ABSTRACT

In this book we look at deriving the

governing equations of fluid flow
using conservation of energy
techniques on a differential element
undergoing shear stress or viscous
forces as it moves along a pipe and
we use the expression for friction
coefficient for laminar flow to derive
the equations. We also derive a
friction coefficient to work for
Torricelli flow
wasswaderricktimothy7@gmail.com

FLUID MECHANICS PHYSICS

DEMYSTIFIED
Pouiselle, Torricelli plus turbulent flow equations in one equation
By Wasswa Derrick
wasswaderricktimothy7@gmail.com
Makerere University
 Table of Contents
HOW DO WE MEASURE VELOCITY OF EXIT?....................................................................... 3
TORRICELLI FLOW ......................................................................................................................... 5
How does the velocity manifest itself? ............................................................................... 7
HOW DO WE HANDLE PIPED SYSTEMS? .............................................................................. 11
To show that the Reynolds number is the governing number for flow according
to Reynolds Theory ................................................................................................................... 11
For smooth piped systems ................................................................................................. 11
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS TO VERIFY REYNOLD’S THEORY ABOVE ....................17
HOW DO WE DEAL WITH PRESSURE GRADIENTS? ......................................................... 23
HEAD LOSS ...................................................................................................................................... 27
THEORY OF MOTION OF PARTICLES IN VISCOUS FLUIDS ........................................... 32
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 37
 HOW DO WE MEASURE VELOCITY OF EXIT?

How do we measure velocity in fluid flow?

We either measure the flow rate and then divide it by cross sectional area as
below
𝑄
𝑉=
𝐴
Or we can use projectile motion assuming no air resistance and get to know
the velocity.
Using trajectory motion of a fluid out of a hole we can measure its velocity of
exit
i.e.,

𝑅 = 𝑉 × 𝑡 … 𝑎)
1
𝐻 = 𝑔𝑡 2 … 𝑏)
2
From a)
𝑅
𝑡=
𝑉
Substituting t into equation b) and making velocity V the subject, we get:
𝑔
𝑉 = 𝑅√
2𝐻
Where: H is the vertical height of descent and R is the range.
All the experimental values got in this document were got using the
velocity got from projectile motion
 TORRICELLI FLOW
Consider the system below:

We are to derive the governing equation of Torricelli flow. We are going to use
energy conservation techniques. We shall demonstrate the condition for
laminar flow that the Reynold number is less than 2300 later. First, we know
the expressions for the friction factor in laminar flow i.e., [1].
16
𝐶1 =
𝑅𝑒𝑑
𝜌𝑉𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑑 =
𝜇
For the Torricelli flow the length 𝑙 of the pipe becomes zero. To explain what is
observed we have to set up another friction coefficient.
𝑘
𝐶0 =
𝑅𝑒𝑙
𝜌𝑉𝑙
𝑅𝑒𝑙 =
𝜇
Where 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
We say,
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
1 1 1 1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶1 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶2 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2 2 2 2
Where:
𝐶2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
As shall be demonstrated
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = (ℎ − ℎ0 )𝜌𝑔
𝑚
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝜌
𝐴𝑆 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑥

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑥𝜌

Substituting for 𝐶1 and for 𝐶0 , we get:

2𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 2𝐾𝜇 2
2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 ) = 𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶2 ) + 2 𝑉 2 + 𝑉
𝑟 𝑟 𝑉𝜌 𝜌𝑟𝑉
For Torricelli flow we put 𝒍 = 𝟎 and we get
2𝐾𝜇 2
2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 ) = 𝑉 2 + 𝑉
𝜌𝑟𝑉
2𝐾𝜇
𝑉2 + 𝑉 − 2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 ) = 0 … … .1)
𝜌𝑟
1
First, we notice that when 𝑉 = 0, ℎ = ℎ0 , it is known experimentally that ℎ0 ∞
𝑟
and ℎ0 is the vertical height of the fluid that stays in the container when the
fluid stops flowing.
Back to equation 1), we notice it is a quadratic formula and velocity V is given
by:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑉=
2𝑎
We choose the positive velocity i.e.

−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑉=
2𝑎
Where:
2𝜇𝐾
𝑏=
𝑟𝜌
𝑎=1
𝑐 = −2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
An expression for V is
 𝝁𝑲 𝟏 𝟐𝝁𝑲 𝟐
𝑽=− + √( ) + 𝟖𝒈(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 )
𝒓𝝆 𝟐 𝒓𝝆

Let’s call the equation above equation 2)

How does the velocity manifest itself?

