GE T5 - Digital, Analog Circuits and Instrumentation

Rectifier

Introduction
One of the very important applications of diode is, in DC power supply, as a rectifier
to convert AC into DC. DC Power supply is the important element of any electronic
equipment. This is because it provides power to energize all electronic circuits like
oscillators, amplifiers and so on. In electronic equipments, DC Power supply is must.
For example, we can’t think of television, computer, radio, telephone, and mobile as
well as measuring instruments like multimeter etc. The reliability and performance of
the electronic system proper design of power supply is necessary. The first block of
DC power supply is rectifier.

A rectifier is an electrical device which converts alternating current/signals (AC) to

direct current/signals (DC). This process is known as rectification. Rectifiers are most
commonly made using solid state diodes but other type of components can be used
when very high voltages or currents are involved. The term rectifier describes a
diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Most rectifier circuits contain a number
of diodes in a specific arrangement to more efficiently convert AC power to DC
power. Rectifier broadly divided into two categories: Half wave rectifier and full wave
rectifier.

Half-Wave Rectifier

In half-wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is

passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform
reaches the output, it is only 50% efficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave
rectification can be achieved with a single diode (figure).

Half wave rectifier using one diode

During positive half cycle of the input voltage anode of the diode is positive
compared with the cathode. Diode is in forward bias and current passes through the

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diode and positive cycle develops across the load resistance RL. During negative
half cycle of input voltage, anode is negative with respected to cathode and diode is
in reverse bias. No current passes through the diode hence output voltage is zero.

The output DC voltage of a half-wave rectifier, given a sinusoidal input, can be

calculated as:

1
=

=
2

Where, is known as the root mean square value.

Full-Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier converts both the positive and negative halves of the input
waveform to a single polarity (positive or negative) at its output. By using both halves
of the AC waveform, full-wave rectification is more efficient than half wave.

Center-tapped Full-wave rectifier

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-
back (i.e. anode-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier. This
is not as efficient from the transformer perspective because current flows in only one
half of the secondary during each positive and negative half cycle of the AC input.

Full-wave rectifier using a center tapped transformer and two diodes

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Bridge rectifier

When a simple transformer without a center tapped secondary is used, four diodes
are required. Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge
rectifier (figure). The bridge rectifier can also be used for translating a DC input of
unknown or arbitrary polarity into an output of known polarity. This is generally
required in electronic telephones or other telephony devices where the DC polarity
on the two phone wires is unknown. There are also applications for protecting
against accidental battery reversal in battery-powered circuits.

The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The
load resistance (RL) is connected between the other two ends of the bridge. For the
positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D2 conduct, whereas diodes
D3 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D3 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D2 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D3 and D4 will be in series
with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same
direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a
unidirectional wave.

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2
= = = 0.636

=
√2

Crest Factor is defined as the ratio of the r.m.s. value to the peak value of the
waveform and is given by

Crest Factor =

Calculation of Ripple Factor and Rectification Efficiency

When the fluctuation occurs within the output of the rectifier then it is known as
ripple. So this factor is essential to measure the rate of fluctuation within the resolved
output. In other words, the ripple can be defined as the AC component within the
resolved output. Simply, ripple voltage is nothing but the AC component within output
voltage of the rectifier and the ripple current is an AC component within output
current.

Ripple Factor

The ratio of the AC component’s RMS value and the DC component’s RMS value
within the output of the rectifier is called ripple factor ( ).

. .( ) =

It can also be shown that

. .( ) = −1

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Why Ripple Occurs?

Whenever the rectification occurs through the rectifier circuit then there is no chance
of getting accurate DC output. Some variable AC components are frequently
happening within the rectifier’s output. The circuit of a rectifier can be built
with diodes otherwise thyristor. The ripple mainly depends on the elements which
are used within the circuit.

Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier

For half-wave rectifier, = and =

Therefore,

= −1= 2 −1= − 1 = 1.21

2

Here, from the above derivation, we can get the ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier
is 1.21. Therefore it is very clear that AC. component surpasses the DC component
within the half-wave rectifier output. It results in extra pulsation within the output.
Consequently, this type of rectifier is ineffectively intended for changing AC to DC.

