extension, all 15 words in each trial were
semantically related to each other and were related to the critical word that was presented. This was
done to help form associations.
Roediger and McDermott in 1995 conducted a study based on Deese’s (1959) work. The aim
of their first experiment was to examine free recall and false recognition of critical words and the
confidence with which the participants accepted or rejected the words presented. The current
experiment is similar in the sense that it examines recognition of words presented during the learning
trial and a critical word however the participants are not expected to give a free recall. Similar to the
experiment by Roediger (1995), the current experiment had 6 trials as well but the number of words
presented during the learning trials was different. While in the original experiment the participants
were presented with 12 words per trial, in the current experiment participants were presented with 15
words per trial. Participants in the original experiment were asked to give an immediate free recall after
each trial but as discussed earlier, participants in the current experiment did not undergo a free recall
task. Instead, participants were presented with a list of 16 all at once from which they had to recognise
words they thought were presented during the learning phase. The list of 16 89 words presented
consisted of 8 words that were actually presented during the learning phase, 1 critical word (word that
is associated with the words presented during the learning phase) and 7 words that were not related to
the words presented earlier. Finally, in the original experiment while the participants were also given a
recognition test of studied and non-studied words, they were also asked to rate on a 4 point rating scale
how confident they were that the word had appeared on the list. In contrast, the current experiment had
no such rating.
Threats to internal validity
Internal validity may have been threatened by instrumentation. This is due to the fact that the
experiment was self-administered, the subject may have missed certain changes, and since the
experiment was computer-aided, so any problems with the evaluation or saving of the file on the
computer could have complicated the results. Additionally, the experiment may have been tainted by
the participants' degree of focus and their experience of boredom or exhaustion before the test.
Limitations of the experiment
Since the experiment was self-administered without the necessary presence of the supervisor,
participants may employ strategies such as writing/typing the words down which can be solved by
ensuring there is a supervisor or the experimenter is present at all trials alongside all participants.
Future recommendations
Taking inspiration from DRM, this experiment could also include confidence rating where after
each trial the participant is asked to rate how confident they feel about their responses. This could help
further investigate the strength of false memories.
Practical Application
According to research conducted by Gabrielle and Erica (Principe & Schindewolf, 2012),
natural conversations can indulse false memories in children who are giving testimonies in court. The
results showed that misinformation per se doesn’t affect the autobiographical memories but rather how
it is encountered (like qualities of the informer – familiarity, age, conversational style etc) and shared
with others. This can lead to improvised recall and change in representational memory errors
eventually putting themselves and their conversational partners at risk.
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EXPERIMENT 2
ENCODING
SPECIFICITY
Memory is the learning that persists over time and includes the storage and retrieval of information.
The evidence of persistent learning can be observed through three forms namely, recall - which consists
of retrieving information that persists and was learned earlier, but it is not currently in conscious
awareness. recognition which involves identifying previously learned items and relearning which
involves learning something more quickly when presented in a second or later time.

The basic model of memory emphasizes on the complex mental processes that affect human learning
and conduct as part of the cognitive viewpoint on learning. It comprises of three parts, namely
encoding, storage and retrieval. Encoding is the process through which information from sensory input
enters our memory system. Storing information entails making a permanent representation of the
knowledge that was previously encoded in our memory. Retrieval is the process of locating or
recovering data that has been stored in our memory.

Models of memory

Atkinson Shiffrin Model of Memory

The fundamental information processing model has had a significant impact on cognitive psychology
and has shaped our knowledge of how the human brain processes information. Information must be
saved in memory when it is collected from the environment so that it can be accessed and used later.
The modal model of memory is another name for this theory. It consists of the following elements
which are all necessary for storing and organising information.

Sensory Memory: You can briefly store knowledge using this type of memory after bringing it into
your brain via your senses. It can last for three to four seconds.

Short-term Memory: You can retain information in your mind for a little duration, just long enough to
employ, thanks to this type of memory. It can last for 20–30 seconds.

Long - Term Memory: You can store information for a long time using this type of memory. Two
further dissections of long-term memory are:-

Explicit memory: - You can recall information from long-term memory in this way.

Implicit memory: - This is the long-term memory that you can't remember but that nevertheless
influences your behaviour.
Working Memory Model

According to Baddeley and Hitch (1974), the Multi-Store Model's depiction of short-term
memory (STM) is far too basic. Working memory can therefore both retain and process information, in
contrast to short-term memory's limited ability to do so. The components of working memory model
include chief executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop and later episodic buffer was added
as an component.
In chief executive the systems, such as the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad,
are overseen and coordinated by central executive, and it links them to long-term memory (LTM). The
central executive selects which information is handled and where in the working memory it should be
sent for processing. The central executive prioritizes and focuses on certain activities.
A part of the working memory model that stores and processes information in a visual or spatial
form is called the visuospatial sketchpad. The visuospatial sketchpad probably plays a significant part
in assisting us in remembering where we are in relation to other items as we move about our
surroundings. The navigation tool is the visuospatial sketchpad. Additionally, the sketchpad shows and
modifies spatial and visual information stored in long-term memory.
The phonological loop, which deals with spoken and written content, is a component of the
working memory model. It is separated into two parts: phonological storage, which records information
through speech, and the articulatory process, which allows people to repeat verbal information
repeatedly.
The episodic buffer was added to the model as the fourth element due to its importance for
short-term memory. The long-term and short-term memories are transmitted more easily thanks to the
episodic memory buffer. It talks about how different memories interact with one another and how a
short-term memory can turn into a long-term memory. (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

Levels of processing model

A memory trace will last longer the more thoroughly processed the information is, according to
the levels of processing idea (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), which focuses on the level of processing that
goes into memory. Processing levels: the idea that how information is encoded affects how effectively
it is remembered. At higher levels of processing, the knowledge is simpler to remember.
Structural processing is the shallow processing which results in relatively short-term memory
retention since it just involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to assist us hold things in the STM).
The multi-store model only permits this kind of rehearsal.
Phonemic processing is the phonemic level has to do with learning through sound. When we
focus on the noise made by the object being processed, this processing occurs. It can be something we
are reading or something that is around us. When we encode the sounds in our environment, such as
listening to music or pronouncing any word while reading, we reach this level of processing.
Information's memory traces are more trustworthy than its structural level.
Semantic processing is the deepest level of information processing. The meaning-making
strategy is directly tied to deep processing. In this, a learner can actively engage with the content, relate
the knowledge obtained with the information already gained, and draw conclusions or build strong
connections. It makes analysis more insightful, which enhances recalling ability and leaves very strong
memory imprints of impressions.

Tulving’s Model of Memory

The Tulving’s Model of memory was proposed by Endel Tulving in 1972 and makes
distinctions between the nature of information that one stores in memory. According to this model,
there are three kinds of memory: episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.
The episodic memory refers to information about details of certain events and also the
relationship between those events. This type of information of memory can be referred to as one’s
personal experiences. Some examples of this memory could be “I have a test on Thursday,” “There was
an earthquake at 6:30 last evening.”
The semantic memory is that memory that includes all the organised knowledge of the world.
The semantic memory consists of a fairly constant knowledge structure and could also include certain
facts about the world such as remembering certain equations and chemical formulae.
The procedural memory is a third category of memory in Tulving’s model and can be
understood as the knowing how to do something or knowledge about connections between stimuli and
responses. It is hard to describe verbally. Procedural memory might include knowing how to swim or
drive a car or knowing how to cook a dish. (Maitlin, M.W, 2012)

Mcclelland’s Parallel Distributive Processing Model

A set of information processing models called Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) models,
which are inspired by neural networks, aim to simulate how the brain processes information.
Findings that a system of brain connections appeared to be dispersed in a parallel array in addition
to serial routes led to the development of this paradigm. As a result, many forms of mental processing
are thought to be dispersed across a very complicated neural network.
Three fundamental ideas govern the PDP model are information representation is dispersed rather
than local, specific memory and information are not explicitly retained, but rather are stored in the links
between unit and that with modest changes in connection brought on by experience, learning can take
place.
These models presuppose that information processing involves the interactions of numerous
simple processing units, often known as units, each of which sends excitatory and inhibitory signals to
other units.

Factors enhancing memory:

Meaningfulness: Meaningful information provide cues aiding memory, elaboration of material,

along with specificity in relation to context and enhance recall. Craik and Tulvig (1975) found that both
semantic processing and elaboration of material could aid recall.

Mnemonics: Mental strategies designed to improve memory, like imagery is created to form
mental pictures or images. Other technique is by organization which involves organizing information
systematically that later aids in memory and retrieval.

Mnemonics method using imagery include:

The Keyword Method – This method was proposed by Estgate and Groome (2005), Goninger
(2000) and Hermann et al (2002). A keyword mnemonic is an elaborate rehearsing technique that may
be used to assist you more successfully encode information so that you can memorise and recall it. The
first step in creating a keyword mnemonic is to choose a keyword that sounds somewhat similar to the
target keyword. Second, the learner creates a mental association between the keyword and the newly
learned word or information.

The Method of Loci - This method was proposed by Einstein and McDaniel (2004) and Hunter
(2008). The method of loci is a mnemonic memory technique that aids in the sequential memorization
of new information.

The Peg-word Method – This method was proposed by Bugelski, Kidd and Segmen (1968). The
peg word method uses a system of so-called peg words to "hang" memories in an associative manner.
Connecting well-known information with a particular organisation, such as the alphabet or numerals, to
new pieces of information is the main process behind the peg word method.

Interactive Images – This method was proposed by Sternberg (2012). A mnemonic method
called interactive pictures uses interactive visual imagery to help people remember a list of items.
Mnemonics method using organization include:

Chunking – This method was proposed by Bower and Springston (1970). Chunking is the
technique of combining several pieces of information into more convenient or significant chunks.

Hierarchy technique – This method was proposed by Gordon Bower and colleagues (1969). It
makes use of a logical hierarchy to clarify how information is related.

First letter technique (Acronym) – This method was proposed by Hermann et al (2002). First-
letter mnemonics are memory techniques that make use of the first letters of words as memory aids.

Narrative Technique – This method was proposed by Bower and Clark (1969). The narrative
method weaves the complete list of words together into a narrative. It aids in remembering how the
story was put together.

Acrostic Technique - An acrostic is a form of mnemonic tool or memory-boosting method. It

comprises of a sentence where one letter (often the first) from each word stands in for a different word.
Each of these letters stands for a word that refers to a connected idea. For example, to help recall the
nine planets and their positions in our solar system, read "My Very Educated Mother Just Sent Us Nine
Pizzas."

Self-Generation effect

Information is better remembered when self-generated rather than passively consumed or

interacted with. Studies by Norman slamecka and Peter Graf (1978) ,suggest us that this effect is
observed across various recall exercises involving verbal Information pictures and arithmetic problems
Example: - When you are learning to cook, making the dish yourself would better help remembering
the recipe rather than just passively listening to someone say the steps

Spacing effect (distributed-practice-effect):-

It says that spaced learning across multiple trials over time enhances memory compared to
massed learning at all once. Herman Ebbinghaus first noticed this effect in 1889. Research supports its
effectiveness for both recall and Recognition task. Example: - Breaking down the syllabus and studying
it in parts systematically would lead to better understanding and memorizing and it will also be retained
longer rather than learning all chapters on one day
Distinctiveness: -

Distinct stimuli improve recall as they stand out from other memory traces. Deep levels of
processing encourage distinctiveness and elaboration aiding memory Example: - When attending a
conference there are several speakers throughout the day. Most of them deliver their presentations
using slides filled with bullet points and generic images. However, one speaker uses colorful and
engaging visuals, interactive activities, and humorous anecdotes. Their presentation stands out as
distinct from the others. When the conference concludes, you find it much easier to remember the
content of the distinct presentation, even though time has passed. This is because the unique and
distinctive elements of that speaker's session made it more memorable

Transfer of learning: -

Transfer refers to carry over of knowledge or skills from one problem solving situation to
another. There are two types of transfer of learning namely positive transfer of learning and negative
transfer of learning. Positive transfer of learning aids problem solving situation by applying skills from
one content to another Example: - Someone who has learned to ride a bicycle easily applies their
balance and coordination skills when learning how to skateboard

Negative transfer of learning hinder problem solving due to different content. Example: -
Someone accustomed to using a Mac computer may initially struggle when switching to a Windows-
based computer due to differences in the operating systems.

Context dependent memory

Context dependent memory says that memory recall is influenced by the content in which
Information was initially learned ie. it refers to improved recall when the context during encoding is the
same as the context during retrieval. Example: - If one leaves their shopping list on the kitchen counter
and can't remember what they needed at the store, returning to the kitchen where they initially wrote it
can trigger better recall due to context-dependent memory.

Paired associate learning

Paired associate learning is a technique in which items are learner in pairs and subjects are later
tested on their ability to recall second item when the first item is presented. Cues provide context and
create association between stimuli and responses enhancing memory It was invented by Mary Whiton
Calkins. Example: - Learning to associate "apple" with "red" and "banana" with "yellow" is an instance
of paired associate learning in color-word associations.

The Encoding Specificity Model

According to this hypothesis, memory performance improves when cues are provided. Endel
Tulving and Donald M. Thomson created the model in the 1970s. They have carried out three similar
experiments. (1973; Tulving and Thomson).
Tulving and Thomson carried out three studies, and they all followed similar techniques. Lists 1
and 2 were practise lists (just to get subjects familiar with the idea of remembering target words by
paying attention to cue words), and subjects were instructed to memorise capitalised words and pay
attention to cue words that will help them in later phases. List 3 included the terms "critical list" (also
known as "crucial list"), "weak cue words" (also known as "extra list cue words"), and "strong cue
words" (also known as "cue words"), which are words that are connected with the target words but are
not displayed to the participants. just weak cues were displayed during the encoding phase, whereas
strong cues written on paper were displayed during the retrieval phase (just for the third list).
In experiment 1, there were five tasks to complete. First, twelve extralist cue words were
presented to participants in the first task (strong cues had not been revealed to them before), and it was
explained to them that these terms were connected to the target words they had just seen. In the second
task, they were shown the previous 12 words along with additional list cue words and instructed to use
free association. They would note the target word next to the extra-list cue word if one of the words
they come up with through free association had previously been recognised as the target word. In the
third task, all 24 extra-list cues were presented at once, and six blank spaces were left next to each cue
for free association. Participants generated 104 associations on average, 74% of which were with the
goal words. In the fourth task, participants circled the terms they remembered seeing as target words
after reviewing their generated responses. Participants were given two pieces of paper for the fifth
activity, in which they had to list every capitalised word they had previously encountered.
The recall performance was better, with the emphasis on context and memory retrieval cues,
according to the results. The results reveal that when original cues were presented, the participants
produced and recognised associations more efficiently, indicating the critical function of cues in
memory recall.
In experiment 2, the initial task was creating free associations, where For each of the 12 target
words on the extralist, participants were asked to provide six free association answers. In the second
task, which involved self-generated responses, participants had to choose recognised target words from
a list of words they had come up with during the free association test. The third challenge was
identifying responses produced by others. For the same 12 extralist cues, participants were shown free
association responses made by other participants. The fourth task asked participants to recall the
matching input signals from the list for the target words they had previously identified. The fifth task
was a recall test with original input cues, where participants had to recollect as many target words as
they could after being given 24 original input clues. The results of experiment 2 were reassured by the
results of experiment 1.
In experiment 3, participants were given a forced association generation task in which they
were required to respond freely to 24 extralist cues that corresponded to target words. The second task
involved a forced choice recognition test with confidence ratings in which participants had to circle the
most likely target word out of four generated words for each stimulus. Recall using the original cues
was the final task. The participants remembered the goal words connected to the 24 initial cues. The
experiment's results showed that during a forced-choice recognition test, the phenomenon of failing to
recognise recallable words also occurs, albeit in a significantly attenuated form. This result disqualified
response bias as the only explanation for the similar outcomes obtained in experiment 1 and experiment
2's free choice recognition processes.
Retrieval cues may not be useful in the case of geographical-spatial learning, according to
several criticisms of the experiment. There was also a chance of biased recall or pure guesswork. And it
was found in a study by Kulhavy, R. W. et al. (1993) that viewing the full map before hearing the text
improved fact recall (connected to the map), with no influence on recall from the type of cue supplied
at retrieval.