𝟐𝝁𝑲
Factorizing out the term from the square root, we get:
𝒓𝝆

𝜇𝐾 𝜇𝐾 8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
𝑉=− + √ 1+
𝑟𝜌 𝑟𝜌 2𝜇𝐾 2
( )
𝑟𝜌

We get a dimensionless number i.e.,

8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
2𝜇𝐾 2
(
𝑟𝜌 )
For small height (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) and small radius
The term
8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 ) 𝑟 2 𝜌2 2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
= ≪1
2𝜇𝐾 𝜇2𝐾 2
( 𝑟𝜌 )2

And we can use the approximation

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 for 𝑥 ≪ 1

For which

𝟖𝒈(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 )
𝒙=
𝟐𝝁𝑲 𝟐
( )
𝒓𝝆

𝒙 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

And

1
𝑛=
2
And we get after the binomial approximation;
 𝜇𝐾 𝜇𝐾 4𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
𝑉=− + (1 + )
𝑟𝜌 𝑟𝜌 2𝜇𝐾 2
( )
𝑟𝜌
We finally get the velocity as

𝒓(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 )𝝆𝒈
𝑽=
𝝁𝑲
Let’s call that equation a)

We can call equation above equation a) and regime laminar flow

When
8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 ) 𝑟 2 𝜌2 2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
= 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 1
2𝜇𝐾 2 𝜇2𝐾 2
( )
𝑟𝜌

Velocity V is given by

𝝁𝑲 𝟏 𝟐𝝁𝑲 𝟐
𝑽=− + √( ) + 𝟖𝒈(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 )
𝒓𝝆 𝟐 𝒓𝝆

Let’s call this equation b) and regime transition flow

When

8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 ) 𝑟 2 𝜌2 2𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
= ≫1
2𝜇𝐾 2 𝜇 2𝐾 2
( )
𝑟𝜌

We approximate

8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 ) 8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
1+ ≈
2𝜇𝐾 2 2𝜇𝐾 2
(
𝑟𝜌 )
(
𝑟𝜌 )

Velocity

𝜇𝐾 𝜇𝐾 8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
𝑉=− + 1 +
𝑟𝜌 𝑟𝜌 √ (
2𝜇𝐾 2
𝑟𝜌 )

Becomes
 𝜇𝐾 𝜇𝐾 8𝑔(ℎ − ℎ0 )
𝑉=− +
𝑟𝜌 𝑟𝜌 √ (2𝜇𝐾 )2
𝑟𝜌

𝝁𝑲
𝑽=− + √𝟐𝒈(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 )
𝒓𝝆
Let’s call this equation c)

We can call this regime turbulent flow

When the radius is big, we observe

𝑽 = √𝟐𝒈(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 )

Or

𝑽 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉

To be able to measure K, we have to find an experiment for which the flow

manifests itself as either equation, a), b), or c).
Using water which has a low viscosity and varying the radius hole and for
height (ℎ − ℎ0 ) chosen to be approximately large, it is found that the flow will
manifest itself in equation c) (turbulent flow) and plotting a graph of V against
√(ℎ − ℎ0 ) ,a straight-line graph is got,

The gradient of the above graph is √(𝟐𝒈)

the intercept n is also got and it is inversely proportional to r and so K can be

measured. i.e.
𝜇𝐾
𝑛=−
𝑟𝜌
Varying the radius will give a different intercept inversely proportional to r from
which K can be got as
𝑛𝑟𝜌
𝐾=−
𝜇
Of course, depending on the viscosity of the fluid and height difference (ℎ − ℎ0 )
and radius r of the orifice, the flow can shift to any equation, a), b), or c).
Using water as the fluid and regime c) for experiment, it was found that

Using viscosity of water as 𝝁 = 𝟖. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑷𝒂. 𝒔

𝐊 = 𝟓𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟓
To get the rate of decrease of a fluid in a container, we use the velocity V got for
any regime i.e.,
𝒅𝑽
= −𝑨𝑽
𝒅𝒕
i.e.
𝒅𝒉 𝑨
=− 𝑽
𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝟎
Where:
𝑨𝟎 = 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓
 HOW DO WE HANDLE PIPED SYSTEMS?

Consider the system below:

To show that the Reynolds number is the governing number for flow
according to Reynolds Theory
For smooth piped systems

The governing number is the Reynolds number

For laminar flow
𝑅𝑒𝑑 < 2300
I.e.
2𝜌𝑉𝑐 𝑟
< 2300
𝜇
Where: 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
So
𝜇
𝑉𝑐 < 1150
𝜌𝑟
In laminar flow
𝑟 2 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑉=
8𝜇𝑙
And
 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉
So,
𝑟 2 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝜇
< 1150
8𝜇𝑙 𝜌𝑟
𝑟 3 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ
<1
9200𝜇 2 𝑙
So, the governing condition for laminar flow should be
𝑟 3 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ
<1
9200𝜇 2 𝑙
As before, let’s conserve energy:
work done by pressure difference = Kinetic energy gained as the liquid
emerges + work done against shear stress/ viscous forces
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
1
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶1 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2

𝐴𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑥
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑥𝜌
𝑚
𝑑𝑣 =
𝜌

𝑊𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤:

1 1 1
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 2 𝐶1 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 2 𝐶2 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2

