CHEN 801:

ADVANCED TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

Lecture Note

By
Dr A. Abubakar

Department of Chemical Engineering

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
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▪ COURSE OUTLINE
➢ Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
➢ Differential Equations of Fluid Flow
➢ Approximate Solutions of the Fluid Flow Equations
➢ Turbulence Models
➢ Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)

▪ REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS

➢ ‘Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications’ by
Yunus S. Cengel and John M. Cimbala.
➢ ‘Fundamental of momentum, Heat and Mas Transfer’ by
James R, Welty, Charles E. Wicks, Robert E. Wilson,
Gregory L. Rorrer.
➢ ‘Fluid Mechanics’ by Frank M. White
➢ ‘Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering’, Vol. 1.
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 TOPIC 4

TURBULENCE MODELS

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Definition of turbulence models:
‘‘A turbulence model is a set of equations (algebraic or differential)
which determine the turbulent transport terms in the mean (i.e. time-
averaged) flow equations and thus close the system of equations’’.

4.1 Turbulent Flow

▪ Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic.
The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid
is called laminar. E.g. The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at
low velocities is typically laminar.
▪ The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations is called
turbulent. E.g. The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high
velocities is typically turbulent. A flow that alternates between being
laminar and turbulent is called transitional. Reynolds number, Re, is
the key parameter for the determination of the flow regime in pipes.
For instance, under most practical conditions, the flow in a circular
pipe is laminar for Re ≤ 2300, turbulent for Re ≥ 4000, and
transitional in between. 4
▪ Consider Fig. 4.1 below. The straight, parallel black lines are
streamlines, which are everywhere parallel to the mean flow. In
laminar flow, the fluid particles follow the streamlines exactly, as
shown by the linear dye trace in the laminar region. In turbulent flow,
eddies of many sizes are superimposed onto the mean flow. When
dye enters the turbulent region it traces a path dictated by both the
mean flow (streamlines) and the eddies. Larger eddies carry the dye
laterally across streamlines. Smaller eddies create smaller scale
stirring that causes the dye filament to spread (diffuse).

Fig. 4.1: Tracer transport in laminar and turbulent flow 5

▪ It should be noted that almost all fluid flows which we encounter in
daily life are turbulent. Typical examples are air flows around (as well
as in) cars, aeroplanes and buildings.
▪ There is no exact definition of turbulent flow, but it has a number of
characteristic features or behaviour some of which are listed below.
➢ Irregularity: disorganized, chaotic with random behavior or variables.
“A random variable, function, or number is one whose behavior at any
later time (or place) cannot be predicted by knowledge of its behavior at
the present time (or place)”.
➢ Large Reynolds number
➢ Non-repeatability: i.e. sensitivity to initial conditions
➢ Extremely large range of length and time scales (but such that the
smallest scales are still sufficiently large to satisfy the continuum
hypothesis)
➢ High diffusivity: enhanced diffusion (mixing) and dissipation (both of
which are mediated by viscosity at molecular scales). “Dissipation is the
conversion of turbulence energy to thermal energy by viscous effects on
small scales”.
➢ Three dimensionality, time dependence and rotationality
➢ Intermittency in both space and time. i.e. switching between nearly
steady and chaotic behavior, or between periodic and chaotic behavior. 6
4.2 Time-Averaging of Turbulent Flow Variables
▪ It is neither feasible nor desirable to consider in detail all of the small-
scale fluctuations that occur in the turbulent flow. For this reason, a
famous aerodynamicist, Osborne Reynolds, invented the concept of
‘time-averaging’ (also known as ‘Reynolds averaging’) of turbulent
flow variables (such as velocity, pressure, temperature etc.). This
concept is based on the fact that the time-dependent nature of
turbulence, with a wide range of time scales (i.e. frequencies), means
that statistical averaging techniques are required to approximate
random fluctuations.
▪ With this concept, an instantaneous variable of the turbulent flow can
be decomposed into a mean (i.e. time-average) part and fluctuating
part. This is called Reynolds decomposition. For instance, Reynolds
decomposition of instantaneous velocity, 𝑢 𝒙, 𝑡 , is given as follows:
𝑢 𝒙, 𝑡 = 𝑢ത 𝒙 + 𝑢′ 𝒙, 𝑡 (4.1)
where 𝑢ത 𝒙 is the time-averaged part which is no longer time-
dependent and 𝑢′ 𝒙, 𝑡 is the fluctuating part which is still time-
dependent.
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▪ Figure 4.2 depicts the temporal (i.e. time-dependent) behaviors of 𝑢, 𝑢ത
and 𝑢′

