Chapter 7:

Dislocations & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?
How are strength and dislocation motion related?
How do we increase strength?
How can heating change strength and other properties?

Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane allowing easiest slippage
Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities

Slip direction - direction of movement - Highest

linear densities
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (relatively close-packed)

in <110> directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur

Slip Systems that can and will operate

in the Cubic Metals:

Stress and Dislocation Motion

Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, R.
Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile
stress: = F/A

Resolved shear
stress: R =Fs /A s
slip plane

n
p ctio
i
l
s re
R
di

R cos cos

R = FS /AS

normal, ns
FS

n
o
i
p
i
t
sl rec
di

Relation between
and R

AS

Fcos

F
n
o
i
p
i
t
sl rec
di

FS

A/cos

nS

AS

Note: By definition is the angle between the stress direction and Slip direction; is the
angle between the normal to slip plane and stress direction

Critical Resolved Shear Stress

Condition for dislocation motion:

R CRSS

Crystal orientation can make

it easy or hard to move dislocation

R cos cos

R = 0
=90

R = /2
=45
=45

R = 0
=90

Generally:
Resolved (shear stress) is

maximum at = = 45
And

CRSS = y/2 for dislocations to

move (in single crystals)

Determining and angles for Slip in

Crystals (single X-tals this is easy!)
and angles are respectively angle between tensile
direction and Normal to Slip plane and angle between
tensile direction and slip direction (these slip directions
are material dependent)
And Remembering for cubic xtals, angles between
directions are given by:

Cos

2
1

u1u2 v1v2 w1w2

v12 w12 u22 v22 w22

Thus for metals we compare Slip System (normal to slip

plane is a direction with exact indices as plane) to applied
tensile direction using this equation to determine the
values of and to plug into the R equation to determine
if slip is expected

Slip Motion in Polycrystals

Stronger since grain boundaries
pin deformations

Slip planes & directions (, )

change from one crystal to another.

Adapted
from Fig.
7.10,
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
courtesy of
C. Brady,
National
Bureau of
Standards
[now the
National
Institute of
Standards
and
Technology,
Gaithersburg
, MD].)

R will vary from one crystal to

another.
The crystal with the largest R
yields first.
Other (less favorably oriented)
crystals yield (slip) later.
300 m

After seeing the effect of poly crystalline materials

we can say (as related to strength):

Ordinarily ductility is sacrificed when an alloy is

strengthened.

The relationship between dislocation motion and

mechanical behavior of metals is significance to
the understanding of strengthening
mechanisms.

The ability of a metal to plastically deform

depends on the ability of dislocations to move.

Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on this

simple principle: Restricting or Hindering
dislocation motion renders a material harder and
stronger.

We will consider strengthening single phase

metals by: grain size reduction, solid-solution
alloying, and strain hardening

Strategies for Strengthening:

1: Reduce Grain Size
Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.
Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation.
Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip.

Hall-Petch Equation:

Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

yield o k y d 1 / 2

Hall-Petch equation:

Grain Size Reduction Techniques:

Increase Rate of solidification from the liquid phase.
Perform Plastic deformation followed by an appropriate heat
treatment.
Notes:
Grain size reduction also improves toughness of many
alloys.
Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in
interfering with the slip process because of the
small crystallographic misalignment across the
boundary.
Boundaries between two different phases are also
impediments to movements of dislocations.

Strategies for Strengthening:

2: Solid Solutions
Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller substitutional
impurity

Larger substitutional
impurity

C
B

Impurity generates local stress at A

and B that opposes dislocation
motion to the right.

D
Impurity generates local stress at C
and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right.

Stress Concentration at
Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.

Strengthening by Alloying

small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on the

Compressive stress side
reduce mobility of dislocation increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.

Strengthening by alloying
Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on
Tensile Stress side pinning dislocation

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.

Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper

400
300
200
0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C)

Yield strength (MPa)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.

1/ 2

~
C
Empirical relation:
y

Alloying increases y and TS.

180
120
60

0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

Adapted from Fig.

7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.

Strategies for Strengthening: 3. Precipitation Strengthening

Hard precipitates are difficult to shear. Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC
in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed to move
dislocation toward precipitate and
shear it.

Side View

Top View

Unslipped part of slip plane

S
Slipped part of slip plane

Result:

1
y ~
S

Dislocation advances but

precipitates act as pinning sites
with spacing S. which multiplies
Dislocation density

Application: Precipitation Strengthening

Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapteropening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed by alloying & H.T.

Adapted from Fig.

11.26, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.26 is courtesy
of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller,
Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

1.5m

Strategies for Strengthening: 4. Cold Work (%CW)

Room temperature deformation.
Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging

force

die
A o blank

-Drawing
die
Ao
die

-Rolling
Ad

Ao

Adapted from Fig.

11.8, Callister 7e.

Ad

roll

force
Ad

roll

-Extrusion
Ao
tensile
force

force

container

ram

billet

container

Ao Ad
%CW
x 100
Ao

die holder
extrusion

die

Ad

During Cold Work

Ti alloy after cold working:
Dislocations entangle and
multiply
Thus, Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

0.9 m

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.)

