Stefan NiewiadomskiFilter Handbook is a guide to electronic filter design and implementation, clearly written and without the enormous amount of mathematics usuelly found in books on this subject. With many outstanding features, the handbook: ™ Covers passive and active filters in a unifying way. ® Contains totally original computer programs to aid the design process. ® Contains a chapter cutlining the practical problems of implomenting fitors and how to overcome them, using simulation and measured results. = Contains many worked examples of filter designs for use al audio and radio frequencies. = Explains the principles ina way thatrequires no advanced mathematical knowledge. '= Helps the selection of the optimum filter response to meet any design requirement. = Deals with switched capacitor and switched resistor filters. "= Includes a comprehensive catalogue of pre-calculated tables. Contents: Introduction; Modem filter design —the low-pass filter; High-pass, band-pass and band-stop filter design; Active low-pass filters; Active high-pass, band-pass and band-stop fiters; Using real components; Filter design software. ‘The Filter Handbook is for electronics engineers and technicians, students, enthusiasts and also radio amateurs. ‘Stefan Niewiadomski, BEng., MSc., CEng. MIEE, studied for an honours degree in electronics at Liverpool University and amasters degree in modern electronics at Nottingham University. After leaving university he worked as a circuit designer in the telecommunications industry for thirteen years andis now in the semiconductor industry involved in semicustom IC design. Hisinterestin filters began when designing radio projects for publication in magazines, He found that the subject of filter designis generally approached at a high professional level and very litte easy-to-understand information exists. His many articles on constructional radio projects, general electronic designs and filter design have appeared in Electronics and Wireless World, Practical Wireless and other radio and electronics magazines. 1SBN 0-434-91578-2 [SY] HEINEMANN | NEWNES o Maoesebisrartronic fiter design and and without the enormous amount of oks.on this subject. With many .00k' tersin.a unifying way. uter programstoaid the design the practical problemsof toovercome them, using sults. apes of filter designs for use at ay that requires no advanced yptimum filter response to meet any stand switched resistor fiters, atalogue of pre-calculated tables. ifilter design —the low-pass filter; A-stop filter design; Active low-pass pass and band-stop filters; Using real were. roni¢s engineers and technicians, radio amateurs, 1g,,MSc.,CEing,, MIE, studied for an at Liverpool University and a masters atNottinghan University. After leaving itdesigner in the telocommunications isnow in the semiconductorindustry ign an designing radio projects for und that the subject af filterdesignis ‘professional level and very litle on exists. His many articles on yeneral electronic designs andfilter ronics and Wireless World, Practical lectronics magazines. apind uB)sap joon20ad y YOOMANVIH Ua /JSWOPD|MaIN TSIBY (-454-91578-2 i) StFILTER HANDBOOK A practical design guide Stefan Niewiadomski A Heinemann NewnesTomy wile, Anno, and ehitdren, Rebovea and Philp Heinemann Newnes ‘An irvpant of Heinemann Profesional Publishing Ltd Halley Court, Jordan Hil, Onford OX? RFT OXFORD LONDON MELBOURNE AUCKLAND SINGAPORE IBADAN NAIROBI GABORONE, KINGSTON ust published 1989 © Stefan Niewiadoreski 1989 ‘pitish Library Cataloguing ix Publication Data Niewindomsld, Sten Fllte: hancock 1. Eleearic filters, Design Live 621 381324 ISBN 0434913782 ‘Typeset ny August Filusctiing, Haydock, St Kelens Printed and bound in Great Britain by Courier International Lud, Tiptcer, EssexContents Chapter L Chapter 2 Chaprer 3 Chapter 4: Chapter 5 Chapter 6: Chapter 7: Index Introduction Modern filter design: the low-pass filter High-pass, band-pass and band-stop filter design Active low-pass filters Active high-pass, band-pass and band-stop filters Using real components Filter design software B 102 12a 168 189)Notes for US readers ‘ ‘The Fitter Handbook has been written with a general audience in mind and not just for UK readers. However, in parts the book refers to standards and products which are more understandable and available to UK readers. This addendum explains these points and offers alternative sources for some of ‘the components referred to in the text. Toko is