M.

BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer1
ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer
Convectionisthemechanismofheattransferthroughafluidinthepresenceofbulkfluid
motion. Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on
how the fluid motion is initiated. In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by
naturalmeanssuchasthebuoyancyeffect,i.e.theriseofwarmerfluidandfallthecooler
fluid.Whereasinforcedconvection,thefluidisforcedtoflowoverasurfaceorinatube
byexternalmeanssuchasapumporfan.
MechanismofForcedConvection
Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction. The fluid motion enhances heat transfer (the higher the velocity the higher
theheattransferrate).
TherateofconvectionheattransferisexpressedbyNewtonslawofcooling:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) W T T hA Q
m W T T h q
s conv
s conv

-

-
=
=
2
/

The convective heat transfer coefficient h strongly depends on the fluid properties and
roughnessofthesolidsurface,andthetypeofthefluidflow(laminarorturbulent).

Fig.1:Forcedconvection.
Itisassumedthatthevelocityofthefluidiszeroatthewall,thisassumptioniscalledno
slip condition. As a result, the heat transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer
adjacenttothesurfaceisbypureconduction,sincethefluidismotionless.Thus,
Solidhotsurface,T
s

Q
conv

Q
cond

Zerovelocity
atthesurface.
V

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer2
( )
( ) K m W
T T
y
T
k
h
T T h q
y
T
k q q
s
y
fluid
s conv
y
fluid cond conv
. /
2
0
0

-
=
- -

c
c

=
c
c
= =

The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow direction. The
mean or average convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface is determined by
(properly)averagingthelocalheattransfercoefficientovertheentiresurface.
VelocityBoundaryLayer
Considertheflowofafluidoveraflatplate,thevelocityandthetemperatureofthefluid
approaching the plate is uniform at U

and T

. The fluid can be considered as adjacent

layersontopofeachothers.

Fig.2:Velocityboundarylayer.
Assuming noslip condition at the wall, the velocity of the fluid layer at the wall is zero.
Themotionlesslayerslowsdowntheparticlesoftheneighboringfluidlayersasaresultof
friction between the two adjacent layers. The presence of the plate is felt up to some
distance from the plate beyond which the fluid velocity U

remains unchanged. This

regioniscalledvelocityboundarylayer.
Boundarylayerregionistheregionwheretheviscouseffectsandthevelocitychangesare
significantandtheinviscidregionistheregioninwhichthefrictionaleffectsarenegligible
andthevelocityremainsessentiallyconstant.
Thefrictionbetweentwoadjacentlayersbetweentwolayersactssimilartoadragforce
(frictionforce).Thedragforceperunitareaiscalledtheshearstress:
( )
2
0
/ m N
y
V
y
s
=
c
c
= t
whereisthedynamicviscosityofthefluidkg/m.sorN.s/m
2
.
Viscosityisameasureoffluidresistancetoflow,andisastrongfunctionoftemperature.
Thesurfaceshearstresscanalsobedeterminedfrom:
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer3
( )
2
2
/
2
m N
U
C
f s

=

t
where C
f
is the friction coefficient or the drag coefficient which is determined
experimentallyinmostcases.
Thedragforceiscalculatedfrom:
( ) N
U
A C F
f D
2
2

=


Theflowinboundarylayerstartsassmoothandstreamlinedwhichiscalledlaminarflow.
Atsomedistancefromtheleadingedge,theflowturnschaotic,whichiscalledturbulent
anditischaracterizedbyvelocityfluctuationsandhighlydisorderedmotion.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which is called
transitionregion.
Thevelocityprofileinthelaminarregionisapproximatelyparabolic,andbecomesflatter
inturbulentflow.
Theturbulentregioncanbeconsideredofthreeregions:laminarsublayer(whereviscous
effects are dominant), buffer layer (where both laminar and turbulent effects exist), and
turbulentlayer.
The intense mixingofthefluidinturbulentflow enhancesheatandmomentum transfer
betweenfluidparticles,whichinturnincreasesthefrictionforceandtheconvectionheat
transfercoefficient.
NondimensionalGroups
Inconvection,itisacommonpracticetonondimensionalizethegoverningequationsand
combinethevariableswhichgrouptogetherintodimensionlessnumbers(groups).
Nusseltnumber:nondimensionalheattransfercoefficient
-
-
= =
cond
conv
q
q
k
h
Nu
o