𝐶2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛

16
𝐶1 =
𝑅𝑒𝑑
𝜌𝑉𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑑 =
𝜇
𝑘
𝐶0 =
𝑅𝑒𝑙
𝜌𝑉𝑙
𝑅𝑒𝑙 =
𝜇
 𝐴𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑥
1 1 1 1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶1 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑙 + 𝐶2 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2 2 2 2
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑚
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝜌
𝐴𝑆 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑥

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑥𝜌

Substitute for 𝐶1 and for 𝐶0 as before

16𝜇𝑙 2 2𝐾𝜇 2 2𝑙𝐶2 2
2𝑔ℎ = 𝑉 2 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉
𝑟 2 𝑉𝜌 𝜌𝑟𝑉 𝑟

1 1 1 1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶1 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶2 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
𝐴𝜌∆𝑥𝑔ℎ = 𝐴∆𝑥𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑙 + 𝐶1 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶2 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2 2 2 2
Simplifying

2𝐾𝜇 2𝑙 16𝜇𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + + 𝐶2 ) + 2 𝑉 − 2𝑔ℎ = 0
𝜌𝑟𝑉 𝑟 𝑟 𝜌
2𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶2 ) + ( + 𝑘)𝑉 − 2𝑔ℎ = 0
𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟
We get velocity as:

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑉=
2𝑎
We choose the positive velocity as below:
Where:
2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑏= ( + 𝑘)
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
 2𝑙
𝑎 = (1 + 𝐶)
𝑟 2
−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑉=
2𝑎

𝝁 𝟖𝒍
− ( + 𝒌) 𝟏 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍
𝒓𝝆 𝒓
𝑽= + √( ( + 𝒌))𝟐 + (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 )(𝟖𝒈𝒉)
𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 ) 𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 )
𝒓 𝒓

The above is the velocity V.

Pouiselle Flow can be demonstrated:
2𝜇 8𝑙
First of all, we factorize the term ( + 𝑘) out of the square root
𝑟𝜌 𝑟

2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝑙
− ( + 𝑘) ( + 𝑘) (1 + 𝐶2 ) 8𝑔ℎ
𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟
𝑉= + √1 +
2𝑙 2𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
2 (1 + 𝐶2 ) 2 (1 + 𝐶2 ) ( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟

For long pipes and small radius

The term
2𝑙
(1 + 𝐶 )8𝑔ℎ
𝑟 2 ≪1
2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
And we can use the approximation
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 for 𝑥 ≪ 1
In laminar flow
2𝑙
𝐶 ≫1
𝑟 2
and
 8𝑙
≫𝑘
𝑟
so that
2𝑙 2𝑙
1+ 𝐶2 ≈ 𝐶2
𝑟 𝑟
And
8𝑙 8𝑙
+𝑘 ≈
𝑟 𝑟

So
2𝑙 2𝑙
(1 + 𝐶2 )8𝑔ℎ 𝑟 4 𝜌2 ( 𝑟 𝐶2 )
𝑟 ≈ × 8𝑔ℎ
2𝜇 8𝑙 256𝜇 2 𝑙 2
( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
2𝑙
𝑟 4 𝜌2 ( 𝐶2 ) 𝑟 3 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ𝐶2
𝑟 × 8𝑔ℎ = ≪1
256𝜇 2 𝑙 2 16𝜇 2 𝑙
For laminar flow, recalling the condition
𝑟 3 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ
<1
9200𝜇 2 𝑙
And comparing with
𝑟 3 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ𝐶2
≪1
16𝜇 2 𝑙
We get
𝐶2 1
=
16 9200
𝐶2 = 1.739 × 10−3
this proves that 𝐶2 is a constant since the critical Reynolds number for laminar
flow is also a constant.
Using the binomial expansion, we get:
2𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 𝑟 4 𝜌2 2𝑙
2( 𝐶2 )𝑉 = − 2 + 2 (1 + 2 2
× ( 𝐶2 )4𝑔ℎ)
𝑟 𝑟 𝜌 𝑟 𝜌 256𝜇 𝑙 𝑟
Simplifying, we get velocity V as:
 𝒓𝟐 𝝆𝒈𝒉
𝑽=
𝟖𝝁𝒍
And the flow rate Q as:
𝝅 𝒓𝟒 𝝆𝒈𝒉
𝑸=
𝟖𝝁 𝒍
𝑟 3 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ
The term is a dimensionless number and it should demarcate when
9200𝜇2 𝑙
Pouiselle flow begins according to Reynold’s theory.
NB.
We shall see that experiment doesn’t obey Reynold’s theory exactly and
we have to make some modifications.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS TO VERIFY REYNOLD’S THEORY ABOVE

First let us derive the governing equations as proven by experiment by

conserving energy and recall that the velocity we are using is that got from
projectile motion.
work done by pressure difference = Kinetic energy gained as the liquid
emerges + work done against viscous forces
Work done against shear force = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑
1
Work done against shear force = 𝐶1 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2

𝐴𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑥
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
We introduce a new term in the viscous work done as below:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
1 1 1 1 𝐴
= 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 2 𝐶1 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 2 𝐶3 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 2 (𝛽 𝑃)𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2