referred to extensively as a supplier of inductors. This company is ‘now ane of the very few sources of audio and RF coils at reasonable prices in the UK. The US address of Toko is: Toko Ameviea Inc., 1250 Fechanville Drive, Mt Prospect, Ilinois 60056 (312-297-0070). Other possible sources of inductors in the US are Dale and Miller. The sources given for low cost circuit simulators are all in the UK, ‘Number One Systems will be pleased to accept enquiries from the US. In the US a catalogue of electronics software, including circuil analysis programs, is available from BV Engineering, 2200 Business Way. Suite 207, Riverside, Califoria 92501 (714-781-0252). An alternative supplier is Btron RF Enter- prises, PO Rox 4042, Diemond Bar, California 91765, The BASIC prorams given in Chapter 7 are written using only low-level statements avoiding the graphical presentation of results which tends to make pragrams more machine dependent. This should make their transla- tion for use on other BASIC machines, suchas Apple. IBM PC. Commodore and so on, straightforward. ‘Where reference lo the E12 range of resistors, capacitors and inductors is made, this refers to components having values which are power-of-ten rul- liples of 1.0, 1.2, 1-5, 1.8,2.2,27, 3.3, 3.9.4.7, 5.6, 6.8and 8.2, In the US, this range is generally referred to as “ihe 10% tolerance range’, which can. be misleading since components with these values can be obtained with tighter tolerances than 10% Analternative to the Siemens range of meiallized polyester capacitors are Panasonic capacitors, available from Digi-Key Corporation, PO Box 677, Thief River Falls, Minnesota 56701 (1-800-344-4539),Notes for US readers ‘The Filter Handbook bas been written with a general audience in mind and not just For LIK readers. However, in parts the book refers ta standards and products which are more understandable and available to UK readers. This addendum cxplains these points and offers alternative sources for some of the components referred to in the tex:. ‘Toko is cefecred to extensively as 2 supplier of inductors. This company is now one of the very few sources of audio and RE coils at reasonable prices in the UK. The US address of Toko is: Toko America Inc., 1250 Fechanville Drive, Mt Prospect, Illinois 60056 (312-297-0070). Other possible sources of induetors in 1he US are Dale and Miller, The sources given for low cost circuit simulators are all in the UK. Number One Systems will be pleased to accept enquiries froma the US. In the US a catalogue of electronics software, including circuit analysis programs, is available from BV Engineering, 2200 Business Way, Suite 207, Riverside. Califoria 92501 (714-781-0252). An alternative supplier is Etron RF Enter- prises, PO Box 4042, Diamond Bar, Califormia 91765. ‘The BASIC prorams given in Chapter 7 are writen using only low-level statements avoiding the graphical presentation of results which tends to make programs more machine dependent, This should make their transla- tion for use on other BASIC machines, such as Apple, IBM PC, Commodore and so on, straightforward. Where reference to the B12 range of resistors, capaciors and inductors is made, this refers to components having values which are power-of-ten mul- tiples of 1.0, 1.2.1.5, 1.8.2.2, 2.7.3.3, 3.9,4.7, 56,6.8 and 8.2. In the US, this range is generally referred t0 45 ‘the 10% tolerance range’, which can be misleading since components with these values can be obtained with tighter tolerances than 10% ‘An alternative to the Siemens range of metallized polyester capacitors are Panasonic capacitors, available from Digi-Key Corporation, PO Box 677, ‘Thief River Falls, Minnesota 56701 (1-800-344-4539),1 Introduction A filter, or more exactly an electric wave filer, isan electrical network which has some of ts transfer characteristics frequency-SIMPLE LOW-PASS FILTERS 15 Figure 2.5 4 simple low-pass ‘iter consisting of an LC network wherever possible, taking care to choose 4 value that does not cause excessive direct voltage drop dus to the current flowing trough it. In some applications a parallel combination of « high-value electrolytic or tantalum capacitor and a smaller-value ceramic plate capacitor is used instead of the single capacitor. This gives good suppression over a wide band ‘of frequencies, the high-value capacitor being effective for audio-frequency ‘noise and the ceramic capacitor suppressing radio-frequency noise when the high-value capacitor has ceased to