Introduc�on to Fluid Mechanics:

No-slip condi�on: a fluid that is in direct contact with a non-porous solid surface s�cks to the surface. In other words, the fluid velocity (both tangen�al and normal) at the solid
surface is zero.
Steady versus Unsteady flow steady if all its proper�es in each loca�on do not change with �me, unsteady if even one of its proper�es at even one loca�on changes with �me
Development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe V = V(r, z) and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional downstream when
the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in the flow direc�on.
-The analogue of free-body diagram in fluid mechanics are control mass (closed system) and more o�en control volume (open system)
-Control mass is a closed system that contains a specific amount of mass. Therefore mass can not pass across the boundaries of a control mass.
-Control volume is a selected region in space. It usually encloses a region with flow in/out that we aim to study. Mass can cross the boundaries of a control volume
The most common proper�es in fluid mechanics are pressure P (N/m2, Pa) | velocity V (vector) (m/s) | temperature T ( o C, K) | density ρ (kg/m3) | viscosity μ (kg/m·s) | mass m
(kg) | energy E (J, N.m, kg.m2/s2) | shear stress τ (N/m2, Pa)
-Extensive proper�es depend on the size or extent of the system, e.g. total mass, total volume, total energy.
-Intensive proper�es are independent of the size of the system, but depend on the loca�on in
the system, e.g. temperature and pressure. an intensive property that is uniformly distributed in
a system does not depend on the size or loca�on.
-Stress is the force per unit area 1 bar= 10^5 Pa
-Shear stress is the tangen�al stress
Hydrosta�cs and Buoyancy
-All the forces (stresses) exerted by the fluid on a solid surface are:
– Normal to the surface (pressure force, form drag): Fn (σ), where σ=P pressure for
incompressible flows (we don’t discuss compressible forces)
– Tangent to the surface (viscous force, fric�on force, fric�on drag): F t (τ), where τ is due to
viscosity Shear stress and pressure
-The buoyant force ac�ng on a body of uniform density immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Conserva�on of Mass and Momentum:
Conserva�on of mass:

-In many problems, the flow crossing the control volume does not have uniform velocity. For example, channel flow or wake behind wind turbine in this situa�on conserva�on of
mass is s�ll valid, but to calculate flowrate we need to integrate the velocity.
Conserva�on of Momentum:
Conserva�on of momentum is the backbone of fluid mechanics. Without it, we cannot– Understand the propulsion mechanism of aircra�s – Analyse the performance of wind
farms – Explore the aerodynamics of cars

Conserva�on of energy:

Pipe Flow:
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
-In laminar flow the fluid par�cles are constrained to move in essen�ally parallel paths. The shearing stress between adjacent moving layers dominates the flow.
-In turbulent flow, the par�cles do not remain in layers but apparently move randomly leading to a rapid and con�nuous mixing of the flowing fluid.
-The random mo�on in a turbulent flow suggests that the iner�a forces, associated with accelera�ons during the mo�on maybe important.
-These proper�es lead to the conclusion that during laminar flow viscous forces are the domina�ng factor.
-When the iner�a forces are dominant, the flow might well be turbulent.
Reynolds Number(Dimensionless) :
-Turbulent flow is characterized by disorderly and rapid fluctua�ons of swirling regions of
fluid, called eddies, throughout the flow.
-In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass, momentum, and energy to other regions of flow much more rapidly
than laminar flow, greatly enhancing mass, momentum, and heat transfer.
-Orifice plate meter is less expensive and more compact but causes higher energy losses
Flow rate measurement:
In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are commonly expressed in
terms of the equivalent fluid column height, called the head loss h.
Fric�on Factor for laminar flow in circular pipe:

Dimensional Analysis:
-Non-dimensionalisa�on is dividing each flow or a geometric parameter by a reference value of a parameter with the same dimension
-The full scale actual case is called prototype and the scaled case in laboratory is called model
-When building a model to reconstruct the flow around the prototype, we need to ensure that complete similarity is sa�sfied, which includes: geometric similarity, kinema�c
similarity and dynamic similarity|Geometric similarity: the model must be the same shape as the prototype, but may be scaled by some constant scale factor
-Kinema�c similarity: at all loca�ons, the velocity in the model flow should be propor�onal (by a constant scale factor) to
that at corresponding loca�ons in the prototype flow, and points in the same direc�on.
-Dynamic similarity: all forces in the model flow should scale by a constant factor to corresponding forces in the
prototype flow (force-scale equivalence)
-The inputs at our control are the velocity U, geometry L and fluid proper�es ρ, μ, The are only two input forces:
Buckingham Π theorem:
Step 1: List the parameters and count their total number n. Make sure that any listed independent parameter is indeed independent of the
others step-by-step procedure
Step 2: List the dimension of each parameter, and count the total number of primary dimensions j (i.e. L, M, T, Θ) that construct the dimensions of parameters
Step 3: The expected number of Π’s (i.e. the number of non-dimensional parameters) is k = n - j Buckingham Π theorem
Step 4: Choose j repea�ng parameters (from inputs) that will be used to construct each Π

Step 5: Generate the Π’s one at a �me by grouping the j with one of the remaining parameters, forcing the product to be dimensionless.