Where:
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑙)
𝐶3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝐴𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑥
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑥𝜌
1 1 1 1 1 𝑟
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶1 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑙 + 𝐶3 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + (𝛽 )𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2 2 2 2 2 2(𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑆

(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑚
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝜌
𝐴𝑆 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑟∆𝑥
1 1 1 1 1 𝑟
𝐴𝜌∆𝑥𝑔ℎ = 𝐴∆𝑥𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝐶0 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑙 + 𝐶1 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶3 𝐴𝑆 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + (𝛽 )𝐴 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2 2 2 2 2 2(𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑆

Substitute for 𝐶1 and for 𝐶0 as before

 16𝜇𝑙 2 2𝐾𝜇 2 2𝑙𝐶3 2 2𝑙 𝑟
2𝑔ℎ = 𝑉 2 + 2
𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 + (𝛽 )𝑉 2
𝑟 𝑉𝜌 𝜌𝑟𝑉 𝑟 𝑟 2(𝑟 + 𝑙)
Simplifying

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶3 + )+ (𝐾 + )𝑉 − 2𝑔ℎ = 0
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝜌𝑟 𝑟
Rearranging, we get
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶3 + )+ (𝐾 + )𝑉 − 2𝑔ℎ = 0
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝜌𝑟 𝑟

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑉=
2𝑎
2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑏= ( + 𝑘)
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
𝑎 = (1 + 𝐶3 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

Velocity is given by:

−𝑏 + √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑉=
2𝑎

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2(1 + 𝐶3 + )𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + √( ( + 𝑘))2 + (1 + 𝐶3 + )(8𝑔ℎ)
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

The experimental velocity is given by:

𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
− ( + 𝑲) √( ( + 𝑲))𝟐 + (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )(𝟖𝒈𝒉)
𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)
𝑽= +
𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) 𝟐(𝟏 + 𝑪 𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

You notice that when we substitute length 𝒍 = 𝟎, we go back to the

Torricelli equations i.e.

𝑲𝝁 𝟏 𝟐𝝁𝑲 𝟐
𝑽=− + √( ) + (𝟖𝒈𝒉)
𝒓𝝆 𝟐 𝒓𝝆
Pouiselle Flow can be demonstrated below;

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 1 + 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))8𝑔ℎ
𝑟
2(1 + 𝐶3 + )𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + ( + 𝑘) √1 +
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟

For long pipes and small radius

The term
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝐶 + )8𝑔ℎ
𝑟 3 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
≪1
2𝜇 8𝑙 2
( ( + 𝑘))
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
Is very small and we can use the approximation
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 for 𝑥 ≪ 1
In laminar flow
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
𝐶3 ≫ 1 +
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

and
8𝑙
≫𝑘
𝑟
so that
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝑙
1+ 𝐶3 + ≈ 𝐶3
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟
And
8𝑙 8𝑙
+𝑘 ≈
𝑟 𝑟

So
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 4 2 2𝑙
(1 +
𝑟 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))8𝑔ℎ 𝑟 𝜌 ( 𝑟 𝐶3 )
≈ × 8𝑔ℎ
2𝜇 8𝑙 2 256𝜇 2𝑙2
( ( 𝑟 + 𝑘))
𝑟𝜌
2𝑙
𝑟 4 𝜌2 ( 𝐶3 ) 𝑟 3 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ𝐶3
𝑟 × 8𝑔ℎ = ≪1
256𝜇 2 𝑙 2 16𝜇 2 𝑙
For laminar flow.
We shall check experimentally the true value of 𝐶3 following this.
The above proves that 𝐶3 is a constant since the critical Reynolds number for
laminar flow is also a constant
2𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 16𝜇𝑙 𝑟 4 𝜌2 2𝑙
2( 𝐶3 )𝑉 = − 2 + 2 (1 + × ( 𝐶 )4𝑔ℎ)
𝑟 𝑟 𝜌 𝑟 𝜌 256𝜇 2 𝑙 2 𝑟 3
𝒓𝟐 𝝆𝒈𝒉
𝑽=
𝟖𝝁𝒍
𝝅 𝒓𝟒 𝝆𝒈𝒉
𝑸=
𝟖𝝁 𝒍
Experimental results to verify the theory above
From

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 1 + 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))8𝑔ℎ
𝑟
2(1 + 𝐶3 + )𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + ( + 𝑘) √1 +
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( 𝑟 + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌

In turbulent flow

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝐶 + )8𝑔ℎ
𝑟 3 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
≫1
2𝜇 8𝑙 2
( ( 𝑟 + 𝑘))
𝑟𝜌

So, from

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 8𝑔ℎ (1 + 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))
𝑟
2 (1 + 𝐶3 + ) 𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + ( + 𝑘) √1 +
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( 𝑟 + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
8𝑔ℎ(1 + 𝐶 + ) 8𝑔ℎ(1 + 𝐶3 + )
𝑟 3 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
1+ ≈
2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( + 𝑘))2 ( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟
Becomes

