L2.

1 Stokes flow (and some vector calculus)

Recommended reading: -

At the completion of this lecture you should be able to…

• Determine when Stokes equation may be used to model particular flows.

• Expand a partial differential equation which is written using vector notation, using
a reference book to identify the appropriate expressions for the differential
operators (you will not be expected to remember these!).
• Solve the examples given in the notes in an exam-type setting.
• Solve the problems at the end of the chapter for homework.

2.1.1 Stokes equation.

We have already looked at plane Poiseuille, Couette and cylindrical Poiseuille flow. These are
(some of the few known) exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations. Although these
solutions are for very simple situations, we have shown that they can be used to model practical
flows.

In this lecture we will analyse flows which have a very small Reynolds number
𝑢𝑢0 𝑥𝑥0
Re = ≪ 1.
𝜈𝜈0

Such flows are often referred to as creeping flows, or Stokes flows (named after Sir George
Stokes). Stokes flows are characterised by small characteristic velocities, length scales and high
fluid viscosity (or any combination of these which gives Re ≪ 1).

In lecture 1.7, we showed that the incompressible, constant viscosity (𝜇𝜇 = 𝜇𝜇0 ) Navier-Stokes
equations could be written as

𝐷𝐷𝑢𝑢�𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝0 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅ 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�𝑖𝑖 1

𝜌𝜌̅ =− + + 2 𝜌𝜌̅ 𝑔𝑔̅𝑖𝑖 ,
𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡̅ 2
𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢0 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑖𝑖 Re 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑗𝑗 Fr

where we set 𝑝𝑝0 = 𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢02 . Remember, the goal of dimensional analysis is to reduce each term
to O(1). This requires us to select a constant parameter (e.g. 𝑝𝑝0 ) to non-dimensionalise each
dimensional flow parameter (e.g. 𝑝𝑝) which is the same order as the dimensional parameter (or
has a similar magnitude to the changes in the parameter if the variable only appears in a
derivative). For flows in which viscosity is negligible and the density is constant, changes in
static pressure can be modelled using Bernoulli’s equation which states that the magnitude of
the change in pressure along a streamline is equal to 0.5𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 . Thus, for an inviscid flow, 𝑝𝑝0 =
𝜌𝜌0 𝑢𝑢02 is a good choice. However, it turns out that for Stokes flows, where the effect of viscosity
is very important, a better choice is 𝑝𝑝0 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑢𝑢0 /𝑥𝑥0 . In this case, the dimensionless form of the
Navier-Stokes equation can be written as
 𝐷𝐷𝑢𝑢�𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅ 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�𝑖𝑖 Re
Re𝜌𝜌̅ =− + + 2 𝜌𝜌̅ 𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖̅ .
𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡̅ 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑗𝑗 Fr

For Stokes flow we consider the limit as Re → 0. This eliminates the term on the left-hand side
of the Navier-Stokes equation (this term is associated with the inertial of our fluid). We will
also assume that the term

Re 𝜌𝜌0 𝑔𝑔0 𝑥𝑥02

= ,
Fr 2 𝜇𝜇0 𝑢𝑢0

can be neglected (which should be ok provided that 𝑥𝑥0 is very small and 𝑢𝑢0 and 𝜇𝜇0 are not too
small). Thus, the Navier-Stokes equations reduce to the Stokes equation -

𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝̅ 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢�𝑖𝑖
0=− + ,
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥̅𝑗𝑗

which can be written in dimensional form as

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖
0=− + 𝜇𝜇 .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

Recall that we have assumed that density and viscosity are known constants and thus the ith
Stokes equation contains two unknowns (𝑝𝑝 and 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 ). We therefore need a second equation in
order to determine these values. The incompressible form of the conservation of mass equation
is the obvious choice

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗
= 0.
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