Kintsch’s Theory: -
According to Kintsch, recognition simply comprises a decision process while recall involves
both generation and recognition phases. According to his theory retrieval and recognition processes are
distinct from one another and only recall involves retrieval processes, whereas for recognition to occur,
only identification of item has to take place. (Kintsch, 1970)
Age differences in encoding specificity

The paper “Age Differences in Encoding Specificity” Puglisi et al investigates age-related

differences in memory recall under different encoding specificity conditions. It conducted two
experiments, one with full attention and the other with divided attention conditions.

In the first experiment, participants from two age groups (young adults and older adults) were
presented with pictures and verbal labels as target stimuli and various encoding-retrieval cue
conditions. Both age groups showed encoding specificity effects, recalling more when cues matched at
encoding and retrieval. However, older adults exhibited this effect only with strongly associated cues
and targets, struggling with weakly related cues due to limited processing resources.

In the second experiment, a divided attention task was introduced during encoding, affecting
older adults' recall more than young adults in both strong and weak cue conditions. Interestingly, older
adults showed general encoding effects only with word stimuli under divided attention, emphasizing
differences in memory recall between verbal and pictorial stimuli in the elderly.

In summary, the study found limited evidence of general encoding effects in older adults,
especially with picture stimuli. The strength of the semantic relationship between cues and targets
influenced recall probabilities, with strong cues leading to better recall. Overall, the findings suggest
that encoding specificity may describe memory processes in older adults but might be less efficient
compared to younger individuals. Further research is needed to explore these effects across different
age groups and stimuli types. (Puglisi et al., 1988)

Interactions between cueing and levels of processing

The paper titled “Semantic Effects in encoding specificity: A level of processing approach” by
Goldstein and Schmitt is focusing on an important statement by Tulving and Thomson (1973) that the
processing subsumed under the encoding specificity principle occurs in episodic and not semantic
memory. To test this, sentences accompanying the items at input were sufficient to lead to the
involvement of semantic memory in the encoding process. This was used to be sure only semantic
information could be effective in retrieval.

In the first experiment, homographs were changed at the input and output by the same or
alternative adjectives conveying the same or different meaning. Only for identical input and output
cues were the results consistent with the notion of encoding specificity (Thomson & Tulving, 1970); no
facilitation of recall was seen for similar semantic context.

According to a semantic interpretation, cues that are associated with words having the same
meaning should have a better recall as compared to cues related to words that have distinct meanings.
However, the two trials carried out demonstrated that both forms of cues appear to interfere with
"normal" retrieval patterns and that same-meaning cues are not more successful than different-meaning
cues. This suggests that minimal semantic processing, or at least less semantic processing compared to
other conditioning, occurs when the episodic trace is used in the standard encoding specificity
paradigm. This strongly shows that, although subjects are perfectly capable of encoding semantically,
they do not until expressly driven to do so. The study demonstrates that semantic components are not
typically involved in encoding specificity investigations. (Goldstein et al., 1978)

Free recall and strong cues

A study was mentioned in the paper “Superiority of free recall to cued recall with strong cues”
by Roediger and Payne. Subjects encoded homographs (such as "iron") in one of two contexts that
were developed by placing terms from two distinct categories that the item belonged to (such as "items
that were metals or utensils") before the homograph. Later, participants were assessed using either free
recall or one of two category names that were either congruent with or incongruous with the targets' the
original encoding. Free recall superior to cued recall when the cues were incongruous with the target's
the original encoding, but cued recall was better to free recall when the cues were congruent. In the
experiment 1, 98 undergraduate students participated and they were tested in groups of 5-27. In the 2
experiments, 90 students were solicited from the same source as in experiment 1. Procedure and design
was the same. Within the perspective of encoding specificity, the results were looked upon in
particular, as confirming the debated idea that a cue closely connected with a target item may if the
relationship was not encoded when the target was studied, be ineffective in enhancing target retrieval.
The results of the two experiments reported showed they are consistent in a strong interaction between
encoding and test conditions. The important contribution of the present experiments is to show that
recall of targets with nominally "strong" pre experimental cues (category names) can actually be worse
than free recall of the same targets. Also the results of our experiments and these others do not reveal
principles applicable only to memory for homographs. Instead, homographs merely serve as convenient
vehicles by which encoding and test conditions for the same nominal stimulus can be strongly
manipulated. Previous attempts to test this prediction may have failed because the encoding context
was not sufficiently altered to create different encodings. (Roediger & Payne, 1983)

Kulhavy spatial maps

Kulhavy et al in the paper “Encoding specificity: The case of maps and text” investigated how
people use spatial displays to improve memory for verbal materials associated with the displays. Like
for example, successful retrieval of text-based facts was considerably higher when subjects study a
related map rather than when they see a list of map features or didn't see any map. They have adopted a
position based in dual coding theory, in which maps are encoded as images that retain information
present in the stimulus map itself and text information is represented in a nonimage verbal code. Maps
that are encoded as images allow people to access two types of information that include, the first in
which there is feature information, that consists of attributes of the individual features on the map,
including properties such as shape, size, and color. And second, in which map images contain structural
information, that represents the coordinate and metric relationships among features in the map. In the
experiment, 87 undergraduate volunteers participated who were attending a large university in the
midwestern United States. The subjects were randomly assigned to the conditions on the basis of the
order in which they appeared for the experiment. The results in general, were that the facts not
modified by a color word were remembered better, and, of course, immediate test performance was
superior to delay. Although these results are not those predicted in the initial discussion, they do
provide some interesting information and also there is no support for the principle of encoding
specificity. But for text recall, it made no difference whether the retrieval cue was the same as or
different from that seen during encoding. The dominant factor was the spatial stimulus seen during
encoding. These data appear to fit a dual-coding explanation better than one based in encoding
specificity. Also, this experiment provides no firm conclusions regarding how map images interact with
verbal information during retrieval. (Kulhavy et al., 1993)

Diagnosis Of Early Dementia By The Double Memory Test

The paper “Diagnosis of early dementia by the double memory test” by Buschke et al discusses
a study conducted to diagnose early dementia using the Double Memory Test and encoding specificity.
The study assessed various cognitive abilities such as verbal IQ, verbal ability, verbal fluency,
attention, and depression. The results showed that the Double Memory Test had higher sensitivity
compared to other memory tests, making it a potentially effective diagnostic tool for early dementia.
(Buschke et al., 1997)

Working memory and cueing

In the paper “Variation in working memory capacity and episodic memory: Examining the
importance of encoding specificity” a research was conducted by Unsworth et al which examined the
extent to which encoding specificity influences the relation between individual differences in working
memory capacity (WMC) and episodic recall. To examine this, they conducted an experiment on the
students of University of Georgia. Participants were selected on the basis of a z-score of 3 span tasks –
operation span, reading span and symmetry span. They were then selected and categorized into high
WMC and low WMC quartiles as per their scores. Participants were presented with 48 word pairs of
cue and target words. The cue words were either rhymed with or were semantically related to the target
word. They were asked to make a judgement about how the words were related -based on rhythm or
semantics to ensure attention. Once done, each participant was presented with cued recall test with a
statement indicating whether the target word rhymed or was semantically associated with the cued
word. On the cued recall sheet the words were either matched (rhyme encoding and rhyme retrieval/
semantic encoding and semantic retrieval) or mismatched (rhyme encoding and semantic
retrieval/semantic encoding and rhyme retrieval). The results indicated that when the cues were
matched with encoding, high WMC individuals outperformed the low WMC individuals, whereas on a
mismatched cue recall the results were equivalent. However, the drop of scores for high WMC
individuals in the mismatched condition as compared to the matched condition was higher indicating
that they were more hurt as the mismatch disrupts their retrieval plan. Studies by Cokely et al (2006)
and Delaney and Sahakyan (2007) indicate similar results suggesting that encoding specificity plays an
important role in relation between WMC and episodic recall. (Unsworth, 2011)

MEG Analysis and Neural patterns

According to the concept of encoding specificity, memory is improved when information is

encoded and retrieved using the same modality rather of using two different modalities. This can be
explained in terms of neuronal interaction between memory cues and encoded information; the greater
their overlap, the better the memory performance. To monitor this resonance process, researchers
performed temporal pattern analysis in MEG in a sensory match/mismatch memory paradigm (items
presented visually or aurally). Study phase and test phase were the two phases of the experiment. The
experiment’s participants had to determine how many syllables each word included. The words were
delivered either visually or audibly. The participant was asked to hit a button if the word contained
more than two syllables. . The distractor task was the name of this task. In the second stage, the
participants took a surprise recognition test in which they had to decide whether a word from the first
condition was present or not. They were also given a confidence range to assess their level of
confidence. The outcomes showed that the auditory conditions performed better than the visual
conditions. Only in the match condition did neural pattern reinstatement of MEG activity improve
memory; however, in the mismatch condition, it did not. The findings thus imply that recurrence of
neural patterns associated to encoding underpins encoding specificity. (Staudigl & Hanslmayr,2019)

A test of confusion theory of encoding specificity

Sandor Wiseman and Endel Tulving published a study titled "A Test of Confusion Theory of
Encoding Specificity" which featured in the Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior in 1975.
The aim of the study was to evaluate the confusion hypothesis of encoding specificity, which proposes
that similarity between the encoding and retrieval contexts affects the recall of information. 24
undergraduate students participated in the study and were shown four sets of cue-target word pairs in
succession. The ability of the participants to recognize and recall the target words from each list was
examined. In the absence of list cues in all lists, the findings demonstrated that list-cued recall was
superior than target word recognition. This shows that the respondents' familiarity with the task
guidelines is not a factor in the recognition failure of recallable words. The authors came to the
conclusion that their findings do not support theories that link encoding specificity phenomena to
different causes of misunderstanding in the procedure and method utilized in earlier experiments. In
conclusion, Wiseman and Tulving's research contradicts the confusion hypothesis of encoding
specificity by demonstrating that recognition failure is unrelated to task familiarity. (Wiseman &
Tulving, 1975)

Encoding Specificity Manipulations Do Affect Retrieval From Memory

 “Encoding specificity manipulations do affect retrieval from memory” is a research paper by
Rene Zeelenberg which was published in 2005. The article examines various experiments on memory
recall and the encoding specificity principle, as well as their methodology and findings. Participants
were required to complete word stems and recall target words depending on cues in the research. The
study examines how several conditions related to study, including statement context and pre-
experimental associations, affect memory performance. The findings imply that recall ability may be
impacted by the consistency of study setting and cues. The article sheds light on how encoding
specificity affects memory recall. (Zeelenberg, 2005)

Picture superiority effect

The picture superiority effect is an effect that people prefer to remember information more
readily when it is presented in the form of images or visuals as opposed to when it is just presented
through text or verbal communication. Numerous empirical studies have shown that people typically
remember images more accurately than words. The underlying theory behind this phenomena, also
known as the picture superiority effect, is still up for debate. There are a number of hypotheses that
provide persuasive explanations for why pictures are more likely to be remembered than words,
images, or other visuals, as opposed to when information is delivered simply through text or words.
One such theory is Paivio’s Dual Coding Hypothesis.

The dual coding theory

According to the Dual Coding theory, which Allan Paivio put forth in 1971, the mind processes
information using two different pathways: one involves words, and the other involves pictures.
According to Paivio, the picture superiority effect facilitates learning by helping people form mental
images of the subject. According to this hypothesis, words are associated with sensory imagery
(visuals) to represent information. The human mind separates the processing of verbal and visual
information into different channels, yielding unique representations for each channel. Incoming
information is organized using these mental models so that it can be later stored, accessed, and used to
take action. Visual and verbal codes can both be used to help people remember information.

Serial positioning effect

The serial-position effect refers to the tendency for people to recall the first and last things in a
sequence more precisely while recalling the midway items less successfully. This phenomena was
named by Hermann Ebbinghaus and was inspired by research he did on himself. It shows that a list’s
item’s position affects how accurately it can be recalled. People typically start toward the end of a list
when asked to recall it in any order, demonstrating the “recency effect.” The “primacy effect” describes
how the first few items at the beginning are easier to remember than those in the middle.

Primacy effect
 The primacy effect, put simply, is the capacity to remember information offered at the
beginning of a list better than material presented in the middle or at the end. The tendency to recall and
connect memory storage systems is suggested to be connected to this cognitive bias.

Recency effect

The ability for people to more readily recall items that are given last in a list is known as the
recency effect. This is most likely due to the recency effect, where the most recent items are still
retained in your short-term memory.

Signal detection theory

Gustav Fechner developed the signal detection theory in 1860 (Fechner, 1860). The signal
detection concept was used in two psychophysics in 1966. According to the principle of signal
detection, signals can be found by using the senses. In order to test the signal detection theory,
observers are exposed to signals. The initial study was designed to determine a threshold (minimum
value) for human responsiveness to stimuli. It is now being tested to evaluate how observers respond to
messages rather than establishing a threshold. The threshold experiment showed that there was no
universal understanding among observers as to how to create values that would act as a threshold for
human observers. The study did demonstrate how viewers interpret the signals, though. Observers
frequently interpret signals as being weak or unfocused, respectively. Since one must decide whether to
act on the signal or not, the decision-making process is the cornerstone of signal detection theory. Hit,
miss, false alarm and correct rejection are the various components of the signal detection theory.
A “hit” occurs when an observer is exposed to a stimulus and subsequently recognizes it. Since
the stimulus was present and perceived by the observer, the test result is a hit.
The observer is not aware of the stimulus until Miss offers it to them. Miss is seen as a subpar
outcome and implies that the testing procedure was insufficient.A miss happens when the stimulus is
present but the observer does not pick it up.
False alarm refers to when the stimulus may not be present, but the observer still thinks they
have seen one.
Accurate rejection occurs when an observer does not receive a stimulus and does not recognize
one. Given that there was no stimulation or signal for the observer to pick up on, this test result is
favorable.
METHODOLOGY

Title: To investigate the effect of cueing during encoding and retrieval on memory.

