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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses

to Imperialism
Compiled and annotated by Eman M. Elshaikh, additional edits by Terry Haley

This collection explores how different societies responded to increased

European imperial expansion during the period from 1750 to 1900 CE.
Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
Compiled by Eman M. Elshaikh

Introduction to this collection

This collection explores how different societies responded to increased European imperial expansion during the
period from 1750 to 1900 CE.

Guiding question to think about as you read the documents: What techniques did different societies use in response to
imperial expansion?

WHP Primary Source Punctuation Key

When you read through these primary source collections, you might notice some unusual punctuation like this: …
and [ ] and ( ). Use the table below to help you understand what this punctuation means.

Punctuation What it means

ELLIPSES Something has been removed from the quoted sentences by an editor.
words … words
BRACKETS Something has been added or changed by an editor. These edits are to clarify or help readers.
[word] or word[s]
PARENTHESES The original author of the primary source wanted to clarify, add more detail, or make an additional
(words) comment in parentheses.

Contents
Source 1 - Five Rules to Regulate Foreigners, 1759 (0:35)................................................................................................3
Source 2 - Letter from Micaela Bastidas to Tupac Amaru II, 1780 (4:15).........................................................................5
Source 3 - Nanyehi’s (Nancy Ward’s) address to the Cherokee Nation, 1817 (7:30)........................................................7
Source 4 - Nana Asma’u on Sokoto rise, 1839 (12:00).....................................................................................................9
Source 5 - Statement of the Prophetess Nongqawuse, Xhosa “Cattle Killing Movement”, 1857 (16:50) .....................12

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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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Source 1 - Five Rules to Regulate Foreigners, 1759 (0:35)

Title
Five Rules to Regulate Foreigners

Source type
Primary – government document

Date and location

1759, China

Author
Li Shih-Yao, acting general at Canton

Description
Qing officials created a port system, agreed upon by treaty, in order to protect Chinese society from foreign
influence. Many foreign merchants, particularly European ones, tried to circumvent (get around) this system. This
set of regulations was proposed in an effort to make them either play by the rules, or not play at all.

Key vocabulary
pretext uncultivated
discharge Co-hong
obligation transaction

Guiding question
What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt
Since foreigners are outside the sphere of civilization, there is no need for them to have any contact with our people
other than business transactions, whenever they come to China for trade purposes. … In an uncultivated, vulgar person
the desire for material gain is always stronger than fear of the law; this is especially true of merchants, who often
view law as a mere formality which can be violated at will. … The following rules, in the judgment of your humble
servant, are both simple and practical enough to be adopted. They are presented here for Your Majesty’s consideration.

(1) Foreigners should never be allowed to stay at Canton during the winter. …

Even if foreigners have to stay through the winter on account of business, they move from Canton to Macao after
their ships have sailed for home. Lately many foreign traders, under the pretext that some of their merchandise has
not been sold or that their debtors have failed to discharge their obligations in full, entrust their ships and cargoes
to the care of other merchants who proceed home, while they themselves stay on in Canton. During their stay they
devote themselves to the study of the prices of various goods in different provinces …

Canton, being the capital of a province, is too important a place to allow foreigners to stay there on a permanent
basis, since permanent residence will enable them to spy on our activities. From now on, when a foreign trader
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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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arrives at Canton, the Co-hong1 merchants should sell all of his goods as quickly as possible, pay him immediately,
… so that he can return home in the ship that he came in. …

(2) While in Canton, foreigners should be ordered to reside in Co-hong headquarters so that their conduct can be
carefully observed and strictly regulated.

… these foreigners often become drunk and commit breaches of the peace … Their behavior in this regard is of
course extremely improper. …

Among the foreigners the British are the most violent and are prone to create incidents. …

Citation
Li, Dun J., ed. China in Transition: 1517–1911. New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc., 1969.

1 Co-hong: a guild of Chinese merchants or hongs who operated the import-export monopoly in Canton (now Guangzhou) during the Qing dynasty
(1644–1911).
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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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Source 2 - Letter from Micaela Bastidas to Tupac Amaru II, 1780 (4:15)
Title
Letter from Micaela Bastidas to Tupac Amaru II

Source type
Primary source – letter

Date and location

1780, modern day Peru

Author
Micaela Bastidas (1744–1781)

Description
Micaela Bastidas was the wife of Tupac Amaru II, the leader of a rebellion against the Spanish in modern-day
Peru. Bastidas was a leader in her own right and was a key military advisor to her husband. The letter shows her
dissatisfaction with his lack of urgency in advancing towards the city of Cuzco, which was strategically important.