Ripple Factor of Full Wave Rectifier

For full-wave rectifier, = and =
√

Therefore,

= −1 = √2 −1= − 1 = 0.48
2 2√2

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Here, from the above derivation, we can get the ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is
0.48. Therefore it is very clear that in the output of this rectifier, the DC component is
above the AC component. As a result, the pulsations within the output will be less
than within half-wave rectifier. Because of this reason, this rectification can be
always employed while converting AC into DC.

Ripple Factor of Bridge Rectifier

The R.F. value mainly depends on the waveform of load current. It doesn’t rely on
the circuit design. Therefore its worth will be similar for rectifiers like a bridge as well
as center-tapped when their output waveform is of same nature. The factor value of
the bridge rectifier is thus 0.482.

Efficiency of the Half-wave Rectifier

Rectifier efficiency (denoted by η) is defined as the ratio of DC power to the applied
input AC power.

. .( ) =

For half-wave rectifier, = and =

The DC output power is given by = × = ×

The AC input power is given by = ×( + )= ×( + )

Where, is the diode resistance.

Thus, Rectifier efficiency

×
. .( ) = = = 0.406 ×
+
×( + )
2
0.406
=
1+

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The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL. Therefore,

maximum rectifier efficiency = 40.6%. This means, only 40.6% of the input AC power
is converted into DC power.
Efficiency of the Full-wave Rectifier
Center-tapped
For full-wave rectifier, = and =
√

The DC output power is given by = × = ×

The AC input power is given by = ×( + )= ×( + )

√

Where, is the diode resistance.

Thus, Rectifier efficiency
2
×
. .( ) = = = 0.812 ×
+
×( + )
√2
0.812
=
1+

The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL. Therefore,

maximum rectifier efficiency = 81.2%. This means, only 81.2% of the input AC power
is converted into DC power. The efficiency of the center tap full-wave rectifier is twice
the value of the half-wave rectifier.

Bridge Rectifier
Bridge rectifier efficiency, = = 81.2% (calculated using the same formulas used

for the center tap full-wave rectifier). This means that a full-wave bridge rectifier is
also twice as efficient as a half-wave rectifier.

Basic idea about Capacitor Filter

We have seen earlier that half-wave or full-wave rectification does not produce a
constant-voltage DC. In order to produce a steady DC voltage from a rectified AC
source, a filter or smoothing circuit is needed. It can be done using a capacitor
placed across the DC output of the rectifier. There will still remain an amount of AC
ripple voltage where the voltage is not completely smoothed. The amplitude of the

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remaining ripple depends on how much the load discharges the capacitor between
the peaks of the waveform.

Half-wave Rectifier RC-Filter

Full-wave Rectifier RC-Filter

For a given load, RL, a larger capacitor (C1) will reduce ripple but will cost more and
will create higher peak currents in the transformer secondary and in the supply
feeding it. In extreme cases where many rectifiers are loaded onto a power
distribution circuit, it may prove difficult for the power distribution grid to maintain a
correctly shaped sinusoidal voltage waveform.

For a given tolerable ripple, the required capacitor size is proportional to the load
current and inversely proportional to the supply frequency and the number of output
peaks of the rectifier per input cycle. The load current and the supply frequency are
generally outside the control of the designer of the rectifier system but the number of
peaks per input cycle can be affected by the choice of rectifier design. The maximum
ripple voltage present for a full-wave rectifier circuit is not only determined by the
value of the smoothing capacitor but by the frequency and load current, and is
calculated as:

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Where, is the maximum ripple voltage on the DC output,

is the DC load current; F is the frequency of the ripple (generally two times the AC
frequency) and C is the smoothing capacitor.

A half-wave rectifier gives only one peak per cycle and for this and other reasons is
only used in very small power supplies and where cost and complexity are of
concern. A full wave rectifier achieves two peaks per cycle done with single-phase
input.