Note that this set of equations is independent of time. Therefore, the only way in which our
solution can be dependent on time is if the boundary conditions of the flow are time-dependent.
Note that the solution at any instant in time will be independent of the solution at any other
time. Another consequence of this time independence is time-reversibility – if we are able to
reverse the time-dependent boundary conditions for a particular flow, then the flow will also
reverse! This property is shown clearly in this
movie http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=8V6kc0PQa14, which
is summarised in figure A below. In this movie, a viscous fluid is injected with dye and then
mixed together using a rotating cylinder. The fluid is then unmixed by rotating the cylinder in
the opposite direction. The dye is observed to (almost) return to its original position.
Figure 2.1.A. (left) t = 18s, two drops of dye. (middle) t = 38s, fluids fully mixed. (right) t =
63s, fluids unmixed. Courtesy of OneXatXaXtime (youtube user)

Stokes equation is commonly used to model many micro-fluidic situations. For example, it can
be used to model the flow around the flagella/cila of micro-organisms (and therefore model
how these organisms propel themselves). Stokes equation can also be used to model the
behaviour of small solid particles immersed in a viscous fluid. In the next section we will derive
equations for the flow around a small spherical particle.

2.1.2 Drag on a sphere.

In this section we will consider viscous flow over a small stationary sphere of radius a
immersed in a flow which has velocity well away from the sphere of magnitude 𝑉𝑉∞ in the 𝑥𝑥3
direction. The flow is such that Re ≪ 1 and thus our solution may be assumed to satisfy Stokes
equation. Our governing equations are thus

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗

0=− + 𝜇𝜇 , =0.
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

Up until now, we have always written our partial differential equations in Cartesian coordinates
using suffix notation. We can also write these equations in vector notation as

0 = −∇𝑝𝑝 + 𝜇𝜇∇2 𝐮𝐮, ∇ ∙ 𝐮𝐮 = 0 ,

where, ∇ is the del operator which in Cartesian coordinates is defined as

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇= 𝐞𝐞1 + 𝐞𝐞2 + 𝐞𝐞3 .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3

Therefore, if ∇ ‘operates’ on a scalar quantity (e.g. p) we have

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

∇𝑝𝑝 = 𝐞𝐞1 + 𝐞𝐞2 + 𝐞𝐞3 .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3

∇𝑝𝑝 is known as the gradient of 𝑝𝑝.

Also, we can take the dot product of ∇ and a vector (e.g. 𝐮𝐮 = 𝐞𝐞1 𝑢𝑢1 + 𝐞𝐞2 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝐞𝐞3 𝑢𝑢3 ) to yield

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢3

∇ ∙ 𝐮𝐮 = + +
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3

This quantity is known as the divergence of u.

Taking the dot product of ∇ with itself yields the Laplacian operator.

𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕 2
∇2 = ∇ ∙ ∇= + + .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥12 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥22 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥32

The Laplacian can be applied to either a scalar quantity (e.g. p) in which case it is known as
the scalar Laplacian

2
𝜕𝜕 2 𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑝𝑝 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑝𝑝
∇ 𝑝𝑝 = 2 + 2 + 2 ,
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3

or it can be applied to a vector quantity (e.g. u) in which case it is known as the vector
Laplacian

𝜕𝜕 2 𝐮𝐮 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐮𝐮 𝜕𝜕 2 𝐮𝐮
∇2 𝐮𝐮 = + + .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥12 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥22 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥32

Vector notation is a convenient way of writing differential equations in arbitrary coordinate

systems. This is because the various vector operators (e.g. ∇𝑝𝑝 and ∇2 𝐮𝐮) in most common
coordinate systems (e.g. Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical) are well known. Therefore if we
can write down our partial differential equation in vector notation, then we can also express it
in any coordinate system simply by looking up the corresponding expression for the vector
operators in this coordinate system. For example, we can define a spherical coordinate system
as

𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑅𝑅 sin𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜙𝜙, 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜙𝜙 , 𝑥𝑥3 = 𝑅𝑅cos𝜃𝜃.

0° < 𝜃𝜃 < 180°, 0° < 𝜙𝜙 < 360°, 0 < 𝑅𝑅 < ∞

In this spherical coordinate system, we can define a vector (e.g. velocity u) in terms of
components aligned with unit vectors in the 𝑅𝑅, 𝜃𝜃 and 𝜙𝜙 directions i.e.

𝐮𝐮 = 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 + 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 + 𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙 ,

where

𝐞𝐞1 = sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜙𝜙 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 + 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜙𝜙 − 𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 sin 𝜙𝜙,

𝐞𝐞2 = sin 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜙𝜙 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 + 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜙𝜙 + 𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 cos 𝜙𝜙,

𝐞𝐞3 = cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 − 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃.

