3.2.

4 Torricelli’s Theorem

Torricelli's Theorem is related to pressure at a point in a fluid and not its barometer. The greatest
achievement of the Evangelista Torricelli who invented the mercury barometer was the
Torricelli’s theorem which described the relationship between fluid leaving a hole in a container
and the height of fluid see the figure below.

When there is no change of pressure, P1 = P2 the Bernoulli’s equation leads to the Torricelli’s
theorem:

v=√2 gh
Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, is a theorem in fluid dynamics relating the
speed of fluid flowing out of an orifice to the height of fluid above the opening. The law states
that the speed of efflux, v, of a fluid through a sharp-edged hole at the bottom of a tank filled to a
depth h is the same as the speed that a body (in this case a drop of water) would acquire if the
water dropped it from the same height h to the level of the hole, as shown in the figure below. In
its simplest form it means that if you dropped the fluid from a certain height h, the fluid would
have a certain velocity v as it fell from that height to level of the hole. This last expression comes
from equating the kinetic energy gained from potential energy.

3.3 Properties of Fluids

3.3.1 Assumptions for Fluid Flow
All fluids are assumed in this treatment to exhibit streamline flow which is the motion of a fluid
in which every particle in the fluid follows the same path past a particular point as that followed
by previous particles. The assumptions used in fluid flow are:
(a) There is no internal friction.
(b) All fluids move with streamline flow.
(c) The fluids are incompressible.
(d) There is no internal friction.
The resistance to flow in a liquid can be characterized in terms of the viscosity of the fluid if the
flow is smooth. In the case of a moving plate in a liquid, it is found that there is a layer or lamina
which moves with the plate and a layer which is essentially stationary if it is next to a stationary
plate. Laminar flow occurs when a fluid can be pictured as split into thin layers which slide
smoothly over each other. The thin layers (or laminas) are held back by viscous drag between
the surfaces of the layers. For example, if two flat solid plates are separated by a viscous fluid, an
external force is needed to slide the top plate at constant speed over the fixed lower plate as
shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Velocity profile of lamina drag by force on the moving plate

The common application of laminar flow would be in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid
through a tube or pipe. In that case, the velocity of flow varies from zero at the walls to a
maximum along the centerline of the vessel. The flow profile of laminar flow in a tube can be
calculated by dividing the flow into thin cylindrical elements and applying the viscous force to
them. Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing. At the pipe wall the velocity of the
water will be zero. The velocity will increase as we move toward the center of the pipe as seen in
Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Laminar flow in a pipe

3.3.2 Viscosity
When a fluid flows over a surface due to application of pressure difference, the layer next to the
surface may become attached to it (it wets the surface). The layers of fluid above the surface are
moving so there must be shearing taking place between the layers of the fluid. The displacement
in the direction of motion dx is the same and so is the velocity difference du. Observe that
Figure 3.3a: The quantities involved in fluid flow in pipes

Experimentally, under conditions of laminar flow, the force required to move a plate at constant
speed against the resistance of a fluid is proportional to the area of the plate and to the velocity
gradient perpendicular to the plate. The constant of proportionality is called the viscosity. In the
case of a moving plate in a liquid, it is found that there is a layer or lamina, which moves with
the plate as shown in Figure 3.3b.

Figure 3.3b: A lamina flow demonstrating the velocity gradient

The force depends directly on the area A of the plates and the velocity gradient between the
plates. This is known as Newton's Law of Viscosity. Force/Area has the units of pressure, i.e.
Pascal (Pa). Velocity/distance has the units of s-1. Viscosity is the internal friction of a fluid,
which makes it resist flow past a solid surface or other layers of the fluid. Viscosity can also be
considered to be a measure of a fluid to flow. Thick fluids like oil or honey have high viscosity
while water has less viscosity. If we define the friction generated by layers of fluid slipping over
one another as viscosity it is possible to define a viscous force as:

η Av
F v=
l (3.4)
Circular pipes can withstand large pressure differences between the inside and the outside
without undergoing any significant distortion, but noncircular pipes cannot
The  is the coefficient of viscosity with units of N.s/m 2, A is the area on which the viscous
force acts, v is the speed of the upper wall and l is the thickness of the layer of the fluid.
Therefore, the viscosity coefficient has the unit of Pa.s. There is an older unit called the poise, 1
poise = 0.1 Pa.s. Viscosity coefficients of some common materials are presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Viscosity coefficients of selected materials

Experiments have shown that the coefficient of viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
temperature, while the coefficient of viscosity of gases increases with increasing temperature. In
liquids an increase in temperature is associated with the weakening of bonds between molecules;
since these bonds contribute to viscosity, the coefficient is decreased. On the other hand,
intermolecular forces in gases are not as important a factor in viscosity as collisions between the
molecules, and an increase in temperature increases the number of collisions, thus increasing the
coefficient of viscosity. A striking result of the kinetic theory of gases is that the viscosity of a
gas is independent of the density of a gas. Viscosity is the principal factor resisting motion in
laminar flow. However, when the velocity has increased to the point at which the flow becomes
turbulent, pressure differences resulting from eddy currents rather than viscosity provide the
major resistance to motion.

Blood viscosity is the thickness and stickiness of blood. It is a direct measure of the ability of
blood to flow through the vessels. It is also a key screening test that measures how much friction
the blood causes against the vessels, how hard the heart has to work to pump blood, and how
much oxygen is delivered to organs and tissues. Importantly, high blood viscosity is easily
modifiable with safe lifestyle-based interventions.

A high concentration of red blood cells (hematocrit) as indicated in Figure 3.4. Whole blood has
a relative viscosity of 3-4 depending upon hematocrit, temperature, and flow rate. Hematocrit is
an important determinant of the viscosity of blood.  As hematocrit increases, there is a
disproportionate increase in viscosity.  For example, at a hematocrit of 40%, the relative
viscosity is 4.  At a hematocrit of 60%, the relative viscosity is about 8.  Therefore, a 50%
increase in hematocrit from a normal value increases blood viscosity by about 100%. Such
changes in hematocrit and blood viscosity occur in patients with polycythemia.

Figure 3.4: The effect of red blood cells on blood viscosity

Temperature also has a significant effect on viscosity.  As temperature decreases, viscosity

increases.  Viscosity increases approximate 2% for each °C decrease in temperature.  This
effect has several implications.  For example, when a person's hand is cooled by exposure to
a cold environment, the increase in blood viscosity contributes to the decrease in blood flow
(along with neural-mediated thermoregulatory mechanisms that constrict the vessels).  The
use of whole body hypothermia during certain surgical procedures also increases blood
viscosity and therefore increases resistance to blood flow.

Worked Example
A block of ice at melting point is drawn over a level surface lubricated by a layer of water 0.1
mm thick. Determine the magnitude of force needed to pull the block with a constant speed of
0.5 m/s. The dimension of the block is 0.80 m wide and 1.20 m long.

Solution
To be able to pull the block with a constant speed one requires a force F to be equal and opposite
to the viscous force of the fluid given by

η Av
F=F v=
l
F
1.79 x103 N .s / m2  x1.20mx0.800mx0.5m / s
10 4 m = 8.59N