❖ General equations for conduction, convection, and radiation:

Conduction: In conduction, heat flows from a higher temperature region to regions of lower temperature. This
occurs within solid, liquid, or gaseous mediums or between different mediums that make direct physical
contact with each other.
Q = kA (dT/dx)
Q = Amount of heat flow
A = Surface area of heat flow
dT = Temperature difference on the two faces of the object
dx = Thickness of the object
k = Thermal conductivity
Convection: In convection, the combined action of heat conduction, energy storage, and mixing motion serve
to transport energy. "Convection is most important as the mechanism of energy transfer between a solid
surface and a liquid or a gas. Convection heat transfer can be calculated by using the following formula,
Q = hA (T1 – T2)
Radiation: In radiation, heat flows from a higher-temperature body to a lower-temperature body when the
bodies are separated in space, even across a vacuum. The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is
determined by Stefan-Boltzman law of radiation,

Qrad = AT4

❖ Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of heat loss from a body is directly proportional to the difference
in temperature between the body and its surroundings.
According to Newton’s law of cooling,
the rate of loss of heat, that is – dQ/dt of the body is directly proportional to the difference of temperature ΔT
= (T2–T1) of the body and the surroundings.

The law is only valid for small temperature differences. Furthermore, the amount of heat lost through radiation
is determined by the composition of the body’s surface and the extent of the exposed surface.

Therefore, the expression can be written as

– dQ/dt = k(T2–T1)

❖ Overall heat transfer coefficient (U):

Consider a wall through which heat is transferred from a hot surface to a cold surface as shown in the following
Fig.
Let, (T1 – T2) = Difference of temperatures,
A = Surface area of the wall,
x = Thickness of the wall, and
k = Thermal conductivity of the wall material.

As a matter of fact, there will be a thin film of air on both the hot as well as cold faces of the wall, which will
act as transition layers adjacent to the wall surface, and through which the heat also has to flow in addition to
the wall as shown in the following figure. Let A and B be the effective film of air for the heat flow.
And,
TA and TB = Temperatures at the ends of two thin films of air A and B respectively.
hA and hB = Coefficients of heat transfer for and B respectively.
U = Overall coefficient of heat transfer.

We know that the rate of heat flow through air film A.

Q = hA A (TA – T1)

Or, (TA – T1) = Q/hA A ………………………………….(i)

Similarly, the rate of heat flow through the wall,

Q = kA (T1 – T2)/ x

Or, (T1 – T2) = Qx/kA …………………………………...(ii)

and rate of heat flow through film B,

Q = hB A (T2 - TB)

Or, (T2 - TB) = Q/ hB A ………………………………….(iii)

Adding equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

 ❖ Wall shear stress (𝝉𝒘):

Consider the flow of a fluid over the surface of a plate. The fluid layer in contact with the surface tries to drag
the plate along via friction, exerting a friction force on it. Likewise, a faster fluid layer tries to drag the adjacent
slower layer and exert a friction force because of the friction between the two layers. Friction force per unit
area is called shear stress and is denoted by 𝜏𝑤.
A more practical approach in external flow is to relate 𝜏𝑤 to the upstream velocity V as.

where Cf is the dimensionless friction coefficient or skin friction coefficient, whose value in most cases is
determined experimentally, and  is the density of the fluid. Note that the friction coefficient, in general, varies
with location along the surface. Once the average friction coefficient over a given surface is available, the
friction force over the entire surface is determined from

where As is the surface area.

Math: Calculate the wall shear stress of oil whose density is 0.30 kg/m.s and the friction coefficient is
0.19 kg/m.s. Surface area and flow velocity are 16 m2 and 1200 m/s respectively.
 ❖ Heat Exchangers:

Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are at different
temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat exchangers are commonly used in
practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-conditioning systems in a household to chemical
processing and power production in large plants.

Two types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-pipe heat exchanger: in parallel flow, both the hot
and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at the same end and move in the same direction. In counter flow, on
the other hand, the hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends and flow in opposite directions.