The situation for low Reynolds number flow over a rigid sphere is shown in figure B below.
The 𝑅𝑅, and 𝜃𝜃 components of velocity are also shown.
 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅
𝑥𝑥3

𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃
𝑅𝑅
𝑥𝑥1

𝑉𝑉∞

Figure 2.1.B. Creeping flow over a small sphere of radius a. Cross-section view in the 𝑥𝑥2 = 0
plane (where 𝜙𝜙 = 0° for 𝑥𝑥1 > 0 or 𝜙𝜙 = 180° for 𝑥𝑥1 < 0).

Note that in spherical coordinates (as well as cylindrical coordinates) our unit vectors are
functions of position. This is not the case in Cartesian coordinates, where the orientation of the
unit vector remains the same regardless of location. This means that we have to be careful when
applying our vector operators to vector quantities.

In the spherical coordinate system we have

𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕
∇= 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 + 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 + 𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 cot 𝜃𝜃 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙

∇ ∙ 𝐮𝐮 = + + + + ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑝𝑝
∇2 𝑝𝑝 = �𝑅𝑅 2
� + �sin 𝜃𝜃 � + ,
𝑅𝑅 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜙𝜙 2

and

2𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2 𝜕𝜕(𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃) 2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙

∇2 𝐮𝐮 = 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 �∇2 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 − − − �
𝑅𝑅 2 𝑅𝑅 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙

+𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 �∇2 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 − + − �
𝑅𝑅 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙 2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃

+𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 �∇2 𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙 − + + �
𝑅𝑅 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Substituting these expressions into Stokes equation (noting that each vector component must
equal zero) and the conservation of mass equation yields
 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 2𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2 𝜕𝜕(𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃) 2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙
0=− + 𝜇𝜇 �∇ 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 − 2 − 2 − 2 �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙
0=− + 𝜇𝜇 �∇2 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 − 2 + − �
𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅2 sin2 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙 2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃
0=− + 𝜇𝜇 �∇2 𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙 − 2 + 2 + 2 2 �
𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 cot 𝜃𝜃 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙

+ + + + =0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

For the problem of low Reynolds number flow around a rigid stationary sphere, the boundary
conditions are that the fluid velocity in the radial, 𝑅𝑅, and tangential, 𝜃𝜃, directions (which are
denoted 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 and 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 respectively) are equal to zero on the surface of the sphere (at 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑎𝑎). The
condition 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 = 0 on the surface of the sphere requires that there is no flow into our sphere –
i.e. our sphere is rigid. The condition 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0 on the surface of the sphere is known as the ‘no-
slip’ condition, which requires that the tangential velocity of the fluid is equal to that of the
surface of the sphere. Note that the flow is axisymmetric about the 𝑥𝑥1 -axis and therefore 𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙 =
0 and all flow variables are independent of 𝜙𝜙. We also expect that at as 𝑅𝑅 → ∞ that 𝑢𝑢3 = 𝐮𝐮 ∙
𝐞𝐞3 = 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃 → 𝑉𝑉∞ .
Questions

2.1.1. Derive the expression for ∇ ∙ 𝐮𝐮 using the definitions of ∇ and 𝐮𝐮 in spherical
coordinates. Hint: you will need to make use of the spatial derivatives of the three spherical
unit vectors which are given below.

𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙

= 0, = 0, = 0, = 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 , = −𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 , =0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙
= sin 𝜃𝜃𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 , = cos 𝜃𝜃𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙 , = − sin 𝜃𝜃𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 − cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

2.1.2 Consider Stokes flow past a cylinder as defined in section L2.1. and as shown below.
Show that the following solutions for the velocity field satisfy the conservation of mass
equation for an incompressible fluid:

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 2𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 cot 𝜃𝜃 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙

∇ ∙ 𝒖𝒖 ≡ + + + + =0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅
𝑥𝑥3

𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃
𝜃𝜃
𝑅𝑅
𝑥𝑥1

𝑉𝑉∞

Also show that the following flow satisfies the boundary conditions on the cylinder surface and
behaves as expected as 𝑅𝑅 → ∞.

3𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎3 3𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎3

𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉∞ cos 𝜃𝜃 �1 − + �, 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 𝑉𝑉∞ sin 𝜃𝜃 �−1 + + �, 𝑢𝑢𝜙𝜙 = 0
2𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅 3 4𝑅𝑅 4𝑅𝑅 3

2.1.3 In spherical coordinates the components of the viscous stress tensor for an
incompressible fluid are:
 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅
𝜏𝜏𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 2𝜇𝜇
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅
𝜏𝜏𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 2𝜇𝜇 � + �
𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅
1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 cot 𝜃𝜃
𝜏𝜏𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 = 2𝜇𝜇 � + + �
𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅
𝜏𝜏𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜏𝜏𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 𝜇𝜇 �𝑅𝑅 � �+ �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑 1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝜗𝜗
𝜏𝜏𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 = 𝜏𝜏𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 𝜇𝜇 � � �+ �
𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 𝜕𝜕 𝑢𝑢𝜑𝜑
𝜏𝜏𝜑𝜑𝜑𝜑 = 𝜏𝜏𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜇𝜇 � + 𝑅𝑅 � ��
𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅

Use these expressions to show that the viscous stress on the surface of the sphere for the flow
in Q2.1.2 is given by

3𝜇𝜇𝑉𝑉∞ sin 𝜃𝜃
𝜏𝜏𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 𝜏𝜏𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = − ,
2𝑎𝑎
with all other components being zero.

(Recall that 𝜏𝜏𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 denotes the component of stress acting in the 𝜙𝜙-direction on a surface with
unit normal parallel to the 𝑅𝑅-direction. The outward unit normal to surface of a sphere is given
by 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 . Thus, the three stress components above completely define the viscous stresses acting
on our cylinder.)

2.1.4 It is possible to show that the solution for the pressure 𝑝𝑝 is given by

3 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑉𝑉∞
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝∞ − cos 𝜃𝜃,
2 𝑅𝑅 2
where 𝑝𝑝∞ is the pressure well away from the sphere (which is constant). (Note that our
assumption that 𝑝𝑝0 = 𝜇𝜇0 𝑢𝑢0 /𝑥𝑥0 appears reasonable if we set 𝑢𝑢0 = 𝑉𝑉∞ and 𝑥𝑥0 = 2𝑎𝑎. This will
ensure that changes in pressure 𝑝𝑝 are of the order of 𝑝𝑝0 at most locations close to the sphere.)

The total stress, or force per unit area, acting on the surface of the sphere can now be found by
adding the two components due to pressure and viscous stresses:

𝐟𝐟 = (−𝑝𝑝 + 𝜏𝜏𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 )𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 + 𝜏𝜏𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 + 𝜏𝜏𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 𝐞𝐞𝜙𝜙

The drag force, 𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 is the total force acting on the sphere of radius a in the x 3 direction. We can
calculate this by integrating the force per unit area in the x 3 direction, 𝑓𝑓3 , over the surface of
the sphere, 𝐴𝐴 i.e.
2𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋

𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = � 𝑓𝑓3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � 𝑓𝑓3 𝑎𝑎2 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝐴𝐴
0 0
Determine an expression for 𝑓𝑓3 and hence show that

𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = 6𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑉𝑉∞ 𝑎𝑎

Hint: Remember that:

𝐞𝐞3 = cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐞𝐞𝑅𝑅 − 𝐞𝐞𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃.

also these identities might be useful

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
2
2 4
� sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = , � sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, � sin3 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = .
3 3
0 0 0

2.1.5. Calculate terminal speed at which a spherical particle of radius 𝑎𝑎 = 5 × 10−7 m and
density 𝜌𝜌𝑠𝑠 = 4 × 103 kg.m-3 falls through air of density 𝜌𝜌 = 1.2kg.m-3 and viscosity 𝜇𝜇 = 1.8 ×
10−5Pa.s. Check whether our assumptions that Re ≪ 1 and Re/Fr 2 ≪ 1 are satisfied. Hint:
note that the volume of a sphere is given by 𝑉𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑎𝑎3 /3 and the upthrust due to buoyancy
effects is equal to 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 (the weight of the fluid displaced by the sphere).