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 8𝑔ℎ (1 + 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))
𝑟
2 (1 + 𝐶3 + ) 𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + ( + 𝑘) √
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( 𝑟 + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2 (1 + 𝐶3 + ) 𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + √8𝑔ℎ (1 + 𝐶3 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

In turbulent flow the equation is:

𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
𝑽(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) = − ( + 𝒌) + √𝟐𝒈𝒉(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

Or
𝝁 𝟖𝒍
− ( + 𝒌) 𝟐𝒈(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 )
𝒓𝝆 𝒓
𝑽= +√
𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

Or
𝝁 𝟖𝒍
− ( + 𝒌) 𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝒓𝝆 𝒓
𝑽= +√
𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + (𝒓 + 𝒍)) (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + (𝒓 + 𝒍))
𝒓 𝒓

Where:
𝒉𝟎 is known from Torricelli flow.
The above expression of turbulent flow can be verified by plotting a graph of V
against √ℎ for constant length of pipe from which a straight-line graph with an
intercept will be got and the gradient and intercept investigated to satisfy the
equation above, provided that we are in turbulent flow according to the
governing number.
 It can be investigated and shown that plotting a graph of V against √ℎ in
turbulent flow, a straight-line graph will be got and the gradient m will be
found to be:

2𝑔
𝑚=√
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝐶 + )
𝑟 3 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

Rearranging, we get:
𝟏 𝟐𝒈 𝟐 𝜷
[ 𝟐 − 𝟏] = 𝑪𝟑 +
𝒍 𝒎 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)
1 2𝑔 1
Plotting a graph of [ − 1] against , a straight-line graph will be got from
𝑙 𝑚2 (𝑟+𝑙)
which 𝐶3 and 𝛽 can be got.

From experiment:
𝐶3 = 5.62875 × 10−3
And
𝛽 = 0.5511
So, the Critical Reynolds number for laminar flow becomes 710.637 since
𝐶3 1
=
4 𝑅𝑒𝑑
 HOW DO WE DEAL WITH PRESSURE GRADIENTS?

Assume constant cross-sectional area and equal spacing as shown of length 𝑙

Considering the length 𝑙 to be small
In this example
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘)𝑉 − 2𝑔ℎ = 0
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘)𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟
Assume 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 𝑉4 = 𝑉
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ1 − ℎ2
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ2 − ℎ3
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ3 − ℎ4
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
 𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ4
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
ℎ1 − ℎ2 ℎ2 − ℎ3 ℎ3 − ℎ4 ℎ4 𝑉2 2𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
= = = = (1 + 𝐶3 + 𝛽) + ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = 𝑚
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 2𝑔𝑙 𝑟 𝑟𝑔𝑙𝜌 𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙 ℎ1
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 =
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟 4
Got by adding all the equations above.
Where 𝑚 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
ℎ1
𝑚𝑙 =
4
We see that the uniform pressure gradient is only achieved because of the fixed
length intervals.
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = 𝑚
2𝑔𝑙 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝑙𝜌 𝑟
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 − 2𝑔𝑚𝑙 = 0
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟

𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )𝑽 = − ( + 𝒌) + √( ( + 𝒌))𝟐 + 𝟖𝒈𝒎𝒍(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

or

𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝒉
− ( + 𝒌) √( ( + 𝒌))𝟐 + 𝟖𝒈𝒎𝒍(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) 𝟏 ))
𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝟒
𝑽= +
𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) 𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

Again, it can be shown after making the assumptions as above that when
ℎ1 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
8𝑔 (1 + 𝐶3 + )
4 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
≪1
2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
 𝟐𝒈𝒎𝒍
𝑽=
𝟏𝟔𝝁𝒍
𝒓𝟐 𝝆
𝑟 2 𝜌𝑔𝑚
𝑉=
8𝜇
𝑑ℎ
𝑚=
𝑑𝑥
𝝅𝒓𝟒 𝒅𝑷
𝑸=
𝟖𝝁 𝒅𝒙
We notice that Pouiselle flow arrives due to equal spacing of the tubes but
we notice that nonlinear pressure gradients can also be created provided
non equal spacing
We notice
ℎ = −𝑚𝑥 + ℎ1
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ1 − ℎ2
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ2 − ℎ3
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ3 − ℎ4
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ4
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
Adding all
4𝑉 2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 4𝜇 8𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = ℎ1
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
We can get V.
For turbulent flow
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2(1 + 𝐶3 + )𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + √([ ( + 𝑘)]2 + 8𝑔𝑚𝑙(1 + 𝐶3 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 (8𝑔𝑚𝑙)(1 + 𝐶3 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
2(1 + 𝐶3 + )𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + ( + 𝑘) √1 +
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( 𝑟 + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌
Also, in turbulent flow
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
8𝑔𝑚𝑙(1 + 𝐶 + )
𝑟 3 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
≫1
2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
Where:
ℎ1
𝑚𝑙 =
4
OR
ℎ1 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
8𝑔
4 (1 + 𝑟 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))
≫1
2𝜇 8𝑙 2
( ( + 𝑘))
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
𝝁 𝟖𝒍
−( + 𝒌) (𝟐𝒈𝒎𝒍)
𝒓𝝆 𝒓
𝑽= +√
𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