where is the characteristic length, i.e. D for the tube and L for the flat plate. Nusselt
number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid as a result of
convectionrelativetoconductionacrossthesamefluidlayer.
Reynoldsnumber:ratioofinertiaforcestoviscousforcesinthefluid
v
o

o V V
= = =
forces viscous
forces inertia
Re
At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and the
velocityofthefluid,arelargerelativetotheviscousforces;thustheviscousforcescannot
preventtherandomandrapidfluctuationsofthefluid(turbulentregime).
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer4
TheReynoldsnumberatwhichtheflowbecomesturbulentiscalledthecriticalReynolds
number.ForflatplatethecriticalReisexperimentallydeterminedtobeapproximatelyRe
critical=5x10
5
.
Prandtlnumber:isameasureofrelativethicknessofthevelocityandthermalboundary
layer
k
C
p

o
v
= = =
heat of y diffusivit molecular
momentum of y diffusivit molecular
Pr
wherefluidpropertiesare:
massdensity:,(kg/m
3
)specificheatcapacity:C
p
(J/kgK)
dynamicviscosity:,(Ns/m
2
)kinematicviscosity:,/(m
2
/s)
thermalconductivity:k,(W/mK)thermaldiffusivity:,k/(C
p
)(m
2
/s)
ThermalBoundaryLayer
Similar to velocity boundary layer, a thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at
specifictemperatureflowsoverasurfacewhichisatdifferenttemperature.

Fig.3:Thermalboundarylayer.
Thethicknessofthethermalboundarylayer
t
isdefinedasthedistanceatwhich:
99 . 0 =

s
s
T T
T T

Therelativethicknessofthevelocityandthethermalboundarylayersisdescribedbythe
Prandtlnumber.
For low Prandtl number fluids, i.e. liquid metals, heat diffuses much faster than
momentum flow (remember Pr = /<<1) and the velocity boundary layer is fully
containedwithinthethermalboundarylayer.Ontheotherhand,forhighPrandtlnumber
fluids,i.e.oils,heatdiffusesmuchslowerthanthemomentumandthethermalboundary
layeriscontainedwithinthevelocityboundarylayer.
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer5
FlowOverFlatPlate
Thefrictionandheattransfercoefficientforaflatplatecanbedeterminedbysolvingthe
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations (either approximately or
numerically). They can also be measured experimentally. It is found that the Nusselt
numbercanbeexpressedas:
n m
L
C
k
hL
Nu Pr Re = =
whereC,m,andnareconstantsandListhelengthoftheflatplate.Thepropertiesofthe
fluidareusuallyevaluatedatthefilmtemperaturedefinedas:
2

+
=
T T
T
s
f

LaminarFlow
The local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at the location x for laminar flow
overaflatplateare
2 / 1
,
3 / 1 2 / 1
Re
664 . 0
6 . 0 Pr Pr Re 332 . 0
x
x f
x x
C
k
hx
Nu
=
> = =

wherexisthedistantfromtheleadingedgeoftheplateandRe
x
=V

x/.
TheaveragedfrictioncoefficientandtheNusseltnumberovertheentireisothermalplate
forlaminarregimeare:
2 / 1
3 / 1 2 / 1
Re
328 . 1
6 . 0 Pr Pr Re 664 . 0
L
f
L
C
k
hL
Nu
=
> = =

TakingthecriticalReynoldsnumbertobe5x10
5
,thelengthoftheplatex
cr
overwhichthe
flowislaminarcanbedeterminedfrom
v
cr
cr
x V

= =
5
10 5 Re
TurbulentFlow
ThelocalfrictioncoefficientandtheNusseltnumberatlocationxforturbulentflowovera
flatisothermalplateare:
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer6
7 5
5 / 1
,
7 5 3 / 1 5 / 4
10 Re 10 5
Re
0592 . 0
10 Re 10 5 60 Pr 6 . 0 Pr Re 0296 . 0
s s =
s s s s = =
x
x
x f
x x x
C
k
hx
Nu