be effective as a capacitor. This cont guration is still a first-order system, since inputs ‘see’ only a single capaci- ‘tance, the parallel combination, which because of the practical limitations of capacitors varies with frequency. In more critical applications the single-pole circuit may be inadequate. A second pole can be added, in the form of a series inductor, as shown in Fig. 2.5. Two effects are now preventing AC from passing from the input to the output: the increasing reactance of the inductor (given by Xi=eaL) and the decreasing reactance of the capicitor with frequency, This is therefore, a two-pole. or second-order, circuit. ‘The response of this circuit is not as easy to predict, because the inductor and capacitor form a series-resonant circuit which can produce a peak in the output voltage at a frequency given by w,=(LC) ‘rad/s (or f,=1/2a{LC)' Hz)so longas the damping effect of the source and terminating resistors isnot too great, This damping effect can be quantified by calculating the Q values of the series leg (the R,L combination) and the shunt leg (the CR, combination). Assuming perfect components: aXe Qn) One nd Q = RE 22 ad = The total @ of the circuit is given by: Qu = 21 @3) Oi- The effect that Q,., has on the amplitude response of the circuit is shown in Fig. 26. greater values of Qua give a more peaked response at. and a ‘greater initial roll-off, though the ultimate roll-off of all Qe: values is the same. The peak in the response is only seen for Qios valucs greater than about 0.5. If the reader cares to try a few combinations of @, L, C, Reand Ry it will16 FILTER HANDBOOK Figure 2.6 Typical amplinude response of two pole LC Law- pass filters showing the effect of mnereasing Qos Figure 27 The tdeaized Biterwordh low-pass filter response. Cut-off ts defined asthe “freauens ot whl the artenaaston reaches 3101 dB. The siart of stop band is arbitvarity defied 6) the Aesiyner as the frequency at whic the attemention reached 4,8 oo r 7% Neeuined mii lqtncy aeey—r be seen to be difficult to arrive at the right combination to obtain a desired Qo Vale. ‘Again, this circuit is often secn decoupling power supply rails when the inductor is usually ceferced to as a choke, meaning that it can maintain a reasonable inductance value while passing the direct current needed by the circuit being fed, In this application, obtaining a peek in the response is not imporlani und theexact valuesof Rand Ri will be difficult, if not impossible, to predict. For most decoupling applications. a L mE choke and a high- quality 0.1 pF or LOnF ceramic capacitor will give good decoupling action for radio frequencies, with the capacitor increased to say 100 uF for audio applications. ‘The Butterworth response Figure 2.7 shows the typical araplitude response of a Butterworth law-pass filter, The Butterworth approximation is arrived at by insisting that the amplitude response is fiat at zero frequency. This is why this responses often called maximally fat, which is sometimes misinterpreted as meaning that it “To ates Bart srtTHE BUTTERWORTH RESPONSE 17 ‘has the lowest attenuation throughout the passband ofall filter types; infact, the term maximally flat refers to its response at and just above zero fre- quency. As the order of the filter is increased the accuracy of the approxi- mation to a flat passband improves. ‘The cut-off frequency for this type of filter is defined as the frequency at hich the output power has fallen to half its zero-frequeney level: that is the 3.01 4B voltage-attenuation point (commonly abbreviated to simply 3B). Note that nothing magical happens at the cut-off frequency: a common ‘misconception is that it marks the frequency beyond which the filter offers infinite attenuation zo inputs, which is untrue. The response beyond cut-off 5 said to be monotonic, that is the attenuation constantly increases (in theory at least) as frequency increases. There is no obvious characteristic which defines the erd of the transition band and the start of the stepband. The designer of the filter must define this by specifying a frequency, at which ‘the attenuation must reach a certain value, Ay, Fillers produced using the Butierworth approximation tura out to be a compromise between steepness of attenuation beyond cut-off and initial fatness in the passband. In the context of circuit Q described in the previous section, Butterworth fiers are considered to be of medium-Q. ‘The attenuation 4 of a Butterworth