Boundary Layer:
-Boundary layer is a layer where viscous forces are important and forms on any solid surface, Over a flat plate, ini�ally the boundary layer is laminar, As we move downstream, the
boundary layer grows in size and at some point transi�on to turbulent takes place, Over any solid surface, viscous forces are ac�ve up to a certain height δ away
from the wall.that height δ is known as boundary layer thickness and the zone where viscous
forces are important is boundary layer.
The effect of the viscosity of a real fluid is to produce a layer of fluid around the body
through which the fluid velocity varies from zero at the body surface to U∞, the
local main stream velocity, at its outer edge. | This layer, which is usually thin compared to
the body size, is called the boundary layer. |Across the boundary layer, velocity gradients are
large and hence viscous shear forces are very important. Outside the boundary layer the flow
approximates to that of an ideal fluid | If the laminar boundary layer is on a flat plate, the par�cles
move approximately parallel to the plate. |In a turbulent boundary layer the paths of the individual
par�cles are no longer straight. The par�cles move in a disorderly manner through the fluid so that
thorough mixing takes place.
Cri�cal Reynolds Number:

Drag and Li�:

Point 1: drag is always parallel to the flow direc�on and li� is always normal to it, drag could be due to both pressure and shear stress.
Likewise, li� could be due to pressure and shear stress
Drag and Li� coefficients:
Slender Bodies:
For slender bodies, A is defined based on the planar area
Bluff Bodies:
For bluff bodies, A is defined based on the frontal area

Important note : Similarly, the characteris�c length for Reynolds number for slender bodies is based on the length, and for bluff bodies is based on the height
Pressure drag vs viscous drag:

-viscous drag: cause: wall shear-stress distribu�on

flow physics: boundary layer around the object
-Pressure drag: cause: pressure difference between the front and rear side of the object
flow physics: boundary layer separa�on
-For slender bodies, the boundary layer stays atached to the object and most of
the drag is due to fric�on. Pressure drag has small contribu�on to the total drag.
-For bluff bodies, the boundary layer is separated on the rear side of the object.
That creates a highly asymmetrical pressure distribu�on between the front and
rear side of the object, leading to a large pressure drag.
Separa�on: The total drag on a body is the sum of the fric�on drag and the pressure drag, the presence of a posi�ve, or
adverse, pressure gradient will eventually lead to separa�on of the flow from the surface. Separa�on produces a wake of
turbulent fluid downstream in which energy is eventually dissipated into heat as the eddies are broken up. This gives rise to a
drag force (pressure or form drag) on the body due to unbalanced pressures.
Separa�on Point: Loca�on of the separa�on point on a given curved surface will be very different
for laminar/turbulent boundary layer, Turbulent flow beter withstands the adverse pressure
gradient, with the point of separa�on moving downstream
Vortex Generators:Trip the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent – Advantage: smaller wake,
decrease in form drag – Disadvantage: this will cause an increase in the viscous drag
Streamlining: The objec�ve of streamlining a body is to move the point of separa�on as far back
as possible and thus to produce the minimum size of turbulent wake. Rectangular cylinder has well defined
separa�on at all sharp corners and consequently very high drag, By streamlining its rear to a sharp trailing
edge we can reduce its drag another 85 percent
-Streamlining decreases the pressure drag, but by making the body longer so as to promote a gradual increase in pressure, the fric�on drag is increased.
-The op�mum amount of streamlining, then, is that for which the sum of the fric�on and pressure drag is a minimum.
Heat Transfer:
-Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference
-What is thermal (internal) energy? Thermal energy is associated with the transla�on, rota�on, vibra�on and electronic states of the atoms
and molecules that comprise mater. It represents the cumula�ve effect of microscopic ac�vi�es and is directly linked to the temperature of
mater.Important note: DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal Energy, Temperature and Heat Transfer
Defini�ons: Thermal Energy U or u: Energy associated with microscopic behavior of mater (J or J/Kg)| Temperature T: A means of indirectly
assessing the amount of thermal energy stored in mater (K or o C) | Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to temperature gradients
| Heat (Q or q) Amount of thermal energy transferred over a �me interval (J) | Heat ( Transfer ) Rate Q� or q’ Thermal energy transfer per
unit �me (W) | Heat Flux Q" or q’’ Thermal energy transfer per unit �me and surface area (W/m2)
Conduc�on : Occurs in a medium (fluid or solid) Linked to atomic and molecular vibra�on or electronic mo�on. Diffusion of heat due to
temperature gradient within the medium Convec�on Heat is transported by moving fluid. Radia�on: Emission of energy by electromagne�c
waves
Conduc�on heat transfer: Conduc�on heat transfer is governed by Fourier’s Law. Fourier’s law states that the heat transfer rate is directly
propor�onal to the gradient of temperature. The constant of propor�onality is the thermal conduc�vity (k).

Heat transfer rates:

1- conduc�on:
Fourier’s Law of heat conduc�on:

2-Convec�on
Newton’s law of cooling:
Rela�on of convec�on to flow over a surface and development of velocity and thermal
boundary layers:
Methodology for solving conduc�on problems General Approach:
Specify appropriate form of the heat equa�on (radia�on, convec�on, conduc�on and heat losses
/ heat sources). • Solve for the temperature distribu�on. (Find solu�on in a textbook or use
calculus or use a numerical method such as finite differences / CFD) • Apply Fourier’s law to
determine the heat transfer / flux. Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduc�on with
No Thermal Energy Genera�on. • Evaluate thermal resistances and solve thermal circuit to obtain
heat flux Thermal resistance concept:

Thermal Circuit:

Nusselet Number: The Nusselt number is the ra�o of convec�ve to conduc�ve heat
transfer across a boundary.