The averaged friction coefficient and Nusselt number over the isothermal plate in
turbulentregionare:
7 5
5 / 1
7 5 3 / 1 5 / 4
10 Re 10 5
Re
074 . 0
10 Re 10 5 60 Pr 6 . 0 Pr Re 037 . 0
s s =
s s s s = =
L
L
f
L x
C
k
hL
Nu

CombinedLaminarandTurbulentFlow
Iftheplateissufficientlylongfortheflowtobecometurbulent(andnotlongenoughto
disregard the laminar flow region), we should use the average values for friction
coefficientandtheNusseltnumber.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
} }
} }
cr
cr
cr
cr
x L
x
Turbulent x ar La x
x L
x
Turbulent x f ar La x f f
dx h dx h
L
h
dx C dx C
L
C
0
, , min ,
0
, , min , ,
1
1

wherethecriticalReynoldsnumberisassumedtobe5x10
5
.Afterperformingtheintegrals
andsimplifications,oneobtains:
( )
7 5
5 / 1
7 5 3 / 1 5 / 4
10 Re 10 5
Re
1742
Re
074 . 0
10 Re 10 5 60 Pr 6 . 0 Pr 871 Re 037 . 0
s s =
s s s s = =
L
L L
f
L x
C
k
hL
Nu

Theaboverelationshipshavebeenobtainedforthecaseofisothermalsurfaces,butcould
alsobeusedapproximatelyforthecaseofnonisothermalsurfaces.Insuchcasesassume
thesurfacetemperaturebeconstantatsomeaveragevalue.
Forisoflux(uniformheatflux)plates,thelocalNusseltnumberforlaminarandturbulent
flowcanbefoundfrom:
plate) (isoflux Turbulent Pr Re 0308 . 0
plate) (isoflux Laminar Pr Re 453 . 0
3 / 1 8 . 0
3 / 1 5 . 0
x x
x x
k
hx
Nu
k
hx
Nu
= =
= =

Note the isoflux relationships give values that are 36% higher for laminar and 4% for
turbulentflowsrelativetoisothermalplatecase.
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer7
Example1
Engine oil at 60C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20C with a
velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit
widthoftheentireplate.

We assume the critical Reynolds number is 5x10

5
. The properties of the oil at the film
temperatureare:
s m
K m W k
m kg
C
T T
T
s
f
/ 10 242
2870 Pr
) . /( 144 . 0
/ 876
40
2
2 6
3

=
=
=
=
=
+
=
v

TheRenumberfortheplateis:
Re
L
=V

L/=4.13x10
4
which is less than the critical Re. Thus we have laminar flow. The friction coefficient and
thedragforcecanbefoundfrom:
( )
( )( )
N
s m m kg
m
V
A C F
C
f D
L f
2 . 57
2
/ 2 / 876
1 5 00653 . 0
2
00653 . 0 Re 328 . 1
2 3
2
2
5 . 0
= = =
= =

TheNusseltnumberisdeterminedfrom:
( ) W T T hA Q
K m
W
h
Then
k
hL
Nu
s
L
11040
2 . 55
,
1918 Pr Re 0664
2
3 / 1 5 . 0
= =
=
= = =

oil
T

=60C
V

=2m/s
L=5m
T
s
=20C
Q
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer8
FlowacrossCylindersandSpheres
Thecharacteristiclengthforacirculartubeorsphereistheexternaldiameter,D,andthe
Reynoldsnumberisdefined:

D V

= Re
ThecriticalRefortheflowacrossspheresortubesis2x10
5
.Theapproachingfluidtothe
cylinder(asphere)willbranchoutandencirclethebody,formingaboundarylayer.