To further reduce this ripple, a LC π-filter (pi-filter) can be used. This complements
the reservoir capacitor (C1), with a series inductor (L1) and a second filter capacitor
(C2) so that a steadier DC output can be obtained across the terminals of the final
filter capacitor. The series inductor presents high impedance at the ripple current
frequency.

LC π-filter (pi-filter)

LOW PASS AND HIGH PASS FILTERS

A filter is a reactive network that blocks or attenuates unwanted signals and passes
the desired signal. Filters are classified according to their frequency response. A low
pass filter allows to pass the signals of low frequency and attenuates the signals of
all frequencies higher that a selected cut-off frequency (fc). Similarly, a high pass
filter permits the signals of frequencies higher than selected cut-off frequency
blocking the signals of low frequencies. Other types of filters are band pass and
band reject filters. In all filter circuit discussion, decibel is a very important term. The
change in output, by applying filter to input signal, is measured in decibel.

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Decibel: A decibel (dB) is defined as ten times the common logarithms of the ratio of
the input power (PIN) to the output power (POUT),

= 10 log

As power is proportional to square of voltage and square of current, decibel in terms

of voltage or current ratio can be given as

= 20 log = 20 log

Insertion Loss: When filter is connected to the circuit, there is a loss of gain which
is called Insertion loss. It happens because the filter resistance effectively reduces
the load resistance presented to signal source.

Low Pass Filter

For ideal low pass filter, the gain V0/V1 is equal to 1 and the signals of frequency,
higher than cut-off frequency (fc), are blocked completely. However, the response of
practical filter circuit is slightly different from ideal one. The gain is slightly less than
ideal value near the cut-off frequency (fc) and falls rapidly for the frequency higher
than cut-off. The ideal response of a low-pass filter is given below.

High Pass Filter

For ideal high pass filter, the gain V0/V1 is equal to 1 for signals of frequencies higher
than cutoff frequency and the signals of frequency lower than cut-off frequency (fc),
are blocked completely. Of course the response of practical filter circuit is slightly
different from ideal one. The ideal response of a high-pass filter is given below.

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Zener Diode and Voltage Regulation

Zener Diode: It is a special purpose semiconductor diode, named after its inventor
C. Zener. It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown region and
used as a voltage regulator.

Actual Configuration of a Zener Diode

Circuit Symbol

Junction Breakdown: The process by which a depletion region at the p-n junction is
destroyed and allows a large reverse current is called depletion region breakdown.
There are two main mechanisms of junction breakdown, depending on the dopant
concentration levels.

Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown

Avalanche breakdown: Avalanche breakdown occurs in moderately and lightly doped

p-n junctions with a wide depletion region. Electron hole pairs thermally generated in
the depletion region are accelerated by the external reverse bias. Electrons are

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accelerated towards the n-side and holes towards the p-side. These electrons can
interact with other Si atoms and if they have sufficient energy can knock off electrons
from these Si atoms. This process is called impact ionization and leads to production
of a large number of electrons. This causes the rapid rise in current.

Zener breakdown: With increase in doping concentration the breakdown mechanism,

changes from Avalanche to a tunneling mechanism. This is called a Zener
breakdown. This is because the depletion width decreases with dopant
concentration. Also, the reverse bias causes an offset in the bands such that it is
possible for carriers to tunnel across the narrow depletion region.

Voltage-Current characteristic of Zener Diode

Zener Diode is usually employed in the reverse biased conditions so when the Zener
voltage is achieved the voltage drop across the Zener Diode becomes equal to the
Zener Voltage. At this point any increase in the input voltage would not cause any
significant effect on the output voltage due to steep curve in the reverse bias
condition. Due to this, Zener Diode is used in the voltage regulation. The voltage-
current characteristic of Zener diode is shown in the following figure:

voltage-current characteristic of Zener diode

ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to
regulate the voltage across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a varying
voltage source, such as the diode rectifier, so that it is reverse biased, the zener

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diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage.
From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage
across the diode at that value.