low-pass filter is given by: Ao voenf +(S)" Jen ea) me where ois the ungulnr frequency in radjs at which the attenuation is desired, (gis the cut-off angular frequency in radjs, snisthe order of the filter, which isequal to the number of elerncats in (he filter in its passive implementation, ‘This cquation can be used to find the attenuation at any frequency; below, at ‘or above the cut-off frequency. It is a good example of how calculators and. ‘computers have simplified filter design: evaluating this equation using x slide- rule or logarithm tables would be laborious and prone to ecror, but nowa- days presents no problems. By evaluating this equation at various frequen- ° esti 3) Figure 2.8 Butterworth low-pass filters passband response for wr a ig Was ea wr usoy n=2t07 Norcalaed ung gery adie me18 FILTER HANDBOOK igure 29 Butterworth low-pass fle sapbant resp fr nm dio? Y zo ee Ew omalae ng Feeney sien cies for several of n, a family of curves can he generated which illustrate the attentuation achieved by filters of chese orders at any frequency. Figures 28 und 2.9 sherw this information for frequencies below and above cut-off (nor malized to | rad/s) respectively. Fig. 2.8 shows that, as the order of the iter inereases, the responses remains Natter for more of the passband. The ultimate roll-off rate of a Butterworth filter (boyone! about twice the cut-off frequency) Is 6 dB per cctave, where 1 is the order of the Alter, A sixth-order filter, therefore, can be expected to have about 3648 more al(enualion at four Limes the cut-off trequeney than it had at twice the cut-off frequency, and another 36dB attenuation at eight times the cut-off fre- quency. Figure 2.9 provides a handy method of assessing the order of Butterworth filter needed to meet a given stopbunxd attention specification, For exam- pile, say a filter is needed with an attenuation of 40dB at twice the cut-off frequency. Figure2.9 shows that a sixth-order Butterworth filte: has only 36dBattennation at 2 rad/s, whereas a seventh-order filter has 42 4B attomu- ation at this frequency. Therefore the seventh-csrder filer is required. Thisis good example of how discrepances occur when an attempt is made co imple- menta filtering specification, Even ut this eurly stage of design, the rounding up of the filter order will cause the attenuation at 2rad/s to be greater than originally specified 4008. An alternative way of determining the order of a Butterworth filter is to use the equation: log, {10° pew Lob 2 fos 2) a esTHE BUTTERWORTH RESPONSE 19. Figure 2.10 Buttersorth, Chebyshev and Bessel low-pass filter passive implementations where the symbols have the same meanings as in equation 2.4. Equation 2.5 is simply a rearrangement of equation 2.4. In genera! a non- integer answer for # will be obtained and, since a filter can only have an integral number of components, the answer must be rounded up. Using the 404B filter above as an example, the answer obtained for 1 using equation 2.5is 6.644 which, when rounded up, gives 7 as decuced from Fig, 2.9. So fong as a filter having equal source and termination impedences is ‘required, calcafanig component values is relatively simple. The component values for ihe paisivé implementation of @ normalized Butterworth filter having 10 source and tetminating impedances is given by COMP, =2 in. AVE fork=1,2...0 26 where COMP, is the £-th component, being either a shunt capacitor (in Farads) or a series inductor (in Henries), of the circuit in Fig. 2.10, 1 is the order of the filter. Be carefil when evaluating this equation on a calculator to work in radians, not degrees. Using equation 2.6, component values for filter com- plexities of n= 2 to 7 have been calculated and are shown in Table 2.1. Com- Table 21 Butterworth fow-pass LC element vaties PuueR oRER cli? wo. 2 aseie2 Teale bos = 3 tonan 2/9000 1.000 BOO A n765K LLBGTE 118078 0.7654 BOS «5 OLEIBO L.61eo 7/6000 1.6180 0.6139 poe § 3.5176 i414? 