Hypothesis 1: Cueing during both encoding and retrieval facilitates memory i.e., Mean recall scores of
Ps who are cued both during encoding and retrieval phase is higher than the mean recall scores of the
Ps who are cued only during the encoding phase.

Hypothesis 2: The mean hit rate for the cued condition would be higher as compared to the non-cued
condition

Design: Single factor Independent group design. The experiment has 1 independent variable with two
levels, the two levels are randomized between two groups.

Operational definition of variables:

Independent variable: Cues presented on the learning trials.

Level 1- learning cues presented only during encoding phase.
Level 2- learning cues presented both during encoding and retrieval phase. Cue words are the words
(e.g., table) that would be presented above the target words (e.g, CHAIR) that are of high implicit
associative value with the target word. Target words are the words that are to-be -remembered (TBR)
by the P for the recall.

Dependent Variable: Number of words recalled by the P in any order (Free recall).

Control Variables:

1. Each card will have a pair of cue and target words presented one below the other
2. The cue words have strong association with the target words
3. Each card will be presented for 3 seconds
4. All target words are of the same length i.e., are four-lettered words
5. Different lists (with same 20 words) are used by different Es, each word appearing in different
ordinal positions across the lists
6. All cue words are presented in lower case
7. All target words are presented in upper case
8. Ps are asked to give an immediate recall.
9. The input cue words on the recall sheet (given to EG) were presented in random order
10.Recall time was 3 minutes
11. Recognition time was 5 minutes

Apparatus:
1. A set of 20 cue-target words pairs
2. A demo card with a pair of cue and target words not shown in the original experiment
3. Recall sheets, with and without cue words
4. Metronome
5. Stationery
6. Screen
7. Stop watch
8. Recognition Sheets

Procedure:
E arranges all the required materials and P is brought inside the laboratory. P is made to sit
comfortably, rapport is established, and following instructions are given,
“This is a simple expt. on learning. You will be shown a series of cards, one card at a time, over the
screen. On each card 2 words will appear, one capitalized and the other in lower case, one below the
other ( E demonstrates with the pair king-QUEEN written one below the other). Your task is to
memorize the capitalized words that you would see on the card. The word presented in lower case
however would be related to the capitalized words and will help you remember the capitalized word.
Have you understood? Can you quickly summarize it for me?”

Recall
EG:- You will now be given a sheet of paper. The sheet will have the input cue words written one below
the other. Your task is to write down as many target words (capitalized words) you remember besides
the cue words or the lower case words that were shown to you earlier in the expt. You will be given 3
mins. for this task
CG:- You will now be given a sheet of paper. Your task will be to write down as many capitalized
words that you had seen earlier in the expt. The order is not important. You will be given 3 mins. for
this task.
“Have you understood? Shall we begin?”

Recognition
Now in this phase of the experiment, I will give you a sheet of paper. It has the capitalized words that
you had seen earlier in this experiment, and some new words. Your task is to circle the words that were
shown to you in capital letters. You will be given 5 mins. For this task. Have you understood? Shall we
begin?
Data Discussion

The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effect of cueing during encoding and retrieval
on memory.
On conduction, we observed that the mean recall scores for the experimental group that is the
cued condition were better than the mean recall scores of the control group that is the non-cued
condition. (refer to table 2 – appendix). Similar findings were observed for recognition - The mean
recognition score for the experimental group that is the cued condition were better than the mean
recognition scores of the control group that is the non-cued condition. (refer to table 2 – appendix)
In order to validate the results and check whether our hypothesis can be retained or not, we will
conduct a t-test. This is because our experiment follows a random groups design and the data is on the
ratio scale so in order to check if the data is statistically significant, we perform a t test.
For performing a t-test it's necessary to compute the df - Degrees of Freedom. It represents the
number of independent pieces of data that can vary in a statistical analysis without being constrained.
The formula for the same is as follows:

df = Nx -1 + Ny – 1
df = 182

where,
N - no. of observations
x - data in the control group
y - data in the experimental group

The first hypothesis states that 'Cueing during both encoding and retrieval facilitates memory
i.e., Mean recall scores of Ps who are cued both during encoding and retrieval phase is higher than the
mean recall scores of the Ps who are cued only during the encoding phase.'
As we made the table for the same and plotted it in a graph (refer to graph 1: Recall -
appendix), where the x-axis represents the conditions and the y-axis represents the scores, we noted
that the bar representing the mean recall scores of the experimental group that is the cued condition was
higher as compared to the bar representing the mean recall scores of the control group that is the non-
cued condition. This is in line with what we had expected. These results can be backed up by a theory
given by Tulving and Thompson. It gives us the principle of Encoding Specificity which states that
memory will be enhanced when cues are presented in both the encoding and retrieval phase.
After computation of the t-test (refer to appendix), we get the value,
t = - 17.7
As per this result we can conclude that our data was significant at 0.001 level and the results are in line
with the hypothesis.
 The second hypothesis states that 'The mean hit rate for the cued condition would be higher as
compared to the non-cued condition.' As we made the table for the same and plotted it in a graph (refer
to graph 1: Recognition - appendix), where the x-axis represents the conditions and the y-axis
represents the scores, we noted that the bar representing the mean recognition scores of the
experimental group that is the cued condition was higher as compared to the bar representing the mean
recogition scores of the control group that is the non-cued condition. This is in line with what we had
expected. These results can be backed up by a theory given by Tulving and Thompson. It gives us the
principle of Encoding Specificity which implied that encoding target words semantically and
associating target words with words such as cue words will serve as effective retrieval cues.
After computation of the t-test (refer to appendix), we get the value,
t = - 8.46
As per this result we can conclude that our data was significant at 0.001 level and the results are in line
with the hypothesis.

Comparing the scores of both the groups, we can observe that on an average, recognition scores
are better as compared to the recall scores. This can be backed up by a theory given by Walter Kintsch.
He states that recall involves two stages - generation and identification, where generation refers to
obtaining the information from your memory and identification refers to pinpointing the required
stimulus. Recognition however involves only the identification stage. This makes recognition easier as
it involves only one step and so those scores would be higher in comparison to recall scores.

Through the individual participant scores for the experiment (refer to table 1 - appendix) it can
be seen the recognition scores were the same in both the conditions, but a considerable difference is
observed in the recall scores. This could be attributed to the fact that the recognition sheet was same for
both the conditions however recall sheets for the experimental group were cued making it easier to
recall. Apart from the Tulving and Thompson theory and the theory given by Kintsch we can explain
the scores using other theories based on the post task questions that were asked to the participants
(refer to appendix). The CP mentioned that before the experiment started, they were curious but as it
continued further, their fatigue took over and they felt too tired to be able to recollect anything.
Whereas the EP mentioned that their state of excitement was maintained throughout. This can be
associated with state dependent memory which states it is easier to recall if the individual’s
physiological and emotional state of mind is same during both encoding and retrieval phase. Another
observation was that when the CP was asked to recall the words, at one point she was trying very hard
to recollect it as if almost remembering it. Discussing about it in the debrief she mentioned that she
knew when the word was shown and the starting letter but could not recollect it completely. This can
be explained with the ‘tip of the tongue phenomenon.’ The EP mentioned that they tried to make
associations by using opposites or rhyming words but later realised all words didn’t follow that pattern
and started associating the capitalized and lowercase word by itself. This can be explained by ‘Paired
association learning’.

Limitations

Though a significant p has been found in the current experiment, certain confounding variables
may impact internal validity of the experiment. Some of the extraneous variables that may contaminate
the findings are as follows: CP being more attentive as compared to EP, CP used mnemonic techniques
(for example – narrative techniques), CP paying equal attention to cue and target words and developing
an expectation that cue words would be presented later for recall, CP rehearsing the words to
themselves, EP not paying adequate attention, EP understanding the association between the cue words
and target words and hence just making intelligent guesses of target words while trying to recall, EP
using certain mnemonic devices rather than using cues, the target words present in the environment,
gap between learning and recall phase, individual differences in terms of motivation, anxiety and
sustained interest in the experiment, participants feeling distracted because of the sound of metronome,
environmental distractions, etc. Apart from this maturation, instrumentation, biased selection of
subjects are also factors that would significantly impact the internal validity of the experiment.

Certain suggestions and modifications of this experiment are as follows:

1. The current experiment involved strongly associated intra list keywords. Further investigations could
have both strongly associated and weakly associated keywords.

2. The current experiment can be further investigated by adding the Time of recall as another
independent variable, its levels being immediate recall and delayed recall.

3. The current experiment involves cueing only during encoding phase I.e. intra list cues. Further
investigation could have both intra list and extra list cues.

4. The current experiment had more concrete words and less abstract words as word pairs. Replication
of this experiment can involve both abstract and concrete word pairs in equal numbers.

Practical Application

When participants of a research are exposed to similar situations before they are asked to
encode and retrieve information, memory is enhanced. For example, when a sports person at the time
of encoding has cycled, they would perform better at the memory task at hand if they cycled again
before retrieval. This can be supported by the research conducted by Danielle Yanes (Yanes et al.,
2019b) who studied if encoding specificity is applicable in the exercise domain as well. They
administered a memory task to participants and exposed them to one of the four combinations of
conditions at encoding phase and retrieval phase respectively: exercise-exercise, exercise-rest, rest-
exercise, rest-rest. Needless to say, they observed that the memory was enhanced when matching
conditions were presented that is either exercise-exercise or rest-rest.

When asked for a practical application from the participants in my experiment, the EG came up
with the example of how during the memory game one remembers the words using the face of the
person as a cue and can recollect it better in the next round when they see the persons’ face.
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EXPERIMENT 3
PICTURE WORD
INTERFERENCE
Attention and Stroop effect
Attention is a cognitive process which can be defined as the means by which we actively
process a limited amount of information from the extensive amount of information available through
our senses, stored memories, and other cognitive processes (Rao, 2003; as cited in Sternberg &
Sternberg, 2012, pp.137). There are different processes under attention like selective-attention and
divided-attention. Selective attention is when people pay more attention to specific kinds of
information while ignoring other occuring information (Gazzaniga, 2009; as cited in Matlin, 2013),
while divided attention is when people try to pay attention to two or more simultaneous messages and
responding to each message appropriately (Matlin, 2013). According to the attention capacity
paradigm, attention is constrained. Therefore, the more we split it, the less attention is left over for
other things. The limited-capacity model of attention was created to explain the focused and selective
aspects of attention (Kahneman 1973). This paradigm states that an individual can only pay attention to
a specific volume of information at any given time (Kahneman, 1973).

The Stroop Interference Effect

There are different kinds of tasks that fall under selective attention, the Stroop effect named
after James R. Stroop, is one of them. According to the Stroop effect, people take more time to name
the ink colour when the same colour is used in printing an incongruent word, in contrast people can
name the same ink colour quicker when it is presented as a solid patch of colour (Matlin, 2013). The
Stroop effect is said to be a selective-attention task because the participants are asked to selectively
attend to only one dimension which is the colour, while ignoring the other dimension which is the
meaning of the word. People tend to get distracted by another feature of the stimulus which is why they
take longer to name the colour (Styles, 2006; as cited in Matlin, 2013). Before Stroop, there was
another researcher named Cattell (1886; as cited in MacLeod, 1991) who reported that saying “red” to
a patch of colour was slower than saying “red” to the word red.

Stroop had made use of a compound stimulus i.e., where the word was incongruent with the ink
colour (MacLeod, 1991). Stroop had conducted three classic experiments, experiment 1 examined the
effect of incompatible ink colours on reading words. Stroop used five words in their matching ink
colours (red, blue, green, brown, and purple). There were two groups experimental and control, where
experimental condition was presented with words in the four ink colours and control condition was
presented with all the words but in black colour. The findings of this experiment showed that even
though the subjects averaged 2.3s longer to read the 100 words on the experimental cards, this 5.6%
was not that significant (MacLeod, 1991).
 In experiment 2, Stroop switched the task and examined the effect of incompatible ink words on
naming the colours aloud. Here the experimental condition was presented with the same cards as
experiment 1, but the control condition had solid colour squares in the same order of ink colours from
experiment 1. The results of this experiment suggested that subjects averaged 47s longer to name
incongruent ink colours of incongruent words than solid colour squares and this 74% increase was
described as “marked interference effect” by Stroop (MacLeod, 1991).

In his last experiment, Stroop examined the effect of practice on incompatible colour word
naming and word reading. In this experiment, participants named colours for eight days and colour
naming time was found to decrease over days by 16.8s, which means that with practice interference
from incompatible words decreased. Since ink colour naming baselines were not recorded daily, there
could be practice effects here. In this experiment Stroop also examined the impact of colour naming
practice on interference in word reading, they compared pre-test and post-test was done for the same. It
was found that intervening practice caused interference into word reading from 19.4s (pre-test) to 34.8s
(post-test), which was found to disappear in a second post-test (22.0s). This is called the reverse Stroop
effect (MacLeod, 1991).

Variations of the Stroop Experiment

The other various variations of the stroop procedure include individual stimulus, sorting and
matching, PWI and the auditory analogs. The individual stimulus version of the stroop task included
presentation and timing of individual stimuli and it is advantageous since the standard colour-word task
has list structure effects in addition to item-specific interference. Kamath and Egeth (1969) embossed
color words in white letters on colored plastic tapes and asked their subjects to name the tape’s color.
Dyer (1973) also separated the word and the color, placing them on each side of the fixation point or up
and down to study laterality and stimulus integrality effects. Both experiments found that lack of
integrated stimuli resulted in reduced RT but interference was still present. In sorting and matching
rather than naming stimuli participants are asked to categorize them; however findings have suggested
that sorting task might not be too analogous with the stroop task but it is necessary in helping to
compare results from the other procedures.
Hammers (1973) came up with the auditory stroop task where in her compatible or congruent
conditions the participants were supposed to say “low” to the word low presented at low pitch (110 Hz)
and “high” to the word high presented at a high pitch (115 Hz). In the incongruent or the incompatible
situation the word at 110 Hz was “high” and the word at 175 Hz was “low”. She reported strong
interference based only on the monolingual condition; the incompatible condition took 138 ms longer
than the compatible condition. However, there was a lack of a neutral condition and without neutral
conditions all that can be examined is the difference between congruent and incongruent, the
interference and the difference between them that too in unknown amounts. Mclain extended Hamer's
experiment by contrasting time to identify the pitch with time to identify the word using three response
modes which were verbal, button pressed or pitched hum. It was seen that interference only occurred
when the to-be-reported dimension and the reporting mode differed (pitch-verbal, pitch-button, word-
hum) but it didn't occur when the conditions were compatible (word-verbal, word-button, pitch-hum).
In additional variations, interference is minimised when the distractor word and the to-be-
named colour are presented separately. Response time increased but interference did not as the set size
was raised. Interference was increased when the irrelevant word on trial n had an acoustical similarity
to the colour of the ink on trial n + 1, and it was decreased when the irrelevant word's colour was the
same as the ink on trial n + 1. When the word on trial n matched the colour of the ink on trial n + 1,
interference was more pronounced. When transitioning from an oral to a manual response mode, the
interference is decreased. Poor readers showed the opposite pattern, naming colours faster than they
could read words. The impression was unaffected by separate displays of the word and colour to the
left and right. The effect does not appear to be affected by the vertical placement of words, though it
might be diminished. (MacLeod, 1991)

