DSC 1D (GE T4) Waves and Optics

Viscosity
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid
friction. It is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress
or tensile stress. In everyday terms, viscosity is "thickness" or "internal friction". Thus, water is
‘thin’, having a lower viscosity, while honey is ‘thick’, having a higher viscosity. Simply, the less
viscous the fluid is, the greater its fluidity. All real fluids (except super-fluids) have some resistance
to stress and therefore are viscous, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as
an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.

Properties and behaviour

In any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluid's viscosity arises from the shear stress
between the layers that ultimately oppose any applied force. The relationship between the shear
stress and the velocity gradient can be obtained by considering two plates closely spaced at a
distance y, and separated by a homogeneous substance. Assuming that the plates are very large,
with a large area A, such that edge effects may be ignored, and that the lower plate is fixed, let a
force F be applied to the upper plate. If this force causes the substance between the plates to
undergo shear flow with a velocity gradient u (as opposed to just shearing elastically until the
shear stress in the substance balances the applied force), the substance is called a fluid. The
applied force is proportional to the area and velocity gradient in the fluid and inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. Combining these three relations results in the
equation: = , where is the proportionality factor called viscosity. This equation can be
expressed in terms of shear stress = . Thus, as expressed in differential form by Isaac Newton
for straight, parallel and uniform flow, the shear stress between layers is proportional to the
velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the layers: = . Hence, through this
method, the relation between the shear stress and the velocity gradient can be obtained.
Note that the rate of shear deformation is which can be also written as a shear velocity, .

Laminar shear of fluid between two plates. Friction Laminar shear, the non-constant gradient, is a result of
between the fluid and the moving boundaries causes the the geometry the fluid is flowing through (e.g. a pipe).
fluid to shear. The force required for this action is a
measure of the fluid's viscosity. This type of flow is known
as a Couette flow.

S u m a n P a u l, Ph.D.
 DSC 1D (GE T4) Waves and Optics

Units

Dynamic Viscosity
Physicist usually uses the symbol to represent co-efficient of viscosity. The SI unit of dynamic
viscosity is the pascal-second (Pa.s) equivalent to N.s.m-2, or kg.m-1.s-1, while the c.g.s. unit is poise
(P).

If a fluid with viscosity of 1 Pa.s is placed between two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways
with a shear stress of 1 pascal, it moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the
plates in 1 sec.

1 P = gm.cm-1.s-1
1 Pa.s = 1 kg.m-1.s-1 = 10 P
1 P = 0.1 Pa.s

Kinematic Viscosity
Sometimes, it is important to consider the ratio of the internal force to the viscous force (i.e., the
Reynolds number), the former characterized by the fluid density . This ratio is termed by the
kinematic viscosity ( ) defined as = . The SI unit of is m2.s-1 while c.g.s. unit is stokes (St).

1 St = 1 cm2.s-1 = 10-4 m2.s-1

The kinematic viscosity is sometimes referred to as diffusivity of momentum, because it has the
same unit as and is comparable to diffusivity of heat and diffusivity of mass.

Fluidity
Fluidity is the reciprocal of viscosity, usually symbolized by = measured in reciprocal poise
(cm.s.gm-1), sometimes called the rhe.

Poiseuille's Law
Consider a solid cylinder of fluid, of radius r inside a hollow cylindrical pipe of radius R.

The driving force on the cylinder due to the pressure difference is =Δ ( ). The
viscous drag force opposing motion depends on the surface area of the cylinder (length L and
radius r) is = − (2 ) . In equilibrium condition of constant speed, where the net
force goes to zero, we have
+ =0
Δ ( )= (2 )

S u m a n P a u l, Ph.D.
 DSC 1D (GE T4) Waves and Optics

Δ
=
2

We know empirically that the velocity gradient should look like this:

At the centre, r = 0, = 0 and v is at its maximum.

At the edge, r = R, v = 0

From the velocity gradient equation above, and using the empirical velocity gradient limits, an
integration can be made to get an expression for the velocity.
Δ
=
2
Δ
( )= [ − ]
4
which has a parabolic form as expected.
Now the equation of continuity giving the volume flux for a variable speed is = ∫ .
Substituting the velocity profile equation and the surface area of the moving cylinder:
Δ
= . = [ − ] . (2 )
4

⋮
⋮

Δ
=
8
This is Poiseuille's equation for rate of flow of liquid through a capillary tube.

Determination of the co-efficient of viscosity by Poiseuille’s method

Working Theory
Co-efficient of viscosity of a liquid is defined by
=
8
Where, P (=hρg) = pressure difference under which water flows in streamline motion through a
capillary tube; r = radius of the capillary tube; l = length of the capillary tube; V = volume of liquid
(water) that flows out per unit time (in 1 sec). Here, h = height difference between two arms of
the manometer; ρ = density of water and g = acceleration due to gravity.

S u m a n P a u l, Ph.D.
 DSC 1D (GE T4) Waves and Optics

Schematic diagram of Poiseullie's method experimental set up

Volume (V) of water collected per unit time for streamline flow is given by
=

Where, V’= amount of water collected in a measuring cylinder; t = time of collection of such
amount of water.

A graph with h along the X-axis and corresponding V along Y-axis may be drawn (Figure). From the
graph mean can be found out.

V - h graph

Apparatus
Poiseuille’s method experimental set up, Measuring cylinder, Thermometer, stopwatch, meter
scale, travelling microscope

(Detail in Laboratory)

Variation of viscosity of liquid with Temperature

Viscosity depends strongly on temperature. In liquids it usually decreases with increasing
temperature, whereas in gases viscosity increases with increasing temperature. Understanding the
temperature dependence of viscosity is important in many applications, for instance
engineering lubricants that perform well under varying temperature conditions (such as in a car
engine), since the performance of a lubricant depends in part on its viscosity.

There are several empirical models which extrapolate a temperature dependence based on
available experimental viscosities.

S u m a n P a u l, Ph.D.
 DSC 1D (GE T4) Waves and Optics

Two-parameter exponential
A simple and widespread empirical correlation (Andrade equation) for liquid viscosity is a two-
parameter exponential:
⁄
=

It accurately describes many liquids over a range of temperatures. A and B are constants for
certain type of liquid. A is in Pa.s and B is in K.

Three- and four-parameter exponentials

One can also find exponentials with additional parameters, for example
= exp
−
A is in Pa.s and B is in K and C is also in K.

= exp + +
-1 -2
A is in Pa.s, B is in K, C is in K and D is in K .

Variation of Viscosity of water with Temperature

S u m a n P a u l, Ph.D.
 DSC 1D (GE T4) Waves and Optics

Questions
① What do you mean by ‘viscosity’ and ‘co-efficient of viscosity’?
② What do you mean by streamline and turbulent motion?
③ What is Reynold’s number? How is it related to streamline flow?
④ What do you understand by the statement: The co-efficient of viscosity of a liquid is 1 poise?
⑤ How co-efficient of viscosity varies with temperature?
⑥ Which quantity would you measure with greater care in co-efficient of viscosity
measurement?
⑦ What is the SI unit of co-efficient of viscosity? Is there any c.g.s. unit?
⑧ Derive Poiseullie's equation for flow of liquid through a narrow tube (stating assumptions
clearly).

S u m a n P a u l, Ph.D.