❖ Expression for parallel-flow and counter-flow heat exchangers:

(follow the note khata)

❖ Reynold’s Number:

Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that is used to determine the type of flow pattern as laminar or
turbulent while flowing through a pipe. Reynolds number is defined by the ratio of inertial forces to that of
viscous forces.
The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate is expressed as
𝜌𝑉𝑋
Rex = = Vx/v
𝜇
Where,

• Rex is the Reynolds number

• ρ is the density of the fluid
• V is the velocity of the flow
• X is the pipe diameter
• μ is the viscosity of the fluid

❖ Friction coefficients for laminar and turbulent flow:

Based on the analysis, the boundary layer thickness and the local friction coefficient at location x for laminar
flow over a flat plate were determined to be
where x is the distance from the leading edge of the plate and Rex = Vx/v is the Reynolds number at location
x.

❖ Different types of fluid flow

There is a wide variety of fluid flows. These are:

i) viscous vs, inviscid regions of flow:
Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows. In many flows of
practical interest, there are regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

ii) Internal vs. external flow:

The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow.
The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces.

iii) Laminar vs. turbulent flow:

Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather chaotic. The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar. The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is typically laminar.
The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called turbulent. The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high
velocities is typically turbulent. The flow regime greatly influences the required power for
pumping.

iv) Steady vs. unsteady:

The term steady implies no change at a point in time. The opposite of steady is unsteady.

v) Natural vs. forced flow

Fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the fluid motion is initiated. In forced
flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a
fan.
In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid. In solar hot-water systems, for example, the thermosiphoning effect is commonly
used to replace pumps by placing the water tank sufficiently above the solar collectors.
 ❖ Experimental procedure to measure the thermal conductivity of a material by using two identical
samples (with figure):

A common way of measuring the thermal conductivity of a material is to sandwich an electric

thermofoil heater between two identical samples of the material, as shown in the following figure.

Figure 1: Apparatus to measure the thermal conductivity of a material using two identical samples and a thin resistance
heater.

The thickness of the resistance heater, including its cover, which is made of thin silicon rubber, is
usually less than 0.5 mm.
A circulating fluid such as tap water keeps the exposed ends of the samples at a constant temperature.
The lateral surfaces of the samples are well insulated to ensure that heat transfer through the samples
is one-dimensional. Two thermocouples are embedded into each sample some distance L apart, and a
differential thermometer reads the temperature drop T across this distance along each sample. When
steady operating conditions are reached, the total rate of heat transfer through both samples becomes
equal to the electric power drawn by the heater.

Math: In a certain experiment, cylindrical samples of diameter 6 cm and length 12 cm are used. The
two thermocouples in each sample are placed 3 cm apart. After initial transients, the electric heater is
observed to draw 0.5 A at 115 V, and both differential thermometers read a temperature difference of
16°C. Determine the thermal conductivity of the sample.

The electrical power consumed by the resistance heater and converted to heat is,
We = VI = (115V) (0.5A) = 57.5 W

The rate of heat flow through each sample,

Q = ½ We = ½ × (57.5) = 28.75 W

The heat transfer area is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder in this case:

A = ¼ 𝜋𝐷2 = ¼ 𝜋(0.06𝑚)2 = 0.00283 m2

The thermal conductivity of the sample is,

Q = kA (dT/x)
Or, k = (Qx)/A(dT) = (28.75 × 0.12)/(0.00283 × 16) = 3.45/0.04528 = 76.2 W/m.k

❖ Blackbody - a diffuse emitter:

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. It is a hypothetical surface that
completely absorbs every frequency of electromagnetic radiation falling on it, reflecting nothing. At a
specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody. A blackbody
absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction. Also, a blackbody emits radiation
energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to the direction of emission.
That is, a blackbody is a diffuse emitter. The term diffuse means “independent of direction.” The radiation
energy emitted by a blackbody per unit of time and per unit of surface area was determined experimentally by
the following expression,

Eb = T4 (W/m2)……………………………………..(i)

where  = 5.670 x 10-8 W/m2 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature of the surface
in K. This relation was theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann. Equation (i) is known as the Stefan–Boltzmann
law and Eb is called the blackbody emissive power.

❖ If a 190 mm-diameter spherical ball is suspended in the air at 1080 K which closely approximates
a blackbody, determine:
(a) the total blackbody emissive power,
(b) the total amount of radiation emitted by the ball in 7 minutes.

❖ Emissivity:

The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a given temperature
to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity of a surface is denoted by ,
and it varies between zero and one, 0 ≤  ≤ 1. Emissivity is a measure of how closely a real surface
approximates a blackbody, for which  = 1.