Picture Word Interference Task

One of the most prominent variations of the stroop tasks is the picture word interference effect.
Figure-word interference initially appeared in 1973 according to Hentschel. He introduced the figure-
word interference exam in addition to the picture-word assignment. In this, irregular words have
geometrical borders around them, like a square around a circle. Geometric shapes were also used to
surround congruent words, such as a triangle enclosing the word triangle. It was shown that more so
than the presence of congruent keywords, the presence of incongruent phrases made it difficult to name
the shape. Interference grew when words were inconsistent, and it shrank when they were consistent.
In 1886, Cattel emphasized that the process of naming pictures is slower than reading the
corresponding word. The Picture-Word Interference (PWI) effect is a phenomenon where word reading
interferes with picture naming as word reading is a more automatic process as compared to picture
naming. Unlike the Stroop task, the PWI experiment measures this interference in the form of number
of errors and response time in the same picture-word condition i.e. the congruent and different picture-
word condition i.e. the incongruent condition. This was further elaborated by Rosinski, Golinkoff, and
Kukish (1975) where demonstrated that incongruent words printed inside pictures interfered with
picture naming, but that incongruent pictures had only small effects on word reading. Rosinski also
showed that PWI is unaffected by reading-comprehension capabilities and that the level of similarity
between word and the picture decides the level of interference i.e. same-category words interfered more
with picture naming than did unrelated words.
Unlike the Stroop Task, PWI incorporates a non-integrated stimulus and an individual stimulus
that version given by Lassen. The Picture Word Interference effect gives greater flexibility by
providing larger manipulation opportunities than the Stroop Task that is restricted only to a set of
colors. PWI also offers various semantic manipulations that are not possible in the Stroop Task. Words
that are associated with the picture do not cause much interference than the words that not associated
with the picture but are of the same semantic category (for eg. Chair word written on a picture of table).
Additionally, Ehri (1977) PWI can also be manipulated with respect to the non-sematic relations of
picture-word conditions which in form of meaningfulness and syntactic formation of the word also
affect the level of interference as it plays a role in linking the word and picture. Semantic manipulation
of PWI showed high levels of interference than variations centered on the phonemic, graphemic, or
orthographic characteristics of words. A non-semantic effect, for example, can be seen in Rayner and
Posnansky (1978). They found that non-words that resembled words graphemically helped people
name pictures corresponding to those terms when presented very briefly. The facilitation gradually
evolved into interference, although it never reached the extreme levels of interference as it did for
dissimilar non-words. Moreover, they observed that phonemically related non-words (e.g., leaf for lefe)
resulted in greater facilitation with exposure duration, contrary to the graphemic effect.
The Stroop interference paradigm was adapted in three experiments by Lassen (1947) to study
picture-word processing. In Experiment 1, word pairings and outline drawing was used as an extension
of the Stroop interference paradigm. The independent variables were congruency of the relevant and
irrelevant stimuli and relevant response - picture naming or word reading. Hence, if the task is to name
a picture, then the word is irrelevant stimuli and vice versa. The five subjects went through 100 practice
trials a day for four days before the experiment. The stimuli consisted of five printed words and their
corresponding linedrawings (bird, drum, kite, nail, and tree), which were chosen based on their
frequency, familiarity, and consistency of pronunciation. The word and picture were either above or
below the fixation point. The foot pedal was used to present the stimulus to the participants and the
verbal response in the printer-timers was accounted for. The results of the experiment resulted in
reading words being generally faster than that of naming pictures, but the difference was not
significant, as proven by Stroop (1938) and Cattel (1947) and incongruent words interfered
significantly when the task was picture naming as compared to when an incongruent picture did with
word reading.
However, experiment 2 investigates the effect of asynchronous stimulus onset with respect to
the stimulus to be named, that is pictures and words. The method is similar to experiment 1, however,
there are eight participants, and to examine the effects of interference for words and pictures, the
pictures are placed right on the fixation point, so they cannot be avoided, and the words are either
above or below the fixation point so subjects cannot establish a strategy to avoid irrelevant stimuli. A
control trial was done in this experiment, where a relevant stimulus preceded by blank screen to ensure
that the effects of interference were seen. In addition to the two independent variables in experiment 1,
there is also onset of irrelevant stimuli which is presented at either 100msc or 50msc preexposure,
simultaneously, 100msc or 50msc postexposure. The sequence of the incongruent-congruent and the
onset of irrelevant stimuli was randomised with each subject. Maximum interference of picture naming
was found when incongruent words were presented 100msc prior to the picture, words enter the
logogen system easily and are available for output. Incongruent pictures interfered with word reading
across all exposure conditions.
The Stroop experiment was extended to a manual same-different reaction time task by
Dyer(1973) in experiment 3. Subjects received either blocks of all pictures or all words as target items
or random order of blocks consisting of half pictures and half words as target items. Subjects went
through 100 trials each day, 2 days of blocked presentations and 2 days of mixed trials.There were five
types of congruency stimulus; the target stimulus was either a picture or a word. The first three require
the same judgement while the rest had a different judgment. Double congruence is when both the target
and the stroop pair are the same, picture and word congruent condition is met when the one of the two
groups is the same as the target stimulus and the other group of the test is different from the target
stimulus. While, congruent difference existed when stroop was the same and the target was different
and lastly, incongruent different when the stroop pair and the target is different.
Results indicated that fastest response time was seen in double congruence, followed by picture
congruence and word congruency. Picture naming was found to be easier than word test matching ,
even when the target was word. This data is contrary to the word code presented by Dyer in 1973when
colour, colour names and vocal response was used. This data however, favours Seymours (1970)
evidence of shape code. In exp1, words were found to be superior and cause an interference when the
task was picture naming and in exp3, picture seen as the favoured stimuli when a manual same-
different response is given. There was no significant effect due to target mode. Different responses
were slower than the same responses, the difference between the two different conditions was very
small.However, other studies have also been performed on the picture word interference task. The
individual-stimulus version of the Picture-Word Interference Task developed by Lassen is widely used
today.

Locus of Semantic Interference in Picture-Word Interference Task

The paper "Locus of Semantic Interference in Picture-Word Interference Tasks" addressed how
picture-word interference investigations often reveal that distractor words buried within a slow-picture
naming replies are semantically linked distractor words, as opposed to unrelated ones. However, only
words and not pictures were found to cause semantic interference. The article noted that the presence of
both words and pictures significantly interfered with naming answers. One of the most popular
methods for researching word retrieval during speech production is the PWI paradigm.
To determine whether PWI was exclusive to voice production, two experiments were run. In
their PWI experiment, Lisker and Katz used a manual yes/no response to pictures. And Schriefers in his
experiment carried out a control experiment in which a nonverbal semantic task was used in place of
the picture naming test. Both experiments showed that PWI is specific to speech production.
The target and the distractor sets were both photographs in the Bowers and Damain study,
which followed Glaser and Glaser's method of using non-verbal format of distractions for picture
naming tasks. The distractor picture was incorporated into the target picture to aid participants in
differentiating between target and distractions. Each image was also linked with an image from the
same semantic category in order to create target-distractor pairs that were semantically connected.
The experiment comprised of 4 experimental blocks with 4 SOAs each, 90 critical naming
responses, and 2 filler trials in between each block. Depending on the SOA were selected block, the
distractor word or picture was presented at various intervals before or after the picture began; also,
inside each block, each picture was also presented and identified once without a distractor (control
condition). By pronouncing the image label over a microphone, the participants gave the naming
response to the target image. The visual and the distractor stimuli disappeared from the screen as soon
as the voice key was pushed. The experimenter classified each name response as either correct or
incorrect afterward; incorrect replies included incorrect or insufficient responses, mouth clicks, and
defective equipment.
The experiment's findings showed that while targets and distractions had no effect on response
time, interference was caused by distractions that were semantically related to the target word rather
than irrelevant. Additional research results indicated that semantic interference can only be produced
by distractors that are encoded verbally; as a result, the semantic interference effect associated with
word distractors is likely lexical. The current research confirmed the widely held basic assumption that
the underlying problem is lexical and not only conceptual. (Damian & Bowers, 2003)

Joint Interference Effect in Picture Naming

The paper named "Joint Interference Effect in Picture Naming" described two studies that
provided evidence for a joint interference effect in picture naming. Joint interference effects in verbal
replies have only seldom been studied, and none of those studies has looked at them in manual tasks. A
participant might name the image of an apple, for instance, and her partner might respond with the
same word, "apple," or they might both respond with something different, like "blouse," or something
similar, like "banana." Numerous picture-word interference studies have shown how crucial these
different levels of congruency are in solo activities.
Instead of picture-word pairs, participants in this study viewed picture pairs. Participants were
given a task that was subject to semantic interference effects: they had to name both of the pictures in a
pair. In Experiment 1, a red and a blue image were shown simultaneously to two people sitting in
separate rooms. A screen with instructions that included the names of the two participants and the
words "red," "blue," or "no" appeared before the photographs. They were told that red and blue stand
for the go trails and to name the picture that was displayed in the colour first before naming the other
picture. No was employed for trials that had no chance of success and instructed participants to be
quiet.
The semantic categorization (CAT) task was utilised in Experiment 2 in place of the no-go
trials. Every aspect of the SAME and DIFF conditions matched Experiment 1 exactly. In the CAT
condition, partners were asked to decide whether the two images belonged to the same semantic
category or to different semantic categories. They responded into the microphone with a yes or no. The
results of experiment 1 showed that perceptions of another person's task can affect how quickly people
respond to requests for picture names. The evidence does not support the co-representation account of
combined task effects.
Participants committed more errors when their partner's response was inconsistent than when it
was consistent, however this pattern was not supported by the latency data. Despite a clear semantic
interference effect that confirmed prior findings, the effect was not larger in the incongruent condition
than in the congruent one. The agent-conflict hypothesis is supported by these data because participants
held off on responding when they believed their partner was about to respond. This is consistent with
the hypothesis that people use a mechanism they employ as they arrange their own statements to reflect
the utterances of others. (Gambi et al., 2013)

Graphemic and semantic similarity effects in the picture word interference task
The paper "Graphemic and semantic similarity effects in the picture word interference task"
reports the results of two experiments. Eight adult participants in the first experiment took part in it and
received payment as well. The Modern Curriculum Phonics Workbook provided ten black-and-white
line drawings. Each drawing included a label with three, four, or five letters that contained a common
word. In experiment 2, the print might come before, at the same time as, or after the picture was
presented. 12 people received payment to take part in this study. Like in Experiment 1, line drawings
were provided. Drawings were white on black in order to enable the superimposition of print and
pictures when the print and pictures had different onset periods. The outcomes of the tests described
here are generally in line with those of several earlier investigations into the picture-word interference
task. It was discovered that there was more interference in picture naming when the superimposed print
belonged to the same category as the picture than when it did not. The outcomes of both studies clearly
showed that if the graphemic properties of the picture label are preserved, the category interference
effect can be drastically decreased. (Rayner & Springer, 1986)

Theoretical Explanations
Based on the variations talked about, it is also important to understand why Stroop effect takes
place and there are various theories that provide explanations for Stroop effect in general such as
Automaticity, Relative speed of processing and perceptual encoding.

Automaticity theory
 The theory of Automaticity is given by Posner and Snyder(1975) and they state that automatic
processes are unintentional, they are outside our conscious awareness and they consume few resources .
Whereas Conscious processing is intentional, open to our awareness and consumes a lot of resources
.Processing of one dimension requires much more attention than the processing of other dimension
does.Therefore naming the ink colours requires more attention than reading the irrelevant words. There
are two dimensions: one is word reading(automatic) and the other is colour naming(conscious) . We
have a history of word reading, and so reading words is seen as obligatory . This is a gradient that
developed with learning. Here, A more automatic process interferes with a less automatic process that
means word reading interferes with color naming. Also, when Automaticity interferes with Conscious
processing, a disambiguous stage (less confusing stage)is needed so as to make the task clear(what has
to be done).Since this dis ambiguous stages comes later in the experiment, the theory of Automaticity
is also known as the latte selection theory.

Relative speed of processing theory

The theory of relative speed of processing states that words are read faster than colours are
named.( Cattell, 1886; Fraisse, 1969,as cited in MacLeod,2015) That is word reading is faster as
compared to colour naming. The difference between the speed becomes important when two potential
responses , one from an ink colour and one from a word complete to be the response produced. This
theory contains three assumptions. Firstly, A Parallel processing of the two dimensions (word naming
and the ink colour) is assumed at differential speeds.Secondly,there is a limited capacity response
channel into which only one response out of the two potential response can be made at a time-based on
the speed .In order words, since only one response is to be made, and the 2 processes (word reading and
picture naming) are parallel, so when they reach the output stage there is a conflict between the two and
the time cost of this competition is called Interference. Thirdly, there is a potential for priming of all
possible responses from different sources which includes the preceding trails and the other response set
elements.

Perceptual Encoding theory

Another theory of Perceptual encoding which is also called an early selection theory, as
selection of stimulus for processing occurs earlier than the identification of the stimulus is given by
Hock and Egeth(1970). They suggested that words that are colour related are recognized earlier and so
more likely to distract from encoding ink color. In relation to the Stroop effect, the Perceptual encoding
theory of information for ink colour is slowed down by the incompatible information from a colored
word as opposed to neutral word. With respect to MacLeod’s experiment, during the encoding there are
two processes going on .one is colour naming and the other is word reading. Thus, the patch of any
colour will interfere because our mind produces incompatible information. For e.g. The patch of red
colour can produce words such as blood which then interferes while giving the response. While for the
word reading, no extra incompatible information is present. Therefore, it takes more time when an
incompatible information is present.

Logogen Model
The Logogen Model for Reading, Naming and Comparison was given by Seymour in 1973.
According to Seymour’s model, pictorial analysis takes more time than word analysis when the output
is vocal in nature. In Seymour's model, after being graphically analyzed, word input is sent directly to
an exit node, which makes it available for vocal output. To reach this node, picture input must first be
pictorially analyzed, then proceed to the pictorial exit node, and finally be interpreted by semantic
memory before reaching the vocal exit node. This increased number of processing stages for visual
information is proposed to explain why naming is slower than reading.
Simply put, word input occupies the voice output node faster than picture input, resulting in
faster production. Pre-exposing the word ensures that an incongruent word enters the logogen vocal
system before the picture. This would result in maximum interference with the subsequent naming of a
picture. Words post exposure had little effect, which is consistent with this assumption. In contrast, no
such significant interference occurs when the task of word reading is preceded by an incongruent
image. The slower durations for incongruent pairings in this task are consistent across all stimulus
onset conditions, implying interference caused by different initial processing of pictures and words.
In short, words produce the greatest amount of interference since they can enter the "logogen"
system and compete with alternative processing. This appears to be a sufficient explanation for The
Stroop interference effect. Apparently, pictures aren't always encoded in a way that fits into this
"logogen" scheme. However, if the task is to name pictures, they do occupy this system, albeit at a
slower rate than words. Using Seymour's (1973) "logogen" terminology, encoded versions of
incongruent words are easily incremented in "logogen" strength, competing for channel space with
slower pictures or colors. This, according to Seymour's model, is attributable to the fact that visual
information must go through additional processing stages before reaching the "logogen" vocal output
node. If the output is manual rather than vocal, pictorially coded data may benefit from more direct
incrementation in the associated pictorial "logogen" output node. This is based on the idea that the
pictorial "logogen" system mediates manual same-different matches more effectively than the vocal
output system, which predicts quicker manual RT using pictorial coding.
In conclusion, when the output is vocal, words have the ability to cause significant interference
with processing in another mode. A functional system, such as the proposed vocal "logogen" output
stage, could be the source of their interference. Similarly, in a manual task, pictures are the more
effective stimuli.

The Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model

 The Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model, with a prominent version proposed by Cohen,
Dunbar, and McClelland in 1990, has emerged as a groundbreaking development in cognitive
psychology. This model represents a significant departure from traditional cognitive processing
theories and offers a sophisticated framework for understanding various cognitive phenomena,
particularly the Stroop effect. At its core, the PDP model adopts a parallel distributed processing
framework, which fundamentally alters how cognitive processing is conceptualized. Unlike earlier
models that primarily focused on the speed of information transmission, the PDP model places a
central emphasis on the strength of connections between processing units. This shift in perspective is
critical to comprehending the intricacies of cognitive processing. One of the central innovations of the
PDP model is its concept of an automaticity gradient. In contrast to previous theories that often-
presented automaticity as an all-or-nothing phenomenon, the PDP model introduces the idea that the
degree of automaticity in cognitive processing varies based on the strength of connections within the
processing network. This nuanced view of automaticity allows for a more nuanced explanation of a
wide range of cognitive phenomena.

The PDP model is structured around interconnected modules, each containing multiple
processing units. These modules work collaboratively to perform various cognitive tasks. Information
is represented as patterns of activation across these units, and learning occurs through adjustments to
connection strengths. These adjustments aim to minimize discrepancies between desired responses and
actual outcomes, aligning with certain aspects of research on automaticity.

Attention is a crucial element within the PDP model, but it is not granted any special status.
Instead, attention is treated as just another source of information that modulates the operation of
processing units within a specific pathway. This perspective integrates attention into the broader
framework of cognitive processing, emphasizing its role in shaping cognitive outcomes. A noteworthy
component of the PDP model is its response mechanism. This mechanism determines when a response
is generated based on the activation of output units. The choice of pathway and the strength of
connections within it significantly influence the speed and accuracy of responses.

Cohen et al. (1990) conducted simulations using the PDP model, demonstrating its capacity to
replicate a diverse range of empirical findings. These findings include interference, facilitation, practice
effects, and other cognitive phenomena observed in various tasks. The successful replication of these
patterns underscores the model's explanatory power and its ability to account for complex cognitive
behaviors. (Cohen et al., 1990)

Variables that influence performance on the Stroop/PWI task

Age related changes PWI performance

 A study by (Rosinski, 1975) reported two experiments that measured the latency of picture
word interference tasks to evaluate semantic processing. Experiment 1 evaluates the degree to which
the meaning and content of words and photographs are automatically recorded. The picture word
interference task was used. Subjects needed to label the photo or read the word when the photo was
overlaid with the word. If the meanings of the derived elements were automatically collected, and the
photo and word meanings did not match, the task would have taken longer to perform. The subjects of
the first experiment were 24 second graders, 24 sixth graders, and 24 adult college volunteers. The
word was applied to the picture in each cell under three matches. 100%, each word matched his
drawing. 50% where only half of the words match the drawing and 0% where the words and pictures
do not match. Prior to experimental conditions, subjects exercised with a suitable heating pad. They
were asked to ignore the words and name only the photos. The presence of inconsistent words and
pictures significantly increased the time required to complete a task. These results suggest that some
processing distractions occurred at all age levels. In addition, the amount of interference between the
two tasks was not equal. Picture labelling in the absence of a word to-picture match was more difficult
than reading the word in all age groups.
Experiment 2 was conducted to determine if picture-word interference is semantically based by
manipulating the semantic content of the distractor words. Based on the experiment twelve second
graders, twelve sixth graders, and twelve adult college students were evaluated. The experiment had
three conditions, from 100% and 0% congruence, and one with the CVC's prominent nonsense-related
trigrams were paired with corresponding to them while in our experiment we included only two
conditions and words were not semantically associated to the pictures. The CVC trigram was chosen so
that they rhyme with real words. The word and trigram warm up conditions were given to all subjects
in a counterbalanced order. Children were evaluated one day after administration of these warm-up
conditions and adults were evaluated one hour later. In the test, subjects first received a picture warm-
up sheet and then presented the three experimental conditions in a corrected order. Participants were
asked to name the picture and ignore words same as the experiment 1. The errors and latencies were
also recorded. Results show that words provide more interference than pictures and more meaningful
words than meaningless/nonsense syllables. Therefore, these results indicate that the occurrence of
picture word interference reflects the operation of two processes: seemingly stable semantic access and
increasingly efficient stimulus.

Role of Social context in Stroop effect

The paper titled “A brief review of three manipulations of the Stroop task focusing on
the automaticity of semantic access” investigated the notion of how semantic access is seen to be a
automatic process. The Stroop task is a well-known task to study automatic behavior. The original
stroop task conflict consisted of the incongruent condition where two concepts are simultaneously
activated in the memory, the meaning of the word (e.g. red) and the color of the ink used (e.g. green)
Thus, to investigate whether the semantic access is automatic, three manipulations were done in the
stroop task.
The first manipulation was done by Besner et al, 1997, by coloring differently a single letter in
the word. The researchers used the classical stroop effect where they introduced a new condition of
naming the color of single letter which was colored differently from the word. the position of the
differently colored letter was random. And two conditions were used which were single letter coloring
condition and all letter coloring condition. They had hypothesized that the stroop effect would be
reduced or removed in the single letter condition as compared to the all-letter condition. This was
hypothesized on the reason that single letter condition would block semantic access.
The results confirmed the hypothesis as the difference in response time among the congruent
and incongruent words were higher in the all-letter condition as compared to the single letter condition.
the results showed a reduction in stroop interference effect in single letter condition. The reduction was
observed as the semantic access to meaning of word was inhibited when a letter was colored differently
from the other letters in the word.
The second manipulation by Huguet et al investigated the effect of presence of others on stroop
interference effect. The researchers in this experiment used the stroop task in two conditions which
were in the presence of someone or absence of someone in the room. In the presence of someone in
room condition, the researchers used the presence of co-actor, or induced the feeling of someone’s
presence. The results of the experiment showed a reduction in stroop interference effect in the presence
of someone condition compared to when the participant performed the task alone in the room.
Another experiment conducted by Huguet et al in 2010, investigated the effect of feeling of
being watched on stroop effect than by having presence of someone in the room. In this experiment, the
participants performed the stroop task, were in a picture of eyes were positioned above them which was
either closed or opened eyes. In the open eye condition, the pictures of eyes either looked at the
participant or looked away. The results showed reduction in the stroop effect when the eyes directly
looked at the participants. All the studies showed reduction in stroop effect in presence of others.
The third manipulation by Raz et al conducted an experiment investigate the stroop effect on
participants susceptible to hypnosis. In the experiment, the participants who were hypnotized were
instructed that the word they would see on screen would not be a word and only an item which held no
significance.
The results showed that the stroop effect reduced for participants who under hypnosis.
However, this reduction was not observed in participants who were not susceptible to hypnosis. Hence,
the general results indicated that a reduction in stroop effect was observed in all the three
manipulations. (Flaudias & Llorca, 2014)

Working memory and its relation to Stroop task

 The purpose of their research was to study the interaction between working memory capacity
and the stroop task. For their experiment, they used a mixed-trial stroop task where they either had 0%
of congruent trials or 75% congruent trials. The participants of the experiment were screened for WM
capacity with the help of the OSPAN task. The results of their first experiment revealed that in the 0%
congruency conditions, there was no WM relation both in terms of response time and error
interference. In the 75% congruency condition it was found that low WM participants demonstrated
larger response times and greater error interference. The second experiment in this study was similar to
the first, except the participants were given feedback on their performance. Similar to the first
experiment, the low WM participants demonstrated larger response times and greater error interference
despite the fact that they were given feedback about their responses after every trial. (Kane & Engle,
2003)

Uses of Stroop Task

Numerical Stroop Task:
The numerical Stroop task was created by Henik and Tzelgov in 1982. Participants are
instructed toh compare two digits' physical dimensions or numerical values while disregarding the
irrelevant dimension (i.e., physical task or numerical task) Facilitation and interference effects suggest
that participants will not be able to ignore the irrelevant component. For this task, three conditions
based on congruency, they are- congruent (the physical size and numbers are the same. If a number is
bigger than the other, it appears bigger), incongruent- (the physical size and the number are not
congruent. If a number is bigger, it is shown as physically bigger) and neutral. In a neutral task, one
component fluctuates while the other remains constant. For the physical task, the numeric value
remains constant whereas for the numeric task, the physical value remains constant.
It is said that, as compared to the variation of colour and word of the Stroop task, the number
variation is complex. This is because there is a comparison between the two stimuli. Also in the colour-
word Stroop task, only one process is automatic, whereas in numerical task, both the processes are
automatic. Each stimulus, thus, leads to a potential conflict. It is observed that the reaction time was
quicker for one-digit numbers that were presented in a large font size. However, there is a lack of
research for the adjustment of control in numbers. (Dadon and Henik, 2017)
Emotional Stroop Task:
Adapted from the original Stroop task, this focuses on how there are longer latencies in naming
particular words that are emotion-related as compared to the neutral ones. ESE is also said to score low
on validity. Habituation being one of the main threats to validity for ESE. However, there are a lot of
practical applications of ESE, especially in clinical or patient settings along with general populations.
Research suggests that there is an order that will produce ESE. In the Stroop task, there are either
congruent or incongruent colour words, in ESE there are emotion-words and neutral words. There is a
large body of research for ESE. The emotion-words include, words that are in general emotion-related
(for example- LOVE, SAD), concern relevant words (like, VICTIM, CANCER). Neutral words can
include BOX, TABLE, etc. Care should be taken to make sure that the neutral words and emotion-
words are orthographic neighbors. Also, experimenter should try to take the words that are on the high-
end of the emotionality scale. (Haim, 2016)

Recent Research
Since the original Stroop/PWI task, a lot of research has been done in different domains to
investigate these tasks further.

Do Adjectives and Functors Interfere as much as Nouns in Naming pictures?

The paper “Do Adjectives and Functors Interfere as much as Nouns in Naming pictures?”
looked at a study by Linnea C. Ehri looked into how different word types affected how quickly and
accurately youngsters named pictures. The impacts of nouns, adjectives, functors (such articles,
prepositions, and conjunctions), and nonsense syllables displayed on the images were compared by the
researcher. Two sets of 20 drawings of items and animals were utilised in the experiment. Moreover,
four different sorts of written units—nonsense words, nouns, adjectives, and functor words—were
employed. Students in sixth and seventh grades made up the participants.
The results showed that those with nouns took longer to label than those with adjectives and
factors. Validate the hypothesis that semantic-conceptual (meaningfulness) rather than phonological
misunderstanding (sound) underlies noun interference in picture naming. More time was spent by the
third graders than the seventh graders. Nouns with meaning produced more interference than functors
without meaning. Adjectives having the same conceptual categories as the names of the pictures are
less disruptive than nouns. The main finding was that nouns interfered with the visuals more often than
adjectives or functors, demonstrating that nouns had a closer semantic-conceptual relationship to the
visuals than other words. (Ehri, 1977)

Components of Stroop – Like interference in picture naming

Heij in 1988 wrote a paper titled “Components of Stroop – Like interference in picture naming”
which aimed to investigate the role of semantic interference in stroop effect. He conducted 2
experiments. In the first experiment two sets of distractor words were used which were either music or
tools related. Thus 4 conditions of distractors words consisted of distractor word is related to the target
word and in response set, the distractor word is unrelated to target word but in response set, the
distractor word is related to target word but not in response set, distractor word is unrelated to the target
word and is not present in the response set. Another two conditions introduced were that the distractor
word did not belong to music or tools related words category and was not present in response set. In the
control condition, instead of distractor word “xxxx” was shown to the participants with the target word.
Results showed that highest interference was observed in the first condition and the lowest
interference were seen in the condition where the distractor word did not belong to music or tools
related words category and was not present in response set and in the control condition. In one
experiment, when words and images from various categories were utilised, researchers discovered that
interference (confusion) brought on by words that were directly related to the task was more significant
than interference brought on by terms that were merely related to the task. This shows that when we're
dealing with items belonging to the same category, it's the proximity in meaning rather than merely the
similarity of the words that truly gets in the way.
In experiment 2, according to the "name retrieval hypothesis," the interference from words with
comparable meanings disappears when we have to do anything other than just say names, such as in
particular tasks. Additionally, the interference is lessened if the obtrusive word resembles or sounds a
lot like the one we should be saying. Therefore, this interference is caused by how we remember and
speak words, not only an issue with decision-making. In conclusion, this study questions the notion that
the difficulty arises when we make decisions and proposes that the main problem is in the way we
remember and utter words. This explains why matching words to pictures or doing tasks like the Stroop
test can occasionally cause us to become confused. (La Heij, 1988)

Reading versus naming: The effect of target set size on contextual interference and facilitation
In another paper titled “Reading versus naming: The effect of target set size on contextual
interference and facilitation” by Heij and Vermeij aimed to investigate the effect of target size in
reading and naming. They carried out two studies, one involving reading and the other naming. either a
word-word stroop task or a picture-word stroop task was used in the experiment. Target sizes ranged
from two to four to eight. The same subjects were exposed to various target sizes. Larger target set
sizes in the experiments resulted in longer response times. This rise in reaction time shows that
participants took longer to finish the tasks as the cognitive load or the number of objects to focus on
rose. The important thing to remember is that while response times grew with bigger target set sizes,
facilitation effects that is things that speed up cognitive processing rose while interference effects that
is things that slow it down or decline cognitive processing reduced. Participants responded more
slowly, but they dealt with interference more effectively and profited more from facilitation cues when
given bigger sets of objects to process. (La Heij & Vermeij, 1987)