Figure 4.2: Plots of Reynolds decomposition parts

4.2.1 Mathematical expression of time-averaged variables

▪ Suppose we denote an instantaneous variable shown in Fig. 4.3 as
𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑎ത + 𝑎′ 𝑡 , then the time-averaged part, 𝑎ത over a time period 𝑇
is expressed mathematically as; 8
 𝑡+0.5𝑇
1
𝑎ത = න 𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (4.2)
𝑇
𝑡−0.5𝑇

▪ The period T has to be sufficiently long so that the time-average of

the fluctuations in Eq. (4.1) is equal to zero. i.e.
𝑡+0.5𝑇
1
𝑎ഥ′ = න 𝑎′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0 (4.3)
𝑇
𝑡−0.5𝑇

𝑡+0.5𝑇
1
𝑎ഥ′ = න 𝑎′ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡−0.5𝑇

𝑎 𝑡+0.5𝑇
1
𝑎ത = න 𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎′ 𝑇
𝑡−0.5𝑇

Figure 4.3: Time average

𝑡 − 0.5𝑇 𝑡 + 0.5𝑇 9
▪ However, the time period T should not be so long that measurable
changes in the average values (such as 𝑎) ത would occur. Therefore,
during the period T, the average value 𝑎ത of the instantaneous
quantity a can be viewed as constant (i.e. time-independent).

4.2.1 Basic rules of time-averaged variables

▪ Using Eqs. (4.2) and (4.3), the following relations can be proved.
1. Time average of the sum of two variables or quantities 𝑎 and 𝑏 is
equal to the sum of their time averages. i.e.

(4.4)
Note that 𝑎ത = 𝑎ത and 𝑏ത = 𝑏ത
2. Time average of the product of a constant 𝑐 and a fluctuating
quantity 𝑎 is equal to the product of the constant and time average
of the fluctuating quantity. i.e.

(4.5)
3. The time average of the product of two quantities 𝑎 and 𝑏 is
transformed as follows: 10
 (4.6)
NOTE:
➢ The time average of the product of the two fluctuations 𝑎′ and 𝑏′
cannot be set to zero. For instance, if 𝑏 = 𝑎, the product of the
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two fluctuations would be 𝑎′𝑎′ = 𝑎′ . Clearly, a squared term like
2
𝑎′ will always be positive, and so its time-average will not be zero.
➢ On the other hand, terms like 𝑎′ 𝑏ത can be regarded as the time
average of a fluctuation 𝑎′ multiplied by a constant value 𝑏ത .
Therefore, just as in the case of the term 𝑐𝑎′ in Eq. (4.5), the term
𝑎′ 𝑏ത is zero.
4. Similarly, other transformations are as follows:
𝑎ത 𝑏ത = 𝑎ത 𝑏ത (4.7)
𝑡+0.5𝑇 𝑡+0.5𝑇
𝜕𝑎 1 𝜕𝑎 𝑡 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑎ത
= න 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (4.8)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝑇 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝑇 𝜕𝑥𝑖
𝑡−0.5𝑇 𝑡−0.5𝑇 11
 Eq. (4.8) implies that the del operator 𝛻, which takes derivatives with
respect to position, also commutes with time-averaging as;
𝛻𝑎 = 𝛻 𝑎ത (4.9)
In the same fashion,
𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑎ത
= (4.10)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Lastly,
𝜕𝑎′ 𝜕𝑎′
= =0 (4.11)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖

4.3 Time-Averaged Differential Conservation Equations

▪ As can be seen from topic 2, the differential continuity equation, Eq.
(2.7) and Navier-Stokes equations, Eqs. (2.22) were expressed in
terms of instantaneous or fluctuating variables (𝐯, 𝑃 and 𝜌). These
equations in their present forms are generally very difficult to solve. An
easier task is to solve time-averaged versions of these equations in
which some of the fluctuation contributions are averaged out. Although
the solution to the time-averaged equations provides less detailed, it is
still very useful and sufficient from engineering point of view. 12
▪ Now, to express the conservation equations in terms of the time-
averaged variables, Eqs. 4.3 – 4.11 will be of great assistance.
4.3.1 Time-averaged differential continuity equation
▪ The differential continuity equation is;
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛁 ∙ 𝜌𝐯 = 0 (4.12)
𝜕𝑡
▪ Substituting 𝜌 = 𝜌ത + 𝜌′ and 𝐯 = 𝐯ത + 𝐯 ′ , and time-averaging:

▪ Applying the appropriate rule, the above equation is simplified to;

(4.13)

▪ For an incompressible fluid, 𝜌ത is a constant and 𝜌′ is zero.