Key vocabulary
dally follies
saunter heed
desert

Guiding question
What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt
I have warned you again and again not to dally in those villages, where there is nothing to do—but you continue to
saunter, ignoring the fact that soldiers are running short of food. They are receiving their pay, but the money will
not last forever. Then they will all depart, leaving us to pay with our lives, because you must have learned by this
time that they came only for reasons of self-interest, and to get all they can out of us. They are already beginning to
desert; …

Thus we will lose all the people that I have gotten together for the descent on Cuzco, and the forces at Cuzco will
unite with the soldiers from Lima, who have been on the march for many days.

I must tell you this, though it pains me. If you want to ruin us, continue to sleep and commit such follies as that of
passing alone through the streets of Yauri, and even climbing to the church tower—actions certainly out of place at
this [time], and that only dishonor you and gain you disrespect.

I believed that you were occupied day and night with arranging these affairs, instead of showing an unconcern that
robs me of my life. I am already a shadow of myself and beside myself with anxiety, and so I beg you to get on with
this business.
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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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You made me a promise, but henceforth [from here onwards] I shall not heed your promises, for you did not keep
your word. …

I gave you plenty of warnings to march immediately on Cuzco, but you took them all lightly, giving the Spaniards time
to prepare as they have done, placing cannon on Picchu Mountain, and devising other measures so dangerous that
you are no longer in a position to attack them. …

God must want me to suffer my sins.

Your wife.

[P.S] After I had finished this letter, a messenger arrived with the definite news that the enemy from Paruro is in
Acos; I am going forward to attack them, even if it costs me my life.

Citation
Keen, Benjamin, ed. Readings in Latin-American Civilization: 1492 to the Present. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1955.

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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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Source 3 - Nanyehi’s (Nancy Ward’s) address to the Cherokee Nation, 1817

(7:30)
Title
Cherokee Women Address Their Nation

Source type
Primary source – letter

Date and location

1817, Cherokee Nation (modern-day Tennessee)

Author
Nanyehi (Nancy) Ward (1738–1822)

Description
Nancy Ward was a clan mother of the Cherokee Nation. This was a position of respect, and she was given the
titled of “beloved”. She was given the task of maintaining peace between the Cherokee Nation and white settlers.
In her address, she urges the men of the Cherokee Nation to stop selling their land as their nation has been
getting smaller every year.

Key vocabulary
provisions tract
circumscribed disposition

Guiding question
What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt
Amovey [Tenn.] in Council 2nd May 1817

… The Cherokee [ladies] now being present at the meeting of the chiefs and warriors in council have thought it their
duties as mothers to address their Chiefs and warriors now assembled.

Our beloved children and head men of the Cherokee nation, we address you warriors in council. We have raised
all of you on the land which we now have, which God gave us to inhabit and raise provisions. We know that our
country [had] once been extensive, but by repeated sales has become circumscribed to a small tract, and [we]
never thought it our duty to interfere in the disposition of it till now. If a father or mother was to sell all their lands
which they had to depend on which their children had to raise their living on which would be indeed bad—and to be
removed to another country we do not wish to go to, an unknown country, which we have understood some of our
children wish to go over the Mississippi [to this country], but this act of our children would be like destroying your
mothers. You mothers, your sisters ask and beg of you not to part with any more of our lands. We say ours; you are
descendants and [should] take pity on our request, [and] keep it for our growing children, for it was the good will of

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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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our creator to place [us] here. And you know our father the great president will not allow his white children to take
our country away. Only keep your hands off of paper talks, for it is our own country, for if it was not they would not
ask you to put your hands to paper, for it would be impossible to remove us all, for as soon as one child is raised,
we have others in our arms, for such is our situation and will consider our circumstance.

Therefore, children: don’t part with any more of our lands, but continue on it and enlarge your farms and cultivate
and raise corn and cotton, and we your mothers and sisters will make clothing for you, which our father the
president has recommended to us all. We don’t charge anybody for selling our lands, but we have heard such
intentions of our children. But your talks become true at last, and it was our desire to forewarn you all not to part
with our lands.

Nancy Ward to her children. Warriors to take pity and listen to the talks of your sisters, although I am very old, yet
cannot but pity the situation in which you will hear of their minds. I have great many grandchildren which I wish
they to do well on our land.

Nancy Ward

Attested

A Mc Coy Clk.}

Thos. Wilson Secty}

Jenny McIntosh Widow Tarpin

Caty Harlan Ally Critington

Elizabeth walker Cun, o, ah

Susanna Fox Miss Asty walker

Widow Gunrod Mrs. M. Morgan

Widow Woman Holder Mrs. Nancy Fields

Citation
Ward, Nancy. “Cherokee Indian/Native American Women to National Council at Amohee, May 2, 1817.” Andrew Jackson Papers,
Series 1, General Correspondence and Related Items, 1775 to 1885. MSS 27532, Vol. 44. https://www.loc.gov/resource/
maj.01044_0213_0216/

Notes or additional materials

The Bill of Rights institute has supplemental materials for this source, include a close reading video:
https://billofrightsinstitute.org/videos/reading-cherokee-women-address-their-nation-a-primary-source-close-read

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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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Source 4 - Nana Asma’u on Sokoto rise, 1839 (12:00)

Title
The Journey

Source type
Primary source – poem

Date and location

1839, Nigeria

Author
Nana Asma’u (1793–1864)

Description
Nana Asma’u was the daughter of Usman dan Fodio (nicknamed Shehu), the first ruler of the Sokoto Caliphate.
She wrote the poem “The Journey” to draw parallels between the lives of Shehu and the Prophet Muhammed, the
leader of the Muslim faith. The poem is also a historical account of the rise of the Sokoto Caliphate.