2.9509 V9a19 1.4122 9.5176 Bor 7018450 T1270 118019 2.0009 175019 2.2470 0.4450 PuLER ONDER dG? SSBC Siem =8.5 9 congas} yj ] ucgrton micuneesr Costierion20 FILTER HANDBOOK Figure 2.11 The idealised Chebyshev low-pass filter response ponent values for values of m greater than 7 can easily be calculated from equation 2 6 if required. ‘Note that two basic configurations are shown in Fig. 2.10: (a) has a shunt capacitor and (b) has 2 series inductor as the first element, These networks are duals of each other, meaning that they have identical responses in ll respects. For even values of 2 (1=2.4...) there is little to choose between them, but when 1s odd (at) has one fewer inductor than (b), Since inductors are usually more expensive and less easy to obtain than capacitors, confi- uration (a) is usually chosen when an equal-terminations, low-pass filter is needed, Configuration (b), however, offers advantages when unequal ier- sainations are required, or when the low-pass filter is only a prototype to be transformed into a different response, 43 will be seen in Chapter 3 ‘A shorthand method of describing filters by a code has been devised which considerably simplifies reference to different filters. In the case of Buttcr- worth filters only the order needs to be stated to describe fully the nature of its response. For Butterworth filters the form of the code is Br. The initial lever of the word Butterworth is used to describe the type of response, fol- lowed by the order, m. A second-order Busterwoth filter can therefore be described as BO2, a third-order as BO3 and so on, Other filter types require more description. Sometimes a fiter is required to operate between unequal terminations. Rather than give tables of designs uble to operate between unequal terazin- ations here, reference should be made to Chapter 7, where the method of design is described, and a nastc program which produces the component values for such filters is given, Alternatively, references 3, 4 and $ tabulate nomnalized component values for Butterworth filters capable of working between unequal terminations. ‘The Chebyshev response ‘Whereas the Butterworth approximation results in an increasing deviation com the flat passband of the ideal low-pass filter as frequency increases, the Chebyshev approximation sims to distribute the deviation evenly across the eiTHE CHEBYSHEV RESPONSE 21 passband as ripples. Each ripple is of equal amplitude and the maximum. ripple value is given the symbol dp. Figure2.11 shows the typical amplitude response of « third-order Chebyshev low-pass filter. It is seen to be a third- order response because there are three hall cycies of passband ripple; a fifth- order filter would have five half eycles and So on. As with the Butterworth approximation, Chebyshev filters are monotonic in the stopband, 4, and ©, are again chosen by the designer to specify the stopbund pesfurmunce of (he filler. Chebyshev filters are considered to be of high Q, increasing as the amplitude of passband ripple is increased. Different authors have different ways of defining the cut-off frequency of Chebyshev filters and the unwary can become confused. Some (references 6, 7, 8] define it in a similar way to the Butterworth response: that is, as the frequency at which the allenuation reavbes 3B. Others [references 9, 10, 11] define itas the frequency at which the aftenuation first exceeds the permitted passband ripple valus. Confusion arises because, for a given passband ripple, two supposedly normalized filters having their cut-off frequencies defined in these two different ways will have different component values, Ifa catalogue of Chebyshev filters is encountered, simulation of ane of the fillers will reveal which definition of cut-off_has been used if this is not stated. In this book the latter definition, that is the ripple cut-off point, will be used. To avoid confia- sion, the frequency at which it occurs will be referred to asaip, rather (han dig, No matter what amplitude of passband ripple is allowed, fora given order of fier, the peaks and troughs of the ripples occur al the same frequencies. These frequencies can easily be calculated from the formula Dap=cos®™ fork=0,12 2a 2” Qn where cp is the angular frequency at which the peaks and troughs occur (normalized to 1 radis) anis the order of the filter. “The magnitude of passband ripple can be expressed in several ways: it can be as.a relative amplitude in dB; asa ripple factor: asa voltage standing. wave ratio (VSWR), a torm familiar to most engincers as a measure of how good a mati a load presents to a device which is sensitive to mismatches; ar as a reflection coefficient. Designers may come across any of these terms in filer literature and itis useful ta be able to convert between them. If the passband ripple is 4, dB, then the ripple factor, e, s given by =f (28) For values of ay less tian 3.01 dB, which is usually the case, e works out tobe less than 1 ‘The VSWR can be calculated from s and is given by 2%