Heat Transfer by Convection

Heat Transfer by Convection

Reference for this notes can be found in the
recommended text book: Fundamentals of Heat and
Mass Transfer -Frank P. Incropera, David P DeWitt -7th ed

In our treatment of convection, we have two major

objectives.
1. obtaining an understanding of the physical
mechanisms that underlie convection transfer,
2. develop the means to perform convection transfer
calculations.
 Heat Transfer by Convection
Heat exchange by convection refers to that occurring
between a solid surface and fluid flowing along its surface.
Convection depends on the motion of the fluid acting as a
carrier of energy. Convection process can be viewed as
two main types:
1. Free or natural convection caused by density
difference produced by temperature difference.
2. Forced convection caused by some external agent such
as a pump or blower.
 Heat Transfer by Convection
Since the convection process depends on the motion of
fluid particles then looking at and analysing the dynamics
of the fluid flow will help us to understand the
mechanisms of convection heat transfer.
The convective energy transfer is calculated using
Newton’s law of cooling
q = hA ∆T ---------------(1)
where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient which is
a function of the velocity of the flow, the thermal
properties of the fluid and the body geometry.
 Velocity boundary layer
To introduce the concept of a boundary layer, consider
flow over the flat plate of Figure1. When fluid particles
make contact with the surface, their velocity is reduced
significantly relative to the fluid velocity upstream of the
plate, and for
most situations
it is valid to
assume that the
particle velocity FIGURE 1. Velocity boundary
is zero at the wall. layer development on a flat plate.
 Velocity boundary layer
These particles then act to retard the motion of particles in
the adjoining fluid layer, which act to retard the motion of
particles in the next layer, and so on until, at a distance
y=δ from the surface, the effect becomes negligible. This
retardation of fluid motion is associated with shear
stresses τ acting in planes that are parallel to the fluid
velocity (Figure 1). With increasing distance y from the
surface, the x velocity component of the fluid, u, must then
increase until it approaches the free stream value u. The
subscript is used to designate conditions in the free stream
outside the boundary layer.
 Velocity boundary layer
The quantity δ is termed the boundary layer thickness, and it is
typically defined as the value of y for which The
boundary layer velocity profile refers to the manner in which u
varies with y through the boundary layer. Accordingly, the fluid
flow is characterized by two distinct regions, a thin fluid layer
(the boundary layer) in which velocity gradients and shear
stresses are large and a region outside the boundary layer in
which velocity gradients and shear stresses are negligible. With
increasing distance from the leading edge, the effects of viscosity
penetrate farther into the free stream and the boundary layer
grows (δ increases with x).
 Velocity boundary layer
The foregoing scenario describes a Newtonian
fluid; that is a fluid in which the viscous
stresses arising from its flow, at every point, are
linearly proportional to the local strain rate - the
rate of change of its deformation over time.
The viscous forces between the layers varies
with distance from the flat plate. These forces
are described by a shear stress τ between the
layers.
 Velocity boundary layer
This shear stress depends on the velocity. Hence the
𝑑𝑢
relationship 𝜏 ∝ i.e. as distance from the
𝑑𝑦
boundary layer increases τ decreases and as velocity
difference between layers increases τ increases.

For a Newtonian fluid the proportionality constant 𝝁

, called the dynamic viscosity is introduced and the
𝒅𝒖
equation becomes 𝜏 = 𝝁 -----------------(2)
𝒅𝒚
 The Thermal Boundary Layer
Just as a velocity boundary layer develops when there is
fluid flow over a surface, a thermal boundary layer must
develop if the fluid free stream and surface temperatures
differ. Consider flow over an isothermal flat plate

FIGURE 2.
Thermal
boundary layer
development on
an isothermal
flat plate.
 The Thermal Boundary Layer
At the leading edge the temperature profile is uniform,
with T(y) = T∞. However, fluid particles that come into
contact with the plate achieve thermal equilibrium at the
plate’s surface temperature. In turn, these particles
exchange energy with those in the adjoining fluid layer,
and temperature gradients develop in the fluid. The region
of the fluid in which these temperature gradients exist is
the thermal boundary layer, and its thickness is
typically defined as the value of y for which the ratio
 The Thermal Boundary Layer
With increasing distance from the leading edge, the
effects of heat transfer penetrate farther into the free
stream and the thermal boundary layer grows. The
relation between conditions in this boundary layer
and the convection heat transfer coefficient may
readily be demonstrated. At any distance x from the
leading edge, the local surface heat flux may be
obtained by applying Fourier’s law to the fluid at y
0. That is, ------------(3)
 The Thermal Boundary Layer
The subscript s has been used to emphasize that this is the
surface heat flux, but it will be dropped in later sections.
This expression is appropriate because, at the surface,
there is no fluid motion and energy transfer occurs only by
conduction. Recalling Newton’s law of cooling, we see
that -----------(4)

and combining this with Equation 3, we obtain

------------(5)
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
An essential step in the treatment of any convection
problem is to determine whether the boundary layer is
laminar or turbulent. Surface friction and the convection
transfer rates depend strongly on which of these conditions
exists. As shown in Figure 3, there are sharp differences
between laminar and turbulent flow conditions. In the
laminar boundary layer, fluid motion is highly ordered and
it is possible to identify streamlines along which particles
move.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