Schizophrenia and Stroop

The paper titled “Schizophrenia and Stroop Effect” by Henik and Salo in 2004,
investigated the stroop effect in schizophrenia patients. Numerous studies have studied interference
components and hypothesised that, when compared to matched controls, interference components
would be higher in schizophrenia patients. This is not always the case, and a review of Stroop studies
on schizophrenia reveals that the various techniques have led to inconsistent outcomes. The task
formats used in each trial (cards and cards) appear to be different, and other methodological
modifications also seem to have an impact on the interference patterns in schizophrenia patients.
The first single-trial research on schizophrenia patients was conducted and released in 1969. In
this computerised single-trial version of The Stroop test, Peixotto and Rowe (1969) presented a single
Stroop stimulus on a computer screen, and the schizophrenic patients were directed to state the colour
of the ink into a microphone attached to the computer. The findings showed that while there was no
difference in response time interference between schizophrenia patients and healthy controls, there was
an increase in facilitation. Similar outcomes of Stroop response time interference have also been
documented in various Stroop priming studies.
Numerous studies have explicitly looked into how the two variations of the Stroop test affect
people with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Stroop interference utilising the card version did not
significantly vary in two separate studies with inpatients and outpatients. It was found that
schizophrenia patients actually showed less Stroop interference than controls in a card-based Stroop
test, with the single-trial form displaying the same level of interference.
A brief overview of the literature to date reveals that, although not all investigations of
schizophrenia have employed the card variant of the Stroop task, increased interference effects have
been observed. However, most research utilising the single-trial Stroop test in schizophrenia patients
discovered that there was higher facilitation and comparable interference to controls. The limited
single-trial investigations that were conducted discovered that those with schizophrenia experienced
increased error interference or response time. (Henik & Salo, 2004)

Locus of Semantic Interference in Picture-Word Interference Task

The paper "Locus of Semantic Interference in Picture-Word Interference Tasks" addressed how
picture-word interference investigations often reveal that distractor words buried within a slow-picture
naming replies are semantically linked distractor words, as opposed to unrelated ones. However, only
words and not pictures were found to cause semantic interference. The article noted that the presence of
both words and pictures significantly interfered with naming answers. One of the most popular
methods for researching word retrieval during speech production is the PWI paradigm.
To determine whether PWI was exclusive to voice production, two experiments were run. In
their PWI experiment, Lisker and Katz used a manual yes/no response to pictures. And Schriefers in his
experiment carried out a control experiment in which a nonverbal semantic task was used in place of
the picture naming test. Both experiments showed that PWI is specific to speech production.
 The target and the distractor sets were both photographs in the Bowers and Damain study,
which followed Glaser and Glaser's method of using non-verbal format of distractions for picture
naming tasks. The distractor picture was incorporated into the target picture to aid participants in
differentiating between target and distractions. Each image was also linked with an image from the
same semantic category in order to create target-distractor pairs that were semantically connected.
The experiment comprised of 4 experimental blocks with 4 SOAs each, 90 critical naming
responses, and 2 filler trials in between each block. Depending on the SOA were selected block, the
distractor word or picture was presented at various intervals before or after the picture began; also,
inside each block, each picture was also presented and identified once without a distractor (control
condition). By pronouncing the image label over a microphone, the participants gave the naming
response to the target image. The visual and the distractor stimuli disappeared from the screen as soon
as the voice key was pushed. The experimenter classified each name response as either correct or
incorrect afterward; incorrect replies included incorrect or insufficient responses, mouth clicks, and
defective equipment.
The experiment's findings showed that while targets and distractions had no effect on response
time, interference was caused by distractions that were semantically related to the target word rather
than irrelevant. Additional research results indicated that semantic interference can only be produced
by distractors that are encoded verbally; as a result, the semantic interference effect associated with
word distractors is likely lexical. The current research confirmed the widely held basic assumption that
the underlying problem is lexical and not only conceptual. (Damian & Bowers, 2003)
Methodology

Problem: To study the Stroop Interference Effect using Pictures and Words

Hypotheses:

1.Mean response latencies/time would be significantly higher when the target stimulus is paired with an
incongruent distractor word, as compared to when the target stimulus is paired with a congruent
distractor word.

2.Mean number of errors would be significantly higher when the target stimulus is paired with an
incongruent distractor word, as compared to when the target stimulus is paired with a congruent
distractor word.

Design:

A simple repeated measured design with one IV (type of stimulus) manipulated at 2 levels (Congruent,
Incongruent). A single participant is exposed to both the types of stimuli across 40 trials .

Operational Definitions

Independent variable. - Type of Stimulus: Manipulated at two levels - Congruent (where the distractor
word and the to-be-named line drawing were the same), Incongruent (where the distractor word and the
to-be-named line drawing were different)

Dependent Variables. - Response Time: The mean time taken (in centiseconds) to correctly respond to
the stimulus by naming the line drawing, while ignoring the distractor printed across the centre of the
line drawing.

Errors – The mean number of incorrect responses recorded in terms of an aborted response – ‘a’ (i.e. an
attempt is made to give a response, but abandoned midway), incorrect/misnamed response –‘m’(i.e.
incorrectly responding, with any other word other than the distractor word printed on the line drawing)
or a reversal of dimension – ‘rd’ (i.e. reading the word on the slide instead of naming the line drawing)

*Note: Hesitations (“umm”, “aaa”) and nodding are not considered errors, but are noted as ancillary
observations.

Controls

1. Line drawings were centered on the slide

2. Distractor words appeared across the center of the to-be-named line drawing.

3. The Font Size and Type of the printed distractor words were consistent across all stimuli.

4. Five line drawings (Circle, Square, Arrow, Cross and Heart) were used as stimuli in the
experiment.

5. There were 40 trials (20 congruent and 20 incongruent), consisting of 8 trials of each line
drawing paired with congruent and incongruent distractor words equally.

6. Block randomization was used to ensure that overall order effects was balanced across the two
types of stimuli (Congruent, Incongruent) –20 blocks were created, each consisting of a random order
of the two conditions. This was done so as to ensure that the average position of each condition was
approximately the same.

7. Different experimenters utilized different orders of the block randomization schedule.

8. Care was taken to ensure that the distractor word on the previous trial (n-1) was not the name of
the to be named line drawing on the next trial (n) (to prevent against distractor suppression
effects/negative priming)

9. Care was taken to ensure that the to be named line drawing on the previous trial (n-1) was not
the same as the distractor word on the next trial (n) (to prevent facilitation effects due to reduction in
response competition.)

10. Care was taken to ensure that the to-be-named line drawing on successive trials was not the
same.

11. Care was taken to ensure that the distractor words were not the same on successive trials.

12. A ready signal was maintained on each trial to ensure participant’s attention to the presented
stimulus.

13. A fore period of 2 seconds was maintained on each trial to ensure participant’s attention to the
presented stimulus.
Materials

1. Two types of stimuli reflecting Congruent, Incongruent conditions were used. 20 slides were
displayed per condition (40 slides in total). Five shapes (Circle, Square, Arrow, Cross and Heart) were
used as target pictures in each condition of the experiment.

2. Metronome

3. Stopwatch

4. Record Sheet

5. Stationery

6. Screen

7. Demonstration Slides (Slides representing all 5 shapes, without the distractor words printed
across the center of the slide)

Procedure

Rapport was built with the participant prior to the experiment’s commencement. Instructions along
with the practice trials were provided.

Instructions:

“This is a simple experiment on attention. I will be presenting you with a series of cards, one at a time
over the screen. Each slide has a line drawing (either a HEART, CIRCLE, ARROW, CROSS or
SQUARE) and a word printed across the centre of the line drawing. Your task is to pay attention to the
line drawing and identify it, while ignoring the word printed across it. You need to respond as quickly
and as accurately as possible. When I say ‘Ready’, focus your attention on the screen, where I will be
displaying the slide. Your response will be to NAME THE LINE DRAWING you see on the card. I will
now demonstrate the task. (E demonstrates all 5 shapes. To ensure that the participant is aware of all
the stimuli to be identified in the experiment, E first names each of the shapes using the demo slide.
Then, presents each slide individually, and asks P to name each shape. E reminds P once again, that
during the course of the experiment, the line drawing will have a word printed across the centre.) Do
you have any questions? Can you please summarize the instructions for me? Shall we begin?”
Participants were given a ‘Ready’ Signal, followed by a 2 second fore period prior to the display of the
stimulus on the screen and the simultaneous starting of the stopwatch. The stopwatch was stopped,
once the participant had provided a response and the slide was removed from over the screen. The
response time (in centiseconds) and the response or error made (if any), were recorded on a Record
Sheet. The stopwatch was reset and the remaining trials continued as per the procedure mentioned
above. An introspective report (PTQs) was taken, the participant was debriefed, thanked and escorted
out of the lab.

Treatment Of Data –

1. Response time data at the Individual and Group level was analysed to ensure that there were no
outliers. If outliers were present, substitutions were made with the value at the +3 or -3 standard
deviation, depending on whether the said outlier was found to be deviant in a direction above or below
the mean, respectively.

2. Descriptive Statistics – Totals, Means and Standard Deviations were calculated for the Congruent
and Incongruent, conditions for both Group and Individual Data. (Note: Individual response time was
analysed using Means and not Totals, as the removal of error trials from the calculation of Total RT
could spuriously lower the total time of a condition, not reflecting the participant’s true performance)

3. Separate Dependent samples t-tests were conducted for Errors and Response Latencies to assess if
any significant difference emerged between the Incongruent and Congruent conditions for the Group
Data.

4. Bar graphs were drawn to summarize individual and group data, for both RT and errors
Data Discussion
The aim of the current experiment was to study the Stroop Interference Effect using Pictures and
Words.
The experiment had two hypotheses. Firstly, it was hypothesized that the mean response
latencies/time would be significantly higher when the target stimulus is paired with an incongruent
distractor word, as compared to when the target stimulus is paired with a congruent distractor word.
Secondly, it was hypothesized that the mean number of errors would be significantly higher when the
target stimulus is paired with an incongruent distractor word, as compared to when the target stimulus
is paired with a congruent distractor word.
The current experiment is based on lassen’s first experiment. The first experiment by Lassen
used word pairings and contour drawing to extend the Stroop interference paradigm. The congruency
of the relevant and irrelevant stimuli, as well as the relevant response either picture naming or word
reading served as the independent variables. Therefore, if the aim is to name a picture, the word is an
irrelevant stimulus, and vice versa. The stimuli consisted of five printed words (bird, drum, kite, nail,
and tree) and the corresponding line drawings. Words or images were either above or below the
fixation point. The foot pedal was used to display the stimuli to the subjects, while the printer-timers
recorded their voice responses. In general, reading words was faster than naming pictures, but this
difference was not statistically significant, as shown by Stroop (1938) and Cattel (1947), and
incongruent words interfered more when the task involved naming pictures than when it involved
reading words.
In the current experiment the line drawings were of shapes such as CROSS, HEART,
SQUARE, etc. however, in Lassen’s experiment the line drawings were of objects such as nail, kite,
drum, etc. In Lassen's experiment, the stimuli were presented after a brief random fore period but in the
current experiment we have a fore period of 2 seconds. In Lassen's original experiment had the
volunteers go through a total of 100 practise trials to acquaint themselves with the trails, whereas the
present experiment simply had them go through 5 practise trials. In the original experiment, participant
had to name the line drawing and ignore the distracter word or name the word and ignore the line
drawing. In the current experiment, participants only had to name the line drawings while ignoring the
distracter word. Lassen’s experiment had a total of 400 trials spread over a span of 4 days but the
current experiment there were only 40 trials. The original experiment had an added feature of location
uncertainty (above or below the fixation point), whereas the current experiment had no location
uncertainty, words were presented in the centre of the line drawing throughout. Lassen experiment had
repeated measures design while the current experiment used block randomization design.

The two null hypotheses formulated for this experiment are as follows: First, mean response
latencies/time would not be significantly higher when the target stimulus is paired with an incongruent
distractor word, as compared to when the target stimulus is paired with a congruent distractor word and
the second, mean number of errors would be not significantly higher when the target stimulus is paired
with an incongruent distractor word, as compared to when the target stimulus is paired with a
congruent distractor word.
However, the expectation was that the mean response latencies/time would be significantly
higher when the target stimulus is paired with an incongruent distractor word, as compared to when the
target stimulus is paired with a congruent distractor word and that the mean number of errors would be
significantly higher when the target stimulus is paired with an incongruent distractor word, as
compared to when the target stimulus is paired with a congruent distractor word. Table 1 shows the
group data scores.
After the tabulation of the data collected, the data was checked for outliers. Cells with serial
no.s 1,5,17,36,41,61,62,63,74,75 were found to have outliers. Hence the procedure of winsorization
was performed on the data. Winsorization is the practice of changing statistical data's extreme values in
order to reduce the impact of outliers on calculations or findings produced using that data. The group
data was winsorized by taking the range from 5th percentile to 95th percentile. Hence the outliers for
low scores were adjusted to 76.375 and for high scores were adjusted to 158.22 in the congruent
condition. In the incongruent condition, the outliers for low scores were adjusted to 89.79 and for high
scores it was adjusted to 195.08. The process of winsorization was performed only on the data collected
for response times and not on the errors.
In the congruent condition the mean for response time is 113.96 and for no. of errors it is 0.53.
Similarly, in the incongruent condition, the mean for response time is 132.87 whereas for that of no. of
errors it is 2.71. The standard deviation obtained in the congruent condition for response time was
22.82 and for no. of errors it is 0.99. In the incongruent condition the standard deviation obtained for
response time is 28.61 whereas for the no. Of errors it is 2.33. Hence, the general trend observed was in
line with what the experimenters had expected, which is that the response time and nos. of errors made
were high in the incongruent condition compared to congruent condition.
Graph 1 represents the response time scores in the congruent and incongruent condition. The X
axis represents the congruent and incongruent condition, whereas the Y axis represents the response
time scores. Here, it can be observed that the bar graph for incongruent condition is taller than bar
graph for congruent condition. Similarly, Graph 2 represents the scores of nos. of errors in the
congruent and incongruent condition. The congruent and incongruent condition are represented on the
X axis and the no. of errors is represented on the Y axis. In here also, the bar graph for incongruent
condition is taller as compared to the congruent condition. Hence, it is observed that the data is in line
with the hypotheses formulated.
To decide whether the null hypothesis is retained or rejected, t-value was computed on the data
by performing a t-test. The t-value obtained for response time is 1.66 whereas that obtained for errors is
also 1.66. Thus, the P value was found to be p<0.05, which shows that the data is significant and hence
we reject the null hypothesis.
Threats to internal validity
The current experiment can be evaluated on its internal validity. Though controls were used in
the experiment such as those dealing with serial interference effects, practice and fatigue effects,
certain extraneous variables like boredom might result in distractions. Another variable that can impact
the results is environmental distracters. If the participant is disturbed by another individual, it might
disturb their attention and affect their performance.

Limitations
It is evident that there were limitations in the current experiment. Following were the
limitations identified in the current experiment and ways to overcome the same:
The first limitation that can be observed in the current experiment is that there could be human
error while calculating the response time of the participant. This can be overcome by making the
experiment an automated or a computerized experiment wherein the response time is automatically
calculated by the computer.
The second limitation of the current experiment is that it is possible that participants use a
strategy in order to correctly and quickly name the line drawings. This is owed to the fact that the
current experiment uses non-integrated stimuli and there is no location uncertainty. This can be
resolved by making the stimuli integrated or to include location uncertainty where the participant does
not know where the stimulus will appear next.
The third limitation that can be found is the limited number of practice trials. In the original
experiment by Lassen, participants went through 100 practice trials which helped them get familiarized
with the line drawings. However, in the current experiment there are only 5 which might result in a lack
of familiarity. This can be overcome by adding more practice trials to the experiment.