Therefore, Eq. (4.13) becomes
(4.14)
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▪ Eq. (4.13) is the time-averaged continuity equation for an
incompressible fluid.
4.3.2 Time-averaged Navier-Stokes equation
▪ The Navier-Stokes equation is given by;
(4.14)
▪ Converting Eq. (4.14) from substantial derivative to normal derivative
gives;
𝜕𝐯
𝜌 + 𝐯 ∙ 𝛁𝐯 = 𝜌𝐠 − 𝜵𝑃 + 𝜇𝛁𝟐 𝐯
𝜕𝑡
▪ Note that the fluid is incompressible meaning that the density is
constant and does not fluctuate. In addition, the body force (i.e.
gravitational force, 𝜌𝐠 does not also fluctuate for an incompressible
fluid.
▪ Therefore, substituting 𝐯 = 𝐯ത + 𝐯 ′ and 𝑃 = 𝑃ത + 𝑃′ followed by time-
averaging yields;

𝜌𝐠
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▪ Expanding the above equation and applying the appropriate rule
simplify it to become;

𝜌𝐠 (4.15)

▪ For an incompressible fluid, we have;

(4.16)
▪ Substituting 𝐯 = 𝐯ത + 𝐯 ′ followed by time-averaging yields;
(4.17)
▪ From Eq. (4.14) above for incompressible turbulent flow, 𝛁 • 𝐯ത = 0.
When substituted into Eq. (4.17) gives;

▪ Since 𝛁 • 𝐯′ equals zero, adding 𝐯 ′ 𝛁 ∙ 𝐯 ′ to 𝐯 ′ ∙ 𝛁𝐯 ′ on the left of Eq.

(4.15) will not alter the equation. Furthermore, these two terms can be
combined using the vector identity to give the following expression:
𝐯 ′ 𝛁 ∙ 𝐯 ′ + 𝐯 ′ ∙ 𝛁𝐯 ′ = 𝛁 ∙ 𝐯 ′ 𝐯 ′
▪ With these modifications, Eq. (4.15) becomes; 15
 𝜌𝐠

▪ Most often, the term 𝛁 ∙ 𝐯 ′ 𝐯 ′ in the above equation is taken to the

right hand side, with the density 𝜌 (a constant by assumption) inside
the divergence to become;

𝜌𝐠 (4.18)

▪ Eq. (4.18) is the time-averaged Navier-Stokes equation for an

incompressible, constant viscosity Newtonian fluid. The equation is
also called Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equation.
Compared with the original equation, a new quantity, −𝜌𝐯′𝐯′ has
been added in Eq. (4.18) and this term is referred to as “turbulent
stress tensor” or "Reynolds stress tensor (𝝉′𝒊𝒋 )." It represents
correlations between fluctuating velocities. It is an additional stress
term due to turbulence (fluctuating velocities) and it is unknown.
▪ Therefore, the i,jth Reynolds stress tensor is given as;

𝝉′𝒊𝒋 = (4.19)
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 ▪ Writing Eq. (4.19) in terms of the component Reynolds stresses gives;
−𝜌𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑥′ −𝜌𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑦′ −𝜌𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑧′
𝝉′𝒊𝒋 = −𝜌𝑣𝑦′ 𝑣𝑥′ −𝜌𝑣𝑦′ 𝑣𝑦′ −𝜌𝑣𝑦′ 𝑣𝑧′ (4.20)
−𝜌𝑣𝑧′ 𝑣𝑥′ −𝜌𝑣𝑧′ 𝑣𝑦′ −𝜌𝑣𝑧′ 𝑣𝑧′

▪ The Reynolds stress tensor is symmetric (for example, 𝑣𝑦′ 𝑣𝑥′ = 𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑦′ ).
Therefore, there are actually six unknowns Reynolds stresses even
though they are nine in number.