Fig.4:Typicalflowpatternsoversphereandstreamlinedbodyanddragforces.
At low Re (Re < 4) numbers the fluid completely wraps around the body. At higher Re
numbers,thefluidistoofasttoremainattachedtothesurfaceasitapproachesthetopof
thecylinder.Thus,theboundarylayerdetachesfromthesurface,formingawakebehind
thebody.Thispointiscalledtheseparationpoint.
To reduce the drag coefficient, streamlined bodies are more suitable, e.g. airplanes are
builttoresemblebirdsandsubmarinetoresemblefish,Fig.4.
In flow past cylinder or spheres, flow separation occurs around 80 for laminar flow and
140forturbulentflow.
( ) area frontal :
2
2
N N D D
A N
V
A C F

=


wherefrontalareaofacylinderisA
N
=LD,andforasphereisA
N
=D
2
/4.
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer9
The drag force acting on a body is caused by two effects: the friction drag (due to the
shear stress at the surface) and the pressure drag which is due to pressure differential
betweenthefrontandrearsideofthebody.
Asaresultoftransitiontoturbulentflow,whichmovestheseparationpointfurthertothe
rearofthebody,alargereductioninthedragcoefficientoccurs.Asaresult,thesurfaceof
golfballsisintentionallyroughenedtoinduceturbulentatalowerRenumber,seeFig.5.

Fig.5:RoughenedgolfballreducesC
D
.
Theaverageheattransfercoefficientforcrossflowoveracylindercanbefoundfromthe
correlationpresentedbyChurchillandBernstein:
( ) | |
5 / 4
8 / 5
4 / 1
3 / 2
3 / 1 2 / 1
000 , 282
Re
1
Pr 4 . 0 1
Pr Re 62 . 0
3 . 0
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+
+
+ = =
k
hD
Nu
Cyl

wherefluidpropertiesareevaluatedatthefilmtemperatureT
f
=(T
s
+T

)/2.
Forflowoverasphere,Whitakerrecommendedthefollowing:
| | ( )
4 / 1 4 . 0 3 / 2 2 / 1
/ Pr Re 06 . 0 Re 4 . 0 2 /
s Sph
k hD Nu

+ + = =
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer10
whichisvalidfor3.5<Re<80,000and0.7<Pr<380.Thefluidpropertiesareevaluated
at the freestream temperature T

, except for
s
which is evaluated at surface
temperature.
The average Nusselt number for flow across circular and noncircular cylinders can be
foundfromTable103Cengelbook.
Example2
Thedecorativeplasticfilmonacoppersphereof10mmdiameteriscuredinanovenat
75C.Uponremovalfromtheoven,thesphereissubjectedtoanairstreamat1atmand
23Chavingavelocityof10m/s,estimatehowlongitwilltaketocoolthesphereto35C.

Assumptions:
1. Negligiblethermalresistanceandcapacitancefortheplasticlayer.
2. Spatiallyisothermalsphere.
3. NegligibleRadiation.
Copperat328K Airat296K
=8933kg/m
3

k=399W/m.K
C
p
=387J/kg.K

=181.6x107N.s/m
2

v=15.36x106m
2
/s
k=0.0258W/m.K
Pr=0.709

s
=197.8x107N.s/m
2

Thetimerequiredtocompletethecoolingprocessmaybeobtainedfromtheresultsfora
lumpedcapacitance.

=
T T
T T
h
D C
T T
T T
hA
VC
t
f
i
p
f
i P
ln
6
ln

Whitakerrelationshipcanbeusedtofindhfortheflowoversphere:
| | ( )
4 / 1 4 . 0 3 / 2 2 / 1
/ Pr Re 06 . 0 Re 4 . 0 2 /
s Sph
k hD Nu

+ + = =
whereRe=VD/=6510.
Hence,
P

=1atm.
V=10m/s
T

=23C
Coppersphere
D=10mm
T
i
=75C
T
f
=35C
M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer11
| |
K m W
D
k
Nu h
k hD Nu
Sph
2
4 / 1
7
7
4 . 0 3 / 2 2 / 1
/ 122
4 . 47
10 8 . 197
10 6 . 181
) 709 . 0 ( ) 6510 ( 06 . 0 ) 6510 ( 4 . 0 2 /
= =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ + = =

Therequiredtimeforcoolingisthen
( )( )( )
sec 2 . 69
23 35
23 75
ln
. / 122 6
01 . 0 . / 387 / 8933
2
3
=

=
K m W
m K kg J m kg
t