Practical Application
With respect to ecological validity, the current experiment also has value due to its practical
applicability to a wide range of areas. For instance, the emotional stroop task can be used as an adjunct
to diagnosis of a variety of psychiatric problems such as depression, phobias, disorders and anxiety.
According to research by Ben Tovim et al (1989) the stroop effect is used in detection of eating disorders
like bulimia and anorexia nervosa. Participants are exposed to various words which may r may not be
related to food and body type. The response time taken by the participant to name the word helps in
making a diagnosis of eating disorder. (This is not considered as the only basis for diagnosis various
other tests are to be administered before coming to a conclusion)
Future Recommendations
Future research can bring about modifications in the experimental design. For instance, there is
an absence of a control condition in the current experiment which may not provide an accurate baseline
to the response times and errors of the congruent an incongruent condition. A control condition that
consists of only the line drawing or an ‘XXX’ can be added in order to compare it to the responses of
the other two conditions. In this modification, our hypothesis would indicate how much interference
the other two conditions would create as compared to the control. A study conducted by Dalrymple-
Alford (1972) indicated that response time increased by 65 ms in the incongruent condition when the
‘XXXX’ baseline was introduced. Another modification that can be added would be include the
variable of ‘age’ and observe whether there are any differences in response latencies and errors across
various age groups. The expectations with such a modification would be that younger participants will
experience more interference and is related to the study by Rosinski et al (1975) where age found that
interference was greater in younger participants as compared to older participants. A final modification
can be to add another response modality to the experiment which would be verbal instead of manual. In
this experiment since the stimulus to be named is a line drawing, the response modality can be the
participants drawing out the shape instead of actually saying out the name along with saying out the
names in other conditions. The expectations of this experiment could be that conditions that have
similar stimuli and response modalities would suffer less interaction that when the stimuli and response
modality is different. This is based on McClain’s (1983) experiment where she used pitch as a stimulus
and a verbal response, button or hum as the response modality. This can also be related to Seymour’s
Model (1973) where if the pictorial input requires a graphic or manual response, it can directly move to
the graphic response channel after being pictorially analysed and since it will be incremented in the
same response channel, the response time will be faster.
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
 Mithibai College of Arts, Chauhan Institutes of Science & Amrutben

Jivanlal College of Commerce and Economics

Research proposal

EFFECTS OF NOMOPHOBIA ON AGGRESSION

TYBA PSYCHOLOGY 2023-24

Aided Group 2
Abstract

The escalating reliance on smartphones has given rise to a psychological condition termed
"Nomophobia," characterized by significant discomfort when separated from one's mobile
device, accompanied by a range of neurotic emotions. Existing research has suggested that the
rising prevalence of Nomophobia may be influenced by various moderating factors, notably, low
self-control. This study's primary objective was to investigate the intricate relationship between
Nomophobia and Aggression, with a focus on determining whether an increase in Nomophobia
corresponds to an elevation in an individual's propensity for aggression. To ensure robust data
collection and minimize confounding variables, a singlefactor independent design with block
randomization was employed, effectively controlling for gender-related factors. Purposive
sampling was employed as the designated method, facilitated by the pretest assessment using the
Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMPQ). Levels of aggression were assessed using the Buss-Perry
Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ). The study’s core objective remains to understand the effect
of isolating individuals suffering from nomophobia from their smartphone and further assessing
the resulting aggressive tendencies.

Keywords: nomophobia, aggression, self-phone addiction, anxiety

Introduction

The onset of Information Communication Technology has impacted daily

communication among people. The invention of smartphones has reduced the spatial barriers
among people across the world and has facilitated easier, quicker, and instant communication.
Newer technologies and developments have also enabled the usage of smartphones for other
daily activities such as fund transactions, banking and investments, social media networking,
and educational purposes.
While the prevalence and usage of smartphones have multi-fold benefits, their negative
impact on interpersonal relationships, human behaviour and cognition cannot be ignored.
Excessive dependence on smartphones results in addiction and also a fear of being ‘out
of touch’. Nomophobia is considered a disorder of the contemporary digital and virtual society
and refers to discomfort, anxiety, nervousness or anguish caused by being out of contact with a
mobile phone or computer. (Bragazzi, N. L., & Del Puente, G., 2014). It can result in a person
feeling afraid and fearful as well as experiencing harmful physiological and emotional states.
We believe that this fear and dependence on smartphones can result in aggressive
tendencies. Aggression is any behaviour that is intended to harm another person who does not
want to be harmed. (Baron and Richardson, 1994). The increased presence and use of modern
technologies allow for both passive viewing of violence and active participation. The positive
impact of self-control can reduce the effects of aggression in people who have nomophobia.
Self-control can reflect one’s ability to delay or abstain from an immediately rewarding
behaviour in favour of a behaviour that is consistent with one’s long-term goals
(Thoresen and Mahoney 1974). However, the inability to abstain from the usage of smartphones
can have an impact on aggression, anxiety, and other psychopathological symptoms.
Prior research has highlighted the positive association between Internet Addiction and
greater engagement in aggressive behaviour. (Kim 2013; Koo and Kwon 2014; Lim et al. 2015;
Munteanu et al. 2009). A study done by Darvishi M, Noori M et al among medical students at
Islamic Azad University, Tehran showed that nomophobia can lead to several complications like
depression, anxiety, anger, and aggression. Studies have also shown that numerous individuals
who use smartphones tend to be anxious or uneasy when they are without their phones, lose their
smartphones, have their devices run out of battery or have no network coverage. (Gilbert, M. N.
2020).
Losing connectedness and not having access to information on smartphones have an
impact on multiple psychopathological problems. Separation anxiety, social phobia, total
anxiety, depression, hyperactivity and oppositional problems are positively correlated with
nomophobia’s total score (Kuscu, T. D., Gumustas, F., Rodopman Arman, A., & Goksu, M.
2021).
 The research aims to understand the causal link between nomophobia and aggression.
The presence of nomophobia can result in higher aggression levels and/or aggressive tendencies.

Review of literature

It is essential to understand why nomophobia can be considered as a psychological

disorder. Various studies have been conducted to understand its characteristics and the impact it
has on mental health and well-being A study conducted by Bragazzi and Del Puente put forth
characteristics of physiological and psychological behaviour of people who experience
nomophobia. The prevalence and epidemiology of this condition have not been elaborated upon
earlier however new research has shown alarming results. Nomophobia is also associated with
the experience of phantom ring (mobile ringtone) sounds which add to the anxiety experienced
when one is away from the phone. The paper enlisted comorbid disorders with nomophobia
which include social phobia, obsessive compulsive disorder, and major depressive disorder to
name a few. While the paper elaborates well upon the psychometric measures available to
ascertain the diagnosis and the consequent treatment patterns, the symptomatology is too generic
and subjective. Cultural and socio-economic factors have not been taken into account while
considering nomophobia as a disorder by the authors of the paper.

Prevalence

Tuco et al in 2023, have conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to find the
prevalence of nomophobia in university students. To conduct the meta-analysis, they included
28 cross sectional studies which included the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMPQ). The cross-
sectional studies in total summed the number of participants to 11,300 from 9 countries which
were Turkey, India, Indonesia, Germany, Kuwait, USA, Pakistan, Oman, and Saudi Arabia. As
per meta-analysis conducted by the researchers, they found that the overall prevalence rate of
nomophobia in university students was close to 100%. The nomophobia prevalence rates were
bifurcated by researchers on the basis of severity which showed that at the mild level prevalence
rate was 24%, at moderate level prevalence rate was 56% and at the severe level prevalence rate
was observed to be at 17%. In relation to nine countries, it was seen that Germany has the lowest
prevalence rate (3%) whereas Indonesia had the highest prevalence rate (71%). Further they
observed that among the participants one in four participants had mild nomophobia, moderate
nomophobia was observed in moderate nomophobia and severe nomophobia was found in one in
five participants.
The meta-analysis conducted by the research helps us understand that nomophobia has
become a global issue. The results found in the systematic reviews conducted in the article also
suggest that the prevalence of nomophobia is rising. Another main highlight shown in this
review article shows how the university students globally are found to have a high prevalence
rate for nomophobia. (Tuco et al., 2023)

Jahrami et al. (2022), reviewed 52 studies consisting of 20 countries and total

participants of 47,399 in their meta-analysis to understand the prevalence of nomophobia
symptoms in young adults and youths. The researchers organised the meta-analysis on the basis
of various criteria consisting of severity levels, culture, country, population, measurement tool
and year of data collection. The collected data showed that based on severity levels, mild and
severe nomophobia symptoms were seen in 20% of the individuals whereas 50% individuals
showed moderate nomophobia symptoms. Western cultures were observed to have a higher
prevalence rate compared to non-western cultures. Further, the data collected showed that
prevalence rates of nomophobia symptoms were seen to be highest in Bahrain and Canada
whereas lowest rates were observed in India and Saudi Arabia. This review also revealed that
high prevalence rates of nomophobia symptoms were likely to be seen in university students,
whereas those belonging to non-western cultures were more prone to be affected by severe
symptoms. Additionally in relation to year and the measurement tool, the data highlighted that
the NMP-Q was the most used and sensitive tool used in detecting nomophobia and due to
COVID 19 pandemic a surge in the prevalence rates of nomophobia was observed in the year
2021.

The above paper provides various insights into the development and global prevalence of
nomophobia across different countries, culture and population. These help us understand why it
is important to know the prevalence rates, so that effective understanding of the risk factors and
an expected increase can be controlled and prevented to some extent with the help of
development of programs for early intervention.

Age and Gender

Research was conducted by Moreno et al (Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020) to study

nomophobia in context to age, gender, and dietary habits on a sample population of 1743 people,
among university students using a survey method. The study's results also show that women tend
to experience higher levels of nomophobia compared to men. Surprisingly, in this study
conducted by Moreno, when considering age, there were not any significant differences found.
This means that nomophobia affects both young people and young adults in a similar way. The
degree of nomophobia is higher in younger people, and there is a negative correlation between
age and level of nomophobia. The primary reason for nomophobia in the study's participants is
the fear of not being able to quickly contact or communicate with others using their phones.
Additionally, people who believe their smartphone usage negatively affects their eating habits
tend to have stronger feelings of nomophobia. These findings provide insights into how gender
and age play a role in nomophobia and how it relates to concerns about communication and diet
in the surveyed group.

Nomophobia, Distress and Anxiety

The association between nomophobia and other emotional difficulties and distress factors
is examined in the paper "Relationship between Nomophobia, Various Emotional Difficulties,
and Distress Factors among Students" by Lea Santl, Lovorka Brajkovic, and
Vanja Kopilas (Santl et al., 2022b). A group of 257 Croatian students, with an average age of 22
years, participated in the study. The results of the study show a strong relationship between
nomophobia and every factor that was studied. Nomophobia and emotional competence and
abilities were revealed to be important predictors of the display of distress factors. People with
more severe symptoms of nomophobia also had more severe despair, anxiety, and stress
symptoms, as well as less developed emotional abilities and competences. Adding to this, the
study also found that women express a more intense fear of losing access to their devices. Those
who are already depressed may find that being without a smartphone makes them more irritable,
stressed, and angry. A number of research have also shown a connection between poor internet
use and feelings of loneliness and sadness. Nomophobia and depression can interact to amplify
unreasonable anxieties and phobias, which can lead to an increase in rage. (Listiyarini et al.,
2023) (Nuri et al., 2021)

There have been various types of research to test the relationship between nomophobia
and anxiety in adolescents since Nomophobia is majorly seen among them. Research done on
university students of Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan aged 18-30 years to investigate the
difference of nomophobia and anxiety among mobile phone users when the smartphone was
completely taken away compared with those mobile phone users whose smartphones were only
switched off. An independent random group design was used and the students were randomly
assigned to either of the two conditions. The phones were taken away for two hours and the
findings were significant. The anxiety levels of both the groups increased and the anxiety was
even higher for the group whose phones were completely taken away. The limitations of the
study were that they did not measure physiological changes before and after the experiment and
the sample size was small. (Batool & Zahid, 2019) A study by Rija Mir and Mubeen Akhtar
showed similar results. In their study, "Effect of nomophobia on the anxiety levels of
undergraduate students," Rija Mir and Mubeen Akhtar examine how restricting mobile phone
use over time affects undergraduate students who have moderate nomophobia. The study also
sought to determine if environmental sensory and cognitive distractions helped prevent anxious
thoughts and a corresponding increase in anxiety levels. The study's methodology was a quasi-
experimental design with a non-equivalent control group, meaning that the participants had not
been divided into groups at random. 64 undergraduate students from an Islamabad-based
institution were the participants. Both the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMPQ) and the
StateTrait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) had been used. According to the results of the multivariate
analysis, individuals with mild nomophobia who had not been in contact with their cell phones
had significantly greater state anxiety over time. However, in stressful circumstances, sensory
and cognitive distractions were only marginally able to delay the anxiety. This study only
includes undergraduate students from one institution in Islamabad, Pakistan, and it is based on a
very small sample size. Therefore, more study is necessary before applying the findings to other
groups (Mir & Akhtar, 2020b).

Nomophobia, Smartphone addiction and Aggression

Aggression is the deliberate act of causing bodily or psychological harm to another

person. According to social learning theory, exposure to violent material, particularly in the
digital sphere, frequently makes violence easier to learn through modelling. The development of
new psychological problems as a result of technology, such as internet addiction, smartphone
addiction, and nomophobia, highlights the changing nature of psychological problems.
(Listiyarini et al., 2023) (Nuri et al., 2021)

Three phases make up the trajectory of problematic internet use: first discovery,
following fixation, and final withdrawal or dissatisfaction. The person first becomes aware of
the internet's appeal before being more and more impacted by it. This attraction turns into
fixation, which causes the user to spend a lot of time online and eventually develops into
addiction. Their everyday routines are badly impacted by this addiction, which turns the internet
into the centre of their existence. The person suffers disappointment and retreats in the last stage,
where they try to get rid of the fixation. (Listiyarini et al., 2023) (Nuri et al., 2021) Addiction to
smartphones is linked to unfavourable results including hostility, physical violence, verbal
abuse, and rage. The main outcome of nomophobia, however, is rage. Nomophobia is also
somewhat influenced by personality factors. A complicated correlation between the use of
technology and behavioural patterns has also been reported to exist between internet addiction
and violence in several research. (Listiyarini et al., 2023) (Nuri et al., 2021)

No connection exists between verbal hostility and hostility. Smartphone addiction may
be accompanied with nomophobia. By Griffiths (2005), behavioural reliance is covered in six
sub-scales. The “attention-grabbing” sub-dimension relates to the notion that one activity takes
on a life of its own and influences a person's emotions, ideas, and behaviours. The "Emotional
Regulation" sub-dimension comprises the person's continued engagement in the activity but also
his or her desire to overcome it. "Tolerance" suggests that the person gradually extends the
amount of time they spend engaging in this activity. When a person is prohibited from engaging
in a desired activity, "deprivation symptoms'' refer to the unwelcome feelings and psychological
effects that result (nervousness, distemper, worry, etc.). The "Conflict" sub-dimension reflects
the conflicts that an individual experiences either directly or indirectly. The "Relapse" sub-
dimension contains the individual's repeated attempts to stop the behaviour, his or her inability
to gain control of the behaviour, and its resumption. People may develop illogical beliefs about
cell phones as their addiction to smartphones grows. When depressed individuals are unable to
use or access their cell phones, their levels of anxiety and panic may increase. They may worry
that they will miss the genuine agenda or struggle to cope with unpleasant feelings. (Listiyarini
et al., 2023) (Nuri et al., 2021)
Nomophobia has been said to have a bidirectional relationship with aggression, one leads
to another. A study was conducted on Lebanese adolescents to deduce the relationship between
aggression and Smartphone addiction and its indirect detrimental effects on cognitive functions.
This study was a cross-sectional study, ensuring the enrolment of up to
379 Lebanese adolescents chosen through the snowball method of non-probability sampling.
This study enabled the assistance of self-report inventories, a questionnaire was meticulously
prepared for the same with different subsections. The first part of the questionnaire focused on
the ethics and awareness phenomena of the research, the second part contained inquiry of socio-
demographic aspects of the participants, and third phase of the questionnaire included various
validated scales such as – Buss- Perry Aggression Questionnaire, Smartphone Addiction Scale-
Short version and Cognitive Functioning Self-Assessment scale. The Anova scale was appointed
for the calculation of the means, however for the comparison of the two continuous variables,
Pearson scale was appointed. The scores of this study highlighted that High Smartphones
Addiction and worse cognitive functioning had a direct correlation with aggression of all types,
however this type of aggression varied based on gender, Age and socio-economic status. The
research also validated its hypothesis that cognitive functioning is a mediator between
Smartphone addiction and aggression.