When radiation strikes a surface, part of it is absorbed, part of it is reflected, and the remaining part, if any, is
transmitted. The fraction of irradiation absorbed by the surface is called absorptivity , the fraction reflected
by the surface is called reflectivity , and the fraction transmitted is called transmissivity T.

❖ Reflection:

In practice, for simplicity, surfaces are assumed to reflect in a perfectly specular or diffuse manner. In specular
(or mirrorlike) reflection, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence of the radiation beam. In diffuse
reflection, radiation is reflected equally in all directions, as shown in the Figure. Reflection from smooth and
polished surfaces approximates specular reflection, whereas reflection from rough surfaces approximates
diffuse reflection. In radiation analysis, smoothness is defined relative to wavelength. A surface is said to be
smooth if the height of the surface roughness is much smaller than the wavelength of the incident radiation.

❖ Thermal diffusivity with its equation:

Another material property that appears in the transient heat conduction analysis is thermal diffusivity, which
represents how fast heat diffuses through a material and is defined as
 = Heat conduction / Heat storage = k /cp (m2 /s).

Note that the thermal conductivity k represents how well a material conducts heat, and the heat capacity
cp represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume. Therefore, the thermal diffusivity of a
material can be viewed as the ratio of the heat conducted through the material to the heat stored per unit
volume.

The values of the thermal diffusivity of copper, aluminum, iron, brick and glass.
Copper = 113 x 10-6 m2/s,
Aluminum = 97.5 x 10-6 m2/s,
Iron = 22.8 x 10-6 m2/s,
Brick = 0.52 x 10-6 m2/s
Glass = 0.34 x 10-6 m2/s

❖ Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling is a liquid-to-vapor phase change process just like evaporation, but there are significant differences
between the two.

Evaporation occurs at the liquid-vapor interface when the vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure
of the liquid at a given temperature.
Boiling, on the other hand, occurs at the solid-liquid interface when a liquid is brought into contact with a
surface maintained at a temperature Ts sufficiently above the saturation temperature Tsat.

As a form of convection heat transfer, the boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid is expressed
from Newton’s law of cooling as
Q(boiling) = h (Ts - Tsat) = hDTexcess (W/m2)

where, DTexcess = (Ts - Tsat) is called the excess temperature, which represents the temperature excess of the
surface above the saturation temperature of the fluid.

❖ Math example

❖ Explain parallel flow over a flat plate.

Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of length L in the flow direction, as shown in the following
figure. The x-coordinate is measured along the plate surface from the leading edge in the direction of the flow.
The fluid approaches the plate in the x-direction with a uniform velocity V and temperature T. The flow in
the velocity boundary layers starts out as laminar, but if the plate is sufficiently long, the flow becomes
turbulent at a distance xcr from the leading edge where the Reynolds number reaches its critical value for
transition.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the surface geometry, surface roughness,
upstream velocity, surface temperature, and the type of fluid, among other things, and is best characterized
by the Reynolds number.

The Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate is expressed as

Note that the value of the Reynolds number varies for a flat plate along the flow, reaching R eL = VL/v at the
end of the plate. For flow over a flat plate, the transition from laminar to turbulent begins at about Re  1 x
105, but does not become fully turbulent before the Reynolds number reaches much higher values, typically
around 3 x 106 . A generally accepted value for the critical Reynold number is

The actual value of the engineering critical Reynolds number for a flat plate may vary somewhat from 105 to
3 x 106, depending on the surface roughness, the turbulence level, and the variation of pressure along the
surface.

❖ Boundary conditions with formulation differences for one-dimensional heat transfer.

Boundary conditions most commonly encountered in practice are the specified temperature, specified heat
flux, convection, and radiation boundary conditions, and here we develop the finite difference formulations
for them for the case of steady one-dimensional heat conduction in a plane wall of thickness L as an example.
A large metal plate of thickness L = 4.5 cm and thermal conductivity k = 40 W/m·K in which heat is generated
uniformly at a constant rate of e0 = 5.7 x 106 W/m3. The plate has an insulated boundary means q0 = 0. One
side of the plate is maintained at 0°C while the other side is subjected to an environment at T = 30°C. Estimate
the temperature difference of the plate under steady conditions using the finite difference approach.

X = L / (M – 1) = 0.045m / (2 – 1) = 0.045 m

Or, k × (T1 – T0)/X = - e0(X/2)

Or, (T1 – T0) = - e0( X2/2)/k = - 5.7 x 106 (0.0452 / 2)/ 40 = - 144.3°C