Or
𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝒉
−( + 𝒌) (𝟐𝒈 𝟏 )
𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝟒
𝑽= +√
𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)
Got by adding up the equations of head loss above
 HEAD LOSS
The head loss is given by:
𝒍 𝑽𝟐
𝒉 = 𝟒𝒇 × … … … … . .1)
𝑫 𝟐𝒈
where we substitute for the correct friction factor and get the flow rate. But in
our derivations, we get the head loss as below:
generally,
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑉 2 (1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉 = 2𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟
(ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
rearranging
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = [ (1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘) 𝑉]
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑔𝜌 𝑟
𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = [(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘)]
2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑉𝜌 𝑟
from equation 1) above
𝑙 𝑉2 𝑉2 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 4𝑓 × = [(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘)]
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑉𝜌 𝑟
𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
4𝑓 = [(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘)]
𝐷 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑉𝜌 𝑟
𝐷 𝛽𝐷 4𝜇 8𝑙
4𝑓 = + 4𝐶3 + + ( + 𝑘)
𝑙 4(𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑙𝑉𝜌 𝑟
𝐷 8𝑙 8𝑙 𝛽𝐷
For laminar flow
𝑙
≈ 0 and +𝑘 ≈ and 4𝐶3 ≈ 0 and ≈0
𝑟 𝑟 4(𝑟+𝑙)

32𝜇
4𝑓 =
𝑉𝑟𝜌
16
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒𝑑
For turbulent flow, the governing equation was

𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
𝑽(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + ) = − ( + 𝒌) + √𝟐𝒈(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟐 )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝟏
 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 𝜇 8𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
[𝑉(1 + 𝐶3 + ) + ( + 𝑘)]2 = 2𝑔(1 + 𝐶3 + )(ℎ − ℎ2 )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 1
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
𝑉 2 [(1 + 𝐶3 + )+ ( + 𝑘)]2 = 2𝑔(1 + 𝐶3 + )(ℎ − ℎ2 )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑉𝜌 𝑟 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 1
Therefore, head loss ∆𝒉 is
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2
𝑉 2 [1 + 𝑟 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙)) + 𝑟𝑉𝜌 ( 𝑟 + 𝑘)]
∆ℎ =
2𝑔 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
Compare with

𝑙 𝑉2
∆ℎ = 4𝑓 ×
𝐷 2𝑔

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
𝑙 [1 + 𝐶3 +
𝑟 )+ ( + 𝑘)]2
(𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝑉𝜌 𝑟
4𝑓 =
𝐷 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝑟 𝐶3 + )
(𝑟 + 𝑙)
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2
𝐷 [(1 + 𝑟 𝐶3 + (𝑟 + 𝑙)) + 𝑟𝑉𝜌 ( 𝑟 + 𝑘)]
𝑓=
4𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝐶3 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
We get this expression for the friction coefficient
𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟒 𝟖𝒍 𝟐
𝑫 [(𝟏 + 𝒓 𝑪𝟑 + (𝒓 + 𝒍)) + 𝑹𝒆𝒅 ( 𝒓 + 𝒌)]
𝒇= ×
𝟒𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟑 + )
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)
Comparing the equation below for smooth pipes with the Blasius equation,
they should give the same value i.e.,
The Blasius Friction factor is:
0.079
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒 0.25
For
 𝑅𝑒 < 100,000
And the Blasius equation is:
Blasius predicts that turbulent flow equation is [2]
𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟏𝝆𝟎.𝟕𝟓 𝜇 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
∆𝒉 = × 𝑸𝟏.𝟕𝟓 𝒍
𝝆𝒈𝑫𝟒.𝟕𝟓
Where D=diameter of pipe
The two equations should predict the same flow rate or head loss.
A. For rough pipes
For rough pipes, the friction coefficient is given by:
𝟏 𝑫
= 𝟒. 𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖
√𝒇 𝒆

We notice that the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds number and a
constant for a given diameter for high Reynolds numbers.
From the equation of head loss,
𝑙 𝑉2
ℎ = 4𝑓 ×
𝐷 2𝑔
Rearranging, we get:
𝑫 𝒅𝑷
𝑸𝟐 = × 𝑨𝟐 ×
𝟐𝝆𝒇 𝒅𝒙
This is the formula for flow rate for which we substitute the friction factor
Recalling from the formulas derived before replacing 𝐶3 with 𝐶4 and using the
formula below:
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 (1 + 𝐶4 + )8𝑔ℎ
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
2(1 + 𝐶4 + )𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + ( + 𝑘)√(1 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 2𝜇 8𝑙
[ ( + 𝑘)]2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶4 = 𝑓