FIGURE 3. Velocity boundary layer development on a flat

plate.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Fluid motion along a streamline is characterized by
velocity components in both the x and y directions.
Since the velocity component v is in the direction
normal to the surface, it can contribute significantly
to the transfer of momentum, energy, or species
through the boundary layer. Fluid motion normal to
the surface is necessitated by boundary layer growth
in the x direction.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

FIGURE 4. Variation of
velocity boundary layer
thickness δ and the
local heat transfer
coefficient h for flow
over an isothermal flat
plate.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
The highly ordered behaviour continues until a
transition zone is reached, across which a
conversion from laminar to turbulent conditions
occurs. Conditions within the transition zone change
with time, with the flow sometimes exhibiting
laminar behaviour and sometimes exhibiting the
characteristics of turbulent flow.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Flow in the fully turbulent boundary layer is, in
general, highly irregular and is characterized by
random, three-dimensional motion of relatively
large parcels of fluid. Mixing within the
boundary layer carries high-speed fluid toward
the solid surface and transfers slower-moving
fluid farther into the free stream.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is ultimately due
to triggering mechanisms, such as the interaction of unsteady
flow structures that develop naturally within the fluid or small
disturbances that exist within many typical boundary layers.
The onset of turbulence depends on whether the triggering
mechanisms are amplified or attenuated in the direction of fluid
flow, which in turn depends on a dimensionless grouping of
parameters called the Reynolds number, -------(6)

where, for a flat plate, the characteristic length x is, the distance
from the leading edge.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
The Reynolds number represents the ratio of the
inertia to viscous forces. If the Reynolds number is
small, inertia forces are insignificant relative to
viscous forces. The disturbances are then dissipated,
and the flow remains laminar. For a large Reynolds
number, however, the inertia forces can be sufficient
to amplify the triggering mechanisms, and a
transition to turbulence occurs.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
In determining whether the boundary layer is laminar or
turbulent, it is frequently reasonable to assume that
transition begins at some location xc, as shown in Figures
3&4. This location is determined by the critical Reynolds
number, Rex,c. For flow over a flat plate, Rex,c is known to
vary from approximately 105 to 3 x 106 depending on
surface roughness and the turbulence level of the free
stream. A representative value of
is often assumed for boundary
layer calculations and, unless otherwise stated.
 Boundary Layer equation on a Flat Plate
Consider laminar flow of a fluid on a flat plate as shown
in Figure 5. The following assumptions are made:
1 Flow is steady
2 Fluid is incompressible
3 There is no pressure variation perpendicular to the plate.
4 Viscosity is constant
5 Viscous force in the y direction is negligible
 Boundary Layer equation on a Flat Plate

Figure 5. Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate

 Boundary Layer equation on a Flat Plate
Considering the elementa1 volume formed by the
increments dx and dy in the boundary layer, the
continuity, momentum and energy equations for this
control volume will be developed. For this system the
velocities in the x, y, and z directions will be represented
by u, v, and w, respectively.
 Continuity Equation
Consider the elemental volume dx.dy.1. (Figure 6)
That is unit depth in the z direction

Figure 6. elemental
volume dx.dy.1.
 Continuity Equation
For unit depth in the z direction, the entering mass flow
rate at the left face is
𝑚𝑥 = 𝜌𝑢 𝑑𝑦. 1
And the mass flow rate leaving at the right face is
𝜕 𝜕𝑢
𝑚𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Similarly, mass flow rate entering the bottom face and
leaving the top face are
𝜕𝑣
𝑚𝑦 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑥. 1 and 𝑚𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = 𝜌 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
 Continuity Equation
For a mass balance on the control volume, mass flow rate
into the control volume must equal the mass flow rate out
of the control volume, hence,
𝜌𝑢𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
=𝜌 𝑢+ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜌 𝑣 + 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Neglecting the higher order terms, this equation reduces to

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
+ = 𝟎 −−−−−−− −(𝟕)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
 Conservation of Momentum Equation
The second fundamental law pertinent to the velocity
boundary layer is Newton’s second law. For a
differential control volume in the velocity boundary
layer, this requirement states that the sum of all the
forces acting on the control volume must equal the
net rate at which momentum leaves the control
volume (outflow - inflow). The conservation of
momentum equation is obtained from application of
Newton’s law.
 Boundary Layer equation on a Flat Plate

Force Momentum
Figure 7
Assuming that flow is Newtonian, that there are no pressure
gradient in the y direction and the viscous shear in the y direction
is negligible (Figure 7), then
 Conservation of Momentum Equation