Zener diode voltage reference

In the circuit shown above, a typical shunt regulator, an input voltage, Vin is regulated
down to a stable output voltage Vout. The reverse bias break down voltage of diode
Dz is stable over a wide current range and holds Vout relatively constant even though
the input voltage may fluctuate over a fairly wide range. Because of the low
impedance of the diode when operated like this, series resistor RS is used to limit
current through the circuit.

In the case of this simple reference, the current flowing in the diode is determined
using Ohm's law and the known voltage drop across the resistor RS.

−
=

The value of RS must satisfy two conditions:

RS must be small enough that the current through DZ keeps in reverse breakdown. If
insufficient current exists through DZ, then Vout will be unregulated, and less than the
nominal breakdown voltage. When calculating RS, allowance must be made for any
current through any external load that might be connected to Vout, not shown in this
diagram.

RS must be large enough that the current through DZ does not exceed the rated
maximum and destroy the device. If the current through DZ is ID, its breakdown
voltage VB and its maximum power dissipation PMAX, then:

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I ×V < P
A load may be placed across the diode in this reference circuit, and as long as the
zener stays in reverse breakdown, the diode will provide a stable voltage source to
the load. Zener diodes in this configuration are often used as stable references for
more complicated voltage regulator circuits involving buffer amplifier stages to supply
large currents to the load.

Shunt regulators are simple, but the requirements that the ballast resistor, RS, be
small enough to avoid excessive voltage drop during worst-case operation (low input
voltage concurrent with high load current) tends to leave a lot of current flowing in
the diode much of the time, making for a fairly inefficient regulator with high
quiescent power dissipation, only suitable for smaller loads.

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Questions from different University Examinations

① Zener diode is designed to specifically work in which region without getting
damaged?
a) Active region b) Breakdown region
c) Forward bias d) Reverse bias
② What is the level of doping in Zener Diode?
a) Lightly Doped b) Heavily Doped
c) Moderately Doped d) No doping
③ Zener Diode is mostly used as ____________
a) Half-wave rectifier b) Full-wave rectifier
c) Voltage Regulator d) LED
④ The depletion region of the Zener diode is ____________
a) Thick b) Normal
c) Very Thin d) Very thick
⑤ In a circuit the load current is 5 mA and the unregulated output is 10 V. If the
voltage drop across the Zener diode is 3 V, what should be the value of resistance?
Solution: The value of R should be such that the current through the Zener diode is
much larger than the load current.
Imagine, Iz = 20 mA. The total current is therefore 24 mA.
The voltage drop = 3 V
Resistance = 3 V/24 X 10-3 A
Resistance = 125 Ω.
⑥ In the circuit, what is the output voltage?

Solution: In the absence of Zener diode, the open circuit voltage, V = RLVi/ R + RL
V = 80 V

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Now, since the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode is 50 V, the diode will undergo
breakdown. So, Output Voltage would be equal to 50 V.

⑦ Write True and False against each Statements:

1. In a half wave rectifier, the rms ripple voltage exceeds the dc output voltage.
(True)

2. The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is about 40.5% (True)

3. The ripple factor of a half wave rectifier is much less than that of the full wave
rectifier. (False)

4. A full wave rectifier is more efficient than a half wave rectifier. (True)

5. Ripple factor of full wave rectifier is more than 1. (False)

6. Transformer is essential in full wave rectifier. (True)

7. In a bridge rectifier, current flows through one diode only at any instant. (False)

8. In a pi section filter, one inductor and two capacitors are used. (True)

9. Capacitor filter is more efficient than choke input filter. (False)

10. The filter circuits are used to minimise ac components from the rectified output.
(True)

⑧ Fill in the blanks:

1. ______________ is a device that converts ac into dc. Rectifier

2. A single pn junction diode is used as ______________ rectifier. half-wave

3. The maximum efficiency of a full wave rectifier is ______________ %. 81

4. The bridge rectifier is not used for ______________ voltage applications. low

5. In the full wave rectifier with shunt capacitance filter, the ripple factor
______________ with increasing load resistor. decreases

⑨ What is the role of filter circuits?

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