2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙 (1 + 𝐶4 + ) 8𝑔ℎ
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
2 (1 + 𝐶4 + ) 𝑉 = − ( + 𝑘) + ( + 𝑘) √1 +
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( 𝑟 + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌

For turbulent flow

 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝐶 + )8𝑔ℎ
𝑟 4 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
≫1
2𝜇 8𝑙 2
( ( + 𝑘))
𝑟𝜌 𝑟
And
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 +
𝑟 𝐶4 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))8𝑔ℎ (1 + 𝑟 𝐶4 + (𝑟 + 𝑙))8𝑔ℎ
1+ ≈
2𝜇 8𝑙 2𝜇 8𝑙
( ( + 𝑘))2 ( ( + 𝑘))2
𝑟𝜌 𝑟 𝑟𝜌 𝑟
𝜇 8𝑙
𝑟𝜌 ( 𝑟 + 𝑘) 2𝑔ℎ
𝑉=− +√
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝑓 + ) (1 + 𝑓 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

For turbulent flow, when,

𝜇 8𝑙
𝑟𝜌 ( 𝑟 + 𝑘)
≈0
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝑓 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)
Velocity becomes

2𝑔ℎ
𝑉=√
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙
(1 + 𝑓 + )
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙)

And if
2𝑙 𝛽𝑙 2𝑙
1+ 𝑓+ ≈ 𝑓
𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑙) 𝑟
2𝑔ℎ
𝑉 = √( )
2𝑙
( 𝑓)
𝑟
Rearranging
We get
𝑫 𝒅𝑷
𝑸𝟐 = × 𝑨𝟐 ×
𝟐𝝆𝒇 𝒅𝒙
Which is the same as that we got by rearranging the head loss.
So generally, for rough pipes the velocity is given by:

𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
𝟐(𝟏 + 𝑪𝟒 + )𝑽 = − ( + 𝒌) + √([ ( + 𝒌)]𝟐 + (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟒 + )(𝟖𝒈𝒉))
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

or

𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝝁 𝟖𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝜷𝒍
𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟒 + )𝑽 = − ( + 𝒌) + √[ ( + 𝒌)]𝟐 + (𝟏 + 𝑪𝟒 + )(𝟖𝒈𝒉)
𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍) 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓𝝆 𝒓 𝒓 (𝒓 + 𝒍)

The derivation of the above formula can be got from our analysis we did before
concerning derivation of the Reynolds number.
 THEORY OF MOTION OF PARTICLES IN VISCOUS
FLUIDS
Consider dropping a spherical object, we say
𝐏𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 = 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑉 2
2
𝑉 = √(2𝑔ℎ)
To calculate the time taken for the body to fall is got by integrating
𝑑ℎ
= −𝑉 = −√(2𝑔ℎ)
𝑑𝑡
Laminar flow occurs when
𝑅𝑒 < 1000
For laminar or Stokes’s flow
2 𝜌𝑠 𝑔
𝑉 = 𝑟2
9 𝜂
2 2 𝜌𝑠 𝑔
𝜌𝑉𝑑 𝑟 𝜂
9
𝑅𝑒 = =𝜌× × 2𝑟 < 1000
𝜂 𝜂
Therefore
𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝝆𝒔 𝒈
<𝟏
𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎𝜼𝟐
That is the condition for laminar flow or Stoke’s flow
If there were viscous effects in an unbounded medium, we say
𝐏𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 = 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 + 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐚𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬
1 1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑉 2 + 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙 + 𝐶2 𝐴𝑠 𝜌𝑉 2 × 𝑙
2 2
𝜌𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑙=ℎ
If we choose
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝑟 2 And
 24
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑅𝑒
𝐶2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
Where:
𝜌𝑉𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜂
3𝐶2 𝜌 9𝜂ℎ
𝑉 2 (1 + ℎ) + 2 𝑉 − 2𝑔ℎ = 0
2𝑟𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠
𝟑𝑪𝟐 𝝆 𝟗𝜼𝒉 𝟗𝜼𝒉 𝟑𝑪𝟐 𝝆
𝟐(𝟏 + 𝒉)𝑽 = − 𝟐 + √(( 𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟖𝒈𝒉(𝟏 + 𝒉))
𝟐𝒓𝝆𝒔 𝒓 𝝆𝒔 𝒓 𝝆𝒔 𝟐𝒓𝝆𝒔
3𝐶2 𝜌 9𝜂ℎ 9𝜂ℎ 3𝐶2 𝜌 𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2
2(1 + ℎ)𝑉 = − 2 + 2 √(1 + 8𝑔ℎ(1 + ℎ)( ) )
2𝑟𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 2𝑟𝜌𝑠 9𝜂ℎ
If the term
𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2 3𝐶2 𝜌
8𝑔ℎ( ) (1 + ℎ)
9𝜂ℎ 2𝑟𝜌𝑠
Is very small, we can use the approximation
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 for 𝑥 ≪ 1
I.e., if
8𝑔 𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2 3𝐶2 𝜌
( ) (1 + ℎ) ≪ 1
ℎ 9𝜂 2𝑟𝜌𝑠
And
3𝐶2 𝜌
ℎ>1
2𝑟𝜌𝑠
So that
3𝐶2 𝜌 3𝐶2 𝜌
(1 + ℎ) ≈ ℎ
2𝑟𝜌𝑠 2𝑟𝜌𝑠