4.4 Turbulence Models

▪ Now, from the above time-averaged conservation or transport
equations (excluding energy equation), there are a total of four
independent equations. These are one continuity equation and three
components of Navier-stokes equation.
▪ On the other hand, there are ten unknowns: three velocity
component, pressure, and six new Reynolds stresses. Therefore, the
degree of freedom is greater than zero.
▪ Therefore, we need to model the Reynolds stress tensor to close the
system of the equation. This is called closure problem. 17
 ▪ The need for the additional equations to model the new unknowns is
called Turbulence Modeling and the set of the additional
equations is called the turbulence model.
4.4.1 Types of turbulence models
Zero-Equation (or Algebraic Models)
First order [e.g. Mixing Length, Cebeci-Smith, Baldwin-Lomax models]
models (also
known as eddy
viscosity models One-Equation Models
because they are [e.g. Wolfstein, Baldwin-Barth, Spalart-Allmaras, k models]
based on
Boussinesq
hypothesis) Two-Equation Models
[e.g. k-ε (standard, RNG, realizable) , k-ω, k-τ, k-L models]

Second order
models (they Algebraic Stress Models (ASM*)
are not based
on Boussinesq
hypothesis) Seven-Equation or Reynolds Stress Models (RSM)
* ASM are actually two-equation models but not based on Boussinesq hypothesis 18
NOTE:
➢ The types of turbulence models as listed above are in increasing
order of complexity.
➢ The number of equations denotes the number of additional PDEs
that are being solved.
➢ There are other higher-equation models like three- and four-
equation models but they are less popular.

4.4.2 Boussinesq hypothesis

▪ Boussinesq proposed in 1877 that the Reynolds stresses could be
linked to the mean rate of deformation (i.e. mean velocity gradients)
just the way viscous stresses are linked to the instantaneous velocity
gradients for laminar flow. i.e.

𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑗
𝝉′𝒊𝒋 = −𝜌𝑣𝑖′ 𝑣𝑗′ = 𝜇𝑡 + (4.21)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗

where 𝜇𝑡 is called turbulent viscosity or eddy viscosity; the suffix

notations i, j, and k denote the x-, y-, and z directions respectively.
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▪ Eq. (4.21) can be rewritten as;
𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑗
−𝑣𝑖′ 𝑣𝑗′ = 𝜐𝑡 + (4.22)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗

𝜐𝑡 is the kinematic eddy viscosity given by;

𝜇𝑡
𝜐𝑡 = (4.23)
𝜌

▪ This turbulent or eddy viscosity is a new term which needs to be

determined. Therefore, turbulence models from zero-equation to two-
equation models are developed to determine the eddy viscosity. Its
unit is the same as that of the molecular viscosity (Pa.s). It is not
homogeneous (i.e. it varies in space). It is, however, assumed to be
isotropic (i.e. It is the same in all directions). This assumption is valid
for many flows, but not for all (e.g. flows with strong separation or
swirl).

4.4.3 Some common turbulence models

2
𝑑𝑣ҧ
▪ Prandtlʼ mixing length model: 𝜐𝑡 = 𝑙𝑚
𝑑𝑦 𝑙𝑚 = 𝜅𝛿 (4.24)
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 where 𝑙𝑚 is called mixing length (i.e. the distance for which turbulent
eddies cling together and maintain their momentum); 𝜅 = constant
determined empirically; 𝛿 = local layer or boundary layer thickness.
▪ Spalart-Allmaras model:
𝜐𝑡 = 𝑘 1Τ2 𝑡𝑜 (4.25)
where 𝑘 is obtained by an equation describing its temporal-spatial
evolution.
▪ Standard 𝑘 − 𝜀 model:
Kinetic energy, 𝑘:
𝐷𝑘 𝑡 𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑖
= 𝛻 ∙ 𝜐 + 𝐶2 𝜐𝑡 𝛻𝑘 − 𝜏𝑖𝑗 −𝜀 (4.26)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑗

Energy dissipation rate, 𝜀:

𝐷𝜀 𝜀 𝑡 𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑖 𝜀2
= 𝛻 ∙ 𝜐 + 𝐶3 𝜐𝑡 𝛻𝜀 − 𝐶4 𝜏𝑖𝑗 − 𝐶5 (4.27)
𝐷𝑡 𝑘 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝑘

where;
𝜀2
𝜐𝑡 = 𝐶𝜇 (4.28)
𝑘 21
 𝑡 𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑖 𝜕𝑣ഥ𝑗 2
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜐𝑡 + − 𝑘𝛿𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 3 (4.29)

𝐶𝜇 = 0.09; 𝐶2 = 1.0; 𝐶3 = 0.769; 𝐶4 = 1.44; 𝐶5 = 1.92

▪ It should be noted that the zero- and one-equation models are highly
deficient because 𝑡𝑜 and 𝑙𝑚 are not universal. Generally, it is found
that a two-equation model is the minimum needed for a proper
description.

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