The momentum theorem also requires finding the

x-momentum flux out of the control volume
minus the x-momentum flux into the control
volume.
 Conservation of Momentum Equation
It should be noted that the flow across the horizontal
face (y-direction) will also contribute to the
momentum balance. The x-momentum flux crossing
the left hand face into the control volume is the
product of the mass flow rate and the local x-
component of velocity, i.e.
ρu dy u = ρu 2 dy
 Conservation of Momentum Equation
The x-momentum leaving the right hand face at x+dx is
𝜕
ρu2 dy + 𝜌𝑢2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
The x-momentum entering the bottom face at y is
ρv dx u = ρuv dx
The x-momentum leaving the upper face at y+dy is
𝜕
ρuv dx+ 𝜌𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦
 Conservation of Momentum Equation
Hence the x-momentum flux out minus the x-momentum
flux in is:
𝜕 𝜕 2
ρuv dx+𝜌 𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥+ ρu2 dy+𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
- ρuv dx- ρu 2 dy
Cancelling the like terms give:
𝜕 𝜕 2
𝜌 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
 Conservation of Momentum Equation
Since the momentum theorem requires that in the steady
state the net force on the control volume in the x-direction
equals the net momentum flux out in the x-direction, then:
𝜕 𝜕 2
𝜌 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝜏 𝜕2 𝑢
but: 𝜏= 𝜇 which gives = 𝜇 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
 Conservation of Momentum Equation
Substituting and expanding the equation gives:
2
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝑢
𝜌 𝑢 +𝑣 + 2𝑢 = − + 𝜇 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 𝜕 𝑢
𝜌 𝑢 + 𝑣 +𝑢 + = − + 𝜇 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑃 𝜕2 𝑢
But: + =0 𝜌 𝑢 + 𝑣 = − + 𝜇 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑃
Using 𝜐 = ;𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝞾 2− -------(8)
𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
 Conservation of Energy Equation
In looking at the conservation of energy equation the
following assumptions are made:
1. All physical properties are temperature independent
2. The flow velocity is sufficiently small such that the
frictional shear work may be neglected.

ρ𝑐𝑝 u𝑇 𝑑𝑦 = (ρu. 𝑑𝑦. 1) 𝑐𝑝 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇

Which is the rate of energy transfer
𝑘𝑔 𝐽 𝐽
Units: 𝐾= =𝑊
𝑠 𝑘𝑔.𝐾 𝑠
 Conservation of Energy Equation
Figure 8:
Consider the
energy transfer
In and Out of
the elemental
volume,
dx.dy.1, by
conduction and
convection
 Conservation of Energy Equation
The above figure shows the rate at which energy will be
conducted and convected into and out of the control volume.
There are four convective terms in addition to the conductive
terms. For an energy balance on the control volume it require that
the net rate of conduction and the net rate of convection be zero.
From the diagram this yields the equation:

𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2
+ 2
− 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢 + 𝑇+ . 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑇
− 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑣 + 𝑇+ . 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
 Conservation of Energy Equation
Neglecting second order terms and substituting the
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
conservation of mass equation, + = 0 , in a similar
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
way that was done in the derivation of momentum
equation give the following expression for the energy
equation.
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
𝑘 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2
+ 2
− 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢 + 𝑇+𝑣 + 𝑇 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑘 2
+ 2
− 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢 +𝑣 − 𝜌𝑐𝑝 + 𝑇=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Conservation of Energy Equation
This gives:
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 + = 𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑢 + 𝑣 --------(9)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

2
𝜕 𝑇 2
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝛼 + = 𝑢 + 𝑣 ------------(10)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝑘
Where 𝛼 =
𝜌𝑐𝑝
 Conservation of Energy Equation
Under normal conditions, conduction in the x-direction is small
compared with other terms and consequently the first term in
the right hand side of the equation may be neglected. Also, the
pressure term in the momentum equation is usually small and
can be neglected in comparison with other terms. Then the
similarity between the momentum and energy equations
becomes apparent as:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝝊 𝟐 − −(11) 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝛼 2 ---(12)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝝏𝒚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜇
Where 𝝊 = kinematic viscosity =
𝜌
 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to
gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress.

A simulation of
liquids with different
viscosities. The liquid
on the right has higher
viscosity than the
liquid on the left.
 Prandtl number
The Prandtl number (Pr) is a dimensionless number,
defined as the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal
diffusivity.

If 𝝊 = α, then Pr = 1, which results in the

non-dimensional solution for u(y) and T(y) being
identical
 Review
Thus far we introduced and developed from first
principles:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
1. The overall continuity equation + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
2. The x-momentum equation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 1 𝜕𝑃
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝞾 2 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
3. The energy equation
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝛼 + = 𝑢 + 𝑣
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 Review
Under Low-Speed forced convection conditions,
𝜕2 𝑇
conduction is small in the x-direction, hence 2 ≈ 0
𝜕𝑥
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙,
𝜕𝑃
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ≈ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜:
𝜕𝑥
𝟐 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝝏 𝒖 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝑇
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝝊 𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝛼 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝝏𝒚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