We get
8𝑔 𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2 3𝐶2 𝜌
( ) ( ℎ) ≪ 1
ℎ 9𝜂 2𝑟𝜌𝑠
And get
 𝟒𝑪𝟐 𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝝆𝒔 𝒈
<𝟏
𝟐𝟕𝜼𝟐
Comparing with
𝒓𝟑 𝝆𝝆𝒔 𝒈
<𝟏
𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎𝜼𝟐
We get
𝟒𝑪𝟐 𝟏
=
𝟐𝟕 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎
We get
𝑪𝟐 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
We then say,
3𝐶2 𝜌 9𝜂ℎ 9𝜂ℎ 3𝐶2 𝜌 𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2
2(1 + ℎ)𝑉 = − 2 + 2 (1 + 4𝑔ℎ(1 + ℎ)( ) )
2𝑟𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 2𝑟𝜌𝑠 9𝜂ℎ
3𝐶2 𝜌 9𝜂ℎ 9𝜂ℎ 3𝐶2 𝜌 𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2
2 ℎ𝑉 = − 2 + 2 (1 + 4𝑔ℎ ℎ( ) )
2𝑟𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 2𝑟𝜌𝑠 9𝜂ℎ
𝟐 𝟐 𝜌𝑠 𝒈
𝑽= 𝒓
𝟗 𝜼
𝒅𝒉 𝟐 𝜌𝑠 𝒈
= − 𝒓𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝟗 𝜼
This is the formula for terminal velocity of a sphere i.e., Stoke’s law for laminar
flow
Also, when
8𝑔 3𝐶2 𝜌 𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2
(1 + ℎ)( ) ≫1
ℎ 2𝑟𝜌𝑠 9𝜂
We say,
3𝐶2 𝜌 9𝜂ℎ 9𝜂ℎ 3𝐶2 𝜌 𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠 2
2(1 + ℎ)𝑉 = − 2 + 2 √(8𝑔ℎ(1 + ℎ)( ) )
2𝑟𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝜌𝑠 2𝑟𝜌𝑠 9𝜂ℎ
9𝜂ℎ
− (8𝑔ℎ)
𝑟 2 𝜌𝑠
2𝑉 = +√
3𝐶 𝜌 3𝐶 𝜌
(1 + 2 ℎ) (1 + 2 ℎ)
2𝑟𝜌𝑠 2𝑟𝜌𝑠
 −𝟗𝜼𝒉 𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝑽= +√
𝟑𝑪 𝝆 𝟑𝑪 𝝆
𝟐𝒓𝟐 𝝆𝒔 (𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒉) (𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒉)
𝟐𝒓𝝆𝒔 𝟐𝒓𝝆𝒔

If
−9𝜂ℎ
𝑖𝑓 3𝐶 𝜌 ≈0
2𝑟2 𝜌𝑠 (1+ 2𝑟𝜌2 ℎ)
𝑠

Then

𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝑽=√
𝟑𝑪 𝝆
(𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒉)
𝟐𝒓𝝆𝒔

If
3𝐶2 𝜌
ℎ>1
2𝑟𝜌𝑠
So that
𝟑𝑪𝟐 𝝆 3𝐶2 𝜌
𝟏+ 𝒉≈ ℎ
𝟐𝒓𝝆𝒔 2𝑟𝜌𝑠
We get velocity as

𝟒 𝝆𝒔
𝑽=√ 𝒓𝒈
𝟑𝑪𝟐 𝝆

Comparing with
𝒎𝒈 = 𝑪𝟎 𝑨𝝆𝑽𝟐
For a sphere
We get

𝟒 𝝆𝒔
𝑽=√ 𝒓𝒈
𝟑𝑪𝟎 𝝆

So
𝑪𝟎 = 𝑪𝟐
In turbulent flow, we conclude that 𝑪𝟎 is a constant.
This is the equation for turbulent flow for high Reynolds number
 Generally
We can also calculate also when the gravity is varying
𝑮𝑴
𝒈 = √( )
𝒓𝟐
 REFERENCES

[1] C. E. R. E. G. L. James R.Welty, "FRICTION FACTORS FOR FULLY DEVELOPED

LAMINAR, TURBULENT, AND TRANSITION FLOW IN CIRCULAR CONDUITS," in
Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer, Oregon, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
2008, p. 170.

[2] Chegg, "Chegg," Chegg, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.chegg.com/homework-

help/questions-and-answers/class-showed-hagen-poiseuille-equation-analytical-expression-
pressure-drop-laminar-flow-re-q18503972. [Accessed 11 4 2022].