The study also stated other factors which could explain the relation between Smartphone
addiction and Aggression, one theory stated was that high levels of stress stimulates an increase
in smartphone use, triggering chronic fatigue and poor cognitive functioning which finally leads
to poor self-control, translating into aggression. The research also stated that smartphone
addiction is inversely related to cognitive functioning and cognitive functioning is negatively
related to aggression. The research also points out another connective variable between the
three, both cognitive deficits and Smartphone addiction lead to negative affect which contributes
aggressive tendencies. The meta-analysis of this research also highlighted certain structural
differences – exposure to high phone addiction exhibits changes in the white matter in the
regions involved in emotional processing and executive functioning, thus making adolescents
with Smartphone addiction and nomophobia more vulnerable to potentiate aggressive tendencies
due to poor emotional regulation. (Fekih-
Romdhane et al., 2022)
Nomophobia, Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and Aggression

A study based on Turkish population uses the method of self-report survey and is a
correlational study. Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) is a tentative disorder in the DSM-5 under
the non-substance-related disorders and a potential behavioural addiction. Although more
research on the same is necessary.

Mobile phones provide various gaming applications. Nomophobia is also seen to have
increased because wherever one goes, one can just carry their phones with them. Nomophobia
and IGD are correlated to one another although there are many games not available on phones. It
was seen that aggression was higher for the IGD as it was easier to show aggression online as it
provides people with a virtual platform with almost no real-life consequences. Also, in displays
of aggression online, there is almost no way to detect the person behind the screen. Phone
addiction and social appearance anxiety seem to have moderate correlation. People who have
nomophobia or IGD prefer their online persona over their real-life appearances. Nomophobia
leads to the fear of not being able to communicate with others through the smartphone or not
having the access to one’s phone, or missing out on social media, this in turn can lead people to
be aggressive. Both physical and verbal aggression have a significant relationship with mobile
phone addiction. Nomophobia is said to mediate the relationship between phone addiction and
aggression, however the author says more research on the same is required. IGD, and by
extension phone addiction, is problem in real-life as the phone, and by extension the games in
the phone, is often used as a form of escapism. (Yilmaz, et al., 2023)

Nomophobia, Attachment styles and Mindfulness

The complex relationship between attachment style, mindfulness, and nomophobia is

studied also shedding light on factors that contribute to modern technology anxiety. Attachment
theory gives a valuable framework for understanding nomophobia, because it shows that
individuals can form emotional attachments with people as well as with objects, structures and
even ideas. In the context of nomophobia, people develop an emotional bond with their
smartphones, treating it as part of themselves and their identity. This attachment can cause the
person to feel any sort of discomfort and they can even feel anxious when separated from their
mobile device, similar to situational phobia. (Lin et al.,2014)

The results of a study confirm the significant effect of anxious and avoidant attachment
on nomophobia. Anxious attachment as well as Avoidant attachment are characterised as having
a negative image of themselves while they have a positive model of others, it has a positive
relationship with nomophobia. (Hazan & Shaver,1987) In anxious attachment the individual
seeks relational dependence and an intense desire for emotional closeness, this indicates that
individuals who desire and look for more emotional connection with others in their relationships
may show greater levels of fear and anxiety when they do not have access to their mobiles. The
study found gender differences in this relationship, with men and women showing different
patterns of attachment and nomophobia. Men scored significantly lower than women on
attachment anxiety, indicating gender-based differences in attachment styles that may contribute
to different levels of nomophobia. In Avoidant attachment the person seems to have a hard time
forming close relationships or experiencing intimacy. (Hazan & Shaver,1987) They remain
distant from people to avoid experiencing the feeling of abandonment, rejection or any other
negative emotions. Lastly, secure attachment is when the person has a positive self- image as
well as a positive image of others. (Hazan & Shaver,1987)

Mindfulness has emerged as a key mediator in research that provides insight into its
potential role in reducing nomophobia (Li et al., 2017). A mindset that does not appreciate the
concept of the moment, nomophobia, has a significant impact, especially for women. This
means that individuals who develop a high level of self-awareness, especially women, do not
suffer from nomophobia. These findings are consistent with previous research on the
effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapy in solving behavioural and technology problems.
(Wahbeh & Oken,2016)

The results of this study highlight the importance of considering gender differences in
the context of nomophobia and mindfulness-based therapy. Gender roles and schemas can
influence attachment styles, ways of using technology, and the effectiveness of coping
mechanisms. (Bem,1983) Attachment theory is a framework for understanding that individuals
form emotional attachments to their mobile devices, resulting in feelings of anxiety and distress
when separated from them. Research findings show gender differences in attachment styles and
their impact on nomophobia, suggesting that women would benefit greater through mindfulness-
based treatments which would deal with nomophobia and the anxiety caused by it.
Methodology

Hypothesis: The mean aggression levels of people with nomophobia will be higher when the
access to cell phones was restricted than the mean aggression levels of people with nomophobia
who had access to their phones.
Operational definitions:

Independent Variable: Nomophobia is defined as, “the modern fear of being unable to
communicate through a mobile phone (MP) or the Internet.” It is a term that refers to a
collection of behaviors or symptoms related to mobile phone use. It is manipulated at 2 levels
Experimental Group (when participants’ access to phones is denied) and Control Group

(Participants have intact access to their phones as per routine)

Dependent Variable: Aggression levels. According to the DSM 5 aggression is defined as

“intermittent explosive disorder is characterized by impulsive and aggressive outbursts”

Controls:
- All the people selected as participants have high scores in the nomophobia scale. (Anyone who
scored above 60 on NMP-q test)
- All participants are given a pretest about aggression.

- Participants are tested for past trauma and other mental issue which might lead to high levels
of aggression.
- Block Randomization was used to control gender as a confounding variable.

- A specific time period was set for the EG where the participant was not allowed to use the
phone ie. five hours.
- No other stressors for aggression are introduced in the five hours when phone usage is not
allowed in order to make sure that the increased level of aggression can be attributed only to
the effects of nomophobia.
- All experiments are conducted during the same period of time in the day to avoid subjective
differences.
Procedure

Design of the study. This is a single factor Independent group design. This experiment
uses block randomization. It has 1 independent variable manipulated at two levels; the two
levels are randomized between two groups. According to the Santl, et,al. (2022) gender is one of
the biggest confounding variables for Nomophobia. The two blocks were made in accordance
with this confounding variable, being, males and females.
Participants were instructed to continue with their regular activities for five hours. The

Experimental Group (EG) was not allowed to use their phones during this time, while the
Control Group (CG) had access to their phones. Natural observation of participants was
conducted.

Materials. This study used two questionnaires which were the Nomophobia

Questionnaire (NMP-Q) and the Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire.

The reliability and validity of the Nomophobia Questionnaire is mentioned in a paper by

Yildrim and Correia in 2015. The researchers computed a Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient was to determine whether there was any relationship between the participants' NMP-
Q and MPIQ scores. The association between NMP-Q and MPIQ scores, r(299) =.710, p.01, is
clear and significant. Thus, NMP-Q's construct validity was ensured by the two scores'
substantial correlation, which showed how the two questionnaires could be compared (DeVellis,
2003).
The reliability and validity of Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire is mentioned in the
paper by Buss and Perry in 1992. A sample of 372 people was assessed twice, with a 9week gap
between each test by the researchers. The test-retest correlations for physical aggression, verbal
aggression, anger, and hostility found by researchers were as follows (total score =.80): physical
aggression,.80; anger,.72; and hostility,.72. These coefficients imply good long-term stability for
scales with a modest number of items. (Buss & Perry, 1992)

Sampling. The experimenter collects the data using a type of non-probability sampling
called Purposive Sampling. Purposive Sampling is a non- probability sampling method, here the
researcher relies on their own judgment when they select members from to the population as a
sample for their study. In purposive sampling the sound judgement of the researcher is used.
Since the NMP-Q test will be referred and only people above the score of 60 will be chosen, the
sampling to be used for this experiment will be purposive sampling. For convenience of the
current research, a sample population of 500 participants was taken into consideration

Participants. A pretest of Nomophobia (NMP-Q) was given to consenting individuals.

Once the scoring of that test was done, the individuals who scored low on the test were removed
from the study and people with medium to high Nomophobia (Anyone who scored above 60 on
NMP-q test) were the selected sample for this study.
 Once the experimenter had informed consent of the Ps to be a part of the experiment.

A baseline measure of aggression was performed for the actual sample of the experiment. The
total number of Ps were randomly divided into two blocks based on their gender. And from each
block equal Ps were randomly assigned to the two levels of the IV.
In the control group people asked to go on with their daily lives without any changes.
Whereas the experimenter group had their phones taken away from them for six hours and were
asked to go on with their daily lives. After six hours both the groups were given the post-test for
aggression (Pretest and Post-test was the same: Buss & Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ;
Buss & Perry, 1992, J Pers Soc Psychol, 63 and 452) and provided electrodermal activation
(EDA) as an index of physiological arousal).
The results will be noted and data analysis will be done for the same.

Instructions. “This is a simple experiment on understanding personality characteristics”

EG: “Your task is to submit your phones to us for a period of 5 hours and avoid indulging in any
other means of using it while continuing your day as usual. Do not access other devices like
laptops and tablets during the course of the study We would request you to report back to us
after 5 hours.”
CG: “Your task is to report back to us after 5 hours.”

Instructions given before administering the tests.

“There are no right or wrong answers because you have a right to your own views. Answer
every question without hesitation and as honestly as possible. Do not mark what seems the right
thing to say to impress others. Give the first natural answer that comes to your mind, and do not
spend too much time on any one question. Do not skip any question. Remember that answers
given here are kept confidential. So, give answers which are true for you. It is best to mark what
you really think.”

Data analysis

An independent samples t-test will be used to analyse the results as the data is on the
ratio scale and it will help us understand if there is a significant difference between the means.
Conclusion

The consequences of excessive mobile phone use in our society can be seen more
evidently when individuals are restricted access or separated from their phones. (Mir &
Akhtar, 2020). Several studies have shown how nomophobia influences aggression levels.
Smartphone addiction is associated with negative outcomes like anger, verbal abuse, rage, and
physical violence. However, the main effect of nomophobia is anger. (Nuri et al., 2021) (Fekih-
Romdhane et al., 2022) Hence, our study hypothesized to find aggression levels in individuals
with nomophobia who were restricted access to use their phones. However, the current study
will have certain limitations. Our study uses standardized questionnaires to measure individuals
for nomophobia and to measure their aggression levels. Thus, one of the limitations in the study
could be the possibility of participants inaccurately reporting their subjective feelings. Another
limitation could be since the participants would be allowed to go in a natural setting after
administration of the test, events that are not related to the test may occur and could have not be
observed. Apart from the above-mentioned variable, age is another variable that has been
conflicted to be a confounding variable. Various research studies have pointed out that age can
play a significant role in tampering with the effects of Nomophobia. However, there were
studies highlighting how among age groups that pertain close to each other for example,
adolescents and young adults age did not play a major role. For ease of this research,
experimenters haven't created a block for the same, so age as a confounding variable can be
explored as further scope of research because nomophobia is still in its early stages of study, the
majority of the research is exploratory in nature.

As a result, additional research is needed to explore, investigate, and identify the factors
that impact this modern pathology; data suggests that nomophobia is directly related to
individual mental health, internet addiction, and behaviour modification. Additionally,
individual aspects of nomophobia such as fear of missing out, loss of access to information, loss
of means of communication, loss of comfort and convenience can be studied along with
aggression for further research. Furthermore, it is critical to promote the efficient and healthy
use of mobile technology in learning environments to reduce the emergence of nomophobia and
its consequences.
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Appendix

Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP-Q)

Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement in relation to your
smartphone.

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. I would feel uncomfortable without constant access to information through my

smartphone.
2. I would be annoyed if I could not look information up on my smartphone when I
wanted to do so.
3. Being unable to get the news (e.g., happenings, weather, etc.) on my smartphone
would make me nervous.
4. I would be annoyed if I could not use my smartphone and/or its capabilities when I
wanted to do so.
5. Running out of battery in my smartphone would scare me.

6. If I were to run out of credits or hit my monthly data limit, I would panic.

7. If I did not have a data signal or could not connect to Wi-Fi, then I would constantly
check to see if I had a signal or could find a Wi-Fi network.
8. If I could not use my smartphone, I would be afraid of getting stranded somewhere.

9. If I could not check my smartphone for a while, I would feel a desire to check it.

10. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would feel anxious because I could not
instantly communicate with my family and/or friends.
 11. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would be worried because my family
and/or friends could not reach me.
12. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would feel nervous because I would not
be able to receive text messages and calls.
13. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would be anxious because I could not
keep in touch with my family and/or friends.
14. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would be nervous because I could not
know if someone had tried to get a hold of me.
15. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would feel anxious because my constant
connection to my family and friends would be broken.
16. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would be nervous because I would be
disconnected from my online identity.
17. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would be uncomfortable because I could
not stay up-to-date with social media and online networks.
18. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would feel awkward because I could not
check my notifications for updates from my connections and online networks.
19. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would feel anxious because I could not
check my email messages.
20. If I did not have my smartphone with me, I would feel weird because I would not
know what to do.

Scoring:

Sum up your responses to each item. Higher scores indicate more severe levels
of nomophobia. Refer to the following table to determine your nomophobia
level.

20 - absence Score Nomophobia

21-59 - mild level
60-99 - moderate level Level

100-140 - severe level NMP-Q Score = 20 Absent

21 ≤ NMP-Q Score < 60 Mild

60 ≤ NMP-Q Score < 100 Moderate

100 ≤ NMP-Q Score ≤ 140 Severe