Result of Cold Work

Dislocation density = total dislocation length
unit volume

Carefully grown single crystal

ca. 103 mm-2
Deforming sample increases density
109-1010 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density
105-106 mm-2

Yield stress increases y1

y0
as d increases:

large hardening
small hardening

Impact of Cold Work

As cold work is increased
Yield strength (y) increases.
Tensile strength (TS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Lo-Carbon Steel!
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.

Cold Work Analysis

What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
Copper
Cold
Work

D o =15.2mm

%CW

2
ro

2
rd
2
ro

D d =12.2mm

x 100 35.6%

Cold Work Analysis

What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working to 35.6%?
yield strength (MPa)

tensile strength (MPa)

700

800

500

600

300
100
0

Cu
20

40

% Cold Work

60

YS = 300 MPa

40
20

400 340MPa
200

60

ductility (%EL)

20

Cu
40

60

% Cold Work
TS = 340MPa

Cu

7%

00

20

40

60

% Cold Work
%EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American
Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)

 Results for
polycrystalline iron:

Adapted from Fig. 6.14,

Callister 7e.

Stress (MPa)

- Behavior vs. Temperature

800

-200C

600

-100C

400

25C

200
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Strain

0.4

y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.

%EL increases with increasing test temperature.
3. disl. glides past obstacle
Why? Vacancies
2. vacancies
help dislocations
replace
on the
move past obstacles. atoms
obstacle
disl. half
plane

1. disl. trapped
by obstacle

0.5

Effect of Heating After %CW

1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.

Effects of cold work are reversed!

100 200 300 400 500 600 700
600
60

tensile strength

50
500
40
400

30

ductility
300

Re
co

ve
ry

Re
c

ductility (%EL)

tensile strength (MPa)

annealing temperature (C)

20

rys

Gr

tal
l

i za
tio

ain

Gr

ow
th

3 Annealing
stages to
discuss...
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1
Results from
diffusion

extra half-plane
of atoms
atoms
diffuse
to regions
of tension
extra half-plane
of atoms

Dislocations
annihilate
and form
a perfect
atomic
plane.

Scenario 2
3. Climbed disl. can now
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
vacancy diffusion
allowing disl. to climb
1. dislocation blocked;
cant move to the right

R
4. opposite dislocations
meet and annihilate
Obstacle dislocation

Recrystallization
New grains are formed that:
-- have a low dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm

0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold
worked
brass

New crystals
nucleate after
3 sec. at 580C.

Further Recrystallization
All cold-worked grains are consumed.
0.6 mm

0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4
seconds

After 8
seconds

Recrystallization Temperature, TR
TR = recrystallization temperature = point
of highest rate of property change
1. TR 0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR

Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm

0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s,
580C

After 15 min,
580C

Empirical Relation:
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain dia. At time t.

elapsed time

d d Kt
n

coefficient dependent on
material & Temp.

n
o

This is: Ostwald Ripening

TR = recrystallization
temperature
TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2
mm) in diameter is to be cold worked by
drawing. The circular cross section will be
maintained during deformation. A cold-worked
tensile strength in excess of 55,000 psi (380
MPa) and a ductility of at least 15 %EL are
desired. Further more, the final diameter must
be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

Coldwork Calculations Solution

If we directly draw to the final diameter what
happens?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 0.40 in

Ao Af
%CW
Ao

Df = 0.30 in

Af
x 100 1
x 100
Ao

Df2 4
0.30

1
x 100 1

Do 4
0.40

x 100 43.8%

Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420

540

Adapted from Fig.

7.19, Callister 7e.

For %CW = 43.8%

y = 420 MPa
TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
%EL = 6
< 15
This doesnt satisfy criteria what can we do?

Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

15

380

27

12

For TS > 380 MPa

> 12 %CW

For %EL > 15

< 27 %CW

Adapted from Fig.

7.19, Callister 7e.

our working range is limited to %CW = 12 27%

This process Needs an Intermediate Recrystallization

i.e.: Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
For objective we need a cold work of %CW 12-27
Well use %CW = 20
Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
must be calculated as follows:

%CW

Df 2
Ds 2

D f 2 2
1
x 100
2

Ds 2

%CW
1

100

Intermediate diameter =

0.5

D f 22

Ds 2

Ds 2 2

%CW
100

Df 2

%CW
1

100

20

D f 1 Ds 2 0.30 1
100

0.5

0.5

0.335 in

Coldwork Calculations Solution

Summary:
1. Cold work

D01= 0.40 in Df1 = 0.335 in

2.

Anneal above

3.

Cold work

Ds2 = Df1

Ds2= 0.335 in Df 2 =0.30 in

0.335
%CW1 1
x 100 30
0.4

0.3

%CW2 1
x 100 20

0.335

Therefore, meets all requirements

y 340 MPa

TS 400 MPa
%EL 24
Fig 7.19

Summary
Dislocations are observed primarily in metals
and alloys.
Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.