Key vocabulary
resolved befell
blessedness quivers (noun)

Guiding question
What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt
Now I am going to explain the practice of the Shehu2

For you to hear what was done in his time.

The Muslim community accepted his call everywhere,

Those of the east and west, because of his high standing.

He said men should take up their bows and quivers

As well as swords: you hear his command.

2 This is a reference to Shehu Usman dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Caliphate.
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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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The Shehu, by all including his relatives

Everyone resolved to support him

The Shehu fought five battles

At Gudu,3 all victories due to his blessedness.

Many of the reciters of the Qur’an4 were killed,

And also the students among his community.

Then Shehu travelled towards Zamfara,5

They made peace with him because they feared him.

The places that resisted the jihad6 were all destroyed

While he was in Remuwa,7 he was victorious

The people of the East all arose with firm intention

Of helping the religious fight, Alwali8 ran off, defeated

The Shehu divided responsibility (for the territories): to the west to his brother;

The eastern part to Bello his son.

Victory was obtained at every quarter

The chief of Gwari9 was confronted at Illo10

3 Town in modern-day Nigeria

4 Muslim holy book
5 Town in modern-day Nigeria
6 A struggle against oneself or a fight against the enemies of the Muslim community
7 Town in modern-day Nigeria
8 An opposing military leader
9 A tribe
10 A town in modern-day Nigeria
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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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One Monday he came to Sokoto

And he spent two years there.

Then he passed on to the next world, in the month of Jimada11

It was on the third of the month.

Then things became very difficult,

The community selected Bello, his son to succeed him.

Revolts became numerous even Abdulsalam12

At Kware,13 rebelled, together with his people.

He was just and fair:

He brought order through the exhortation.

He built cities and fought battles,

So too he built mosques in his city.

Bello was ill for seven months

There in Wurno14 he died, in Rajab,15 on a Thursday

Citation
Asma’u, Nana, Jean Boyd, and Beverly B. Mack. Collected Works of Nana Asma’u, Daughter of Usman Dan Fodiyo, (1793–1864).
East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1997.

11 Month of the Islamic calendar. He died on April 20th, 1817.

12 A former ally of Shehu.
13 A town in modern-day Nigeria
14 A town in modern-day Nigeria
15 Rajab is the seventh month of the Islamic calendar.
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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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Source 5 - Statement of the Prophetess Nongqawuse, Xhosa “Cattle Killing

Movement”, 1857 (16:50)
Title
Statement of the Prophetess Nongqawuse

Source type
Primary source – statement

Date and location

1857, modern day South Africa

Author
Nongqawuse (1841–1898)

Description
Nongqawuse was a Xhosa prophetess who lived in modern day South Africa. As a child, she had a vision of the
Eastern Cape under a new era of prosperity. However, to reach this era of prosperity, the people would have to
kill their cattle and stop planting crops. People who believed her vision killed 300,000 to 400,000 cattle over an
18-month period. A famine broke out as a result of this, and between 40,000 and 75,000 people died.

Key vocabulary
relations ascended
famine perpendicular
reserved marsh
satisfactorily

Guiding question
What techniques did different societies use in response to imperial expansion?

Excerpt
My name is “Nonkosi.” My father and mother are dead, as also all my relations. My mother died of sickness, but my
father and other relatives died of famine. My father died last moon; he used to have many cattle and was a witch-
doctor in his practice. He was more frequently called upon by “Umhala” [Mhala] than any other Chief. … I was
playing at a [marsh] near the Impongo, and bathing, when a man who called himself “Umlanjeni” [Mlanjeni, an earlier
prophet] showed himself out of the water. I became afraid. The next day I went again to see him; he then spoke to
me saying that he had come here to raise the dead, and that this was to be told by me to all the Chiefs. “Umlanjeni”
took a liking to another girl who was with me at the time, saying I was reserved and did not answer his questions
satisfactorily. He however afterwards said that this girl he had taken a fancy to, lived too far off, and that he wished
to have communications with me as before. “Umlanjeni” told me that he had been to Moshesh [Moshoeshoe, the
king of the Sotho] to put the country right, and had left some corn there. He showed me 6 cows in the water, their
heads appearing above the surface of the water. … “Umlanjeni,” who sometimes came out of the water, and sat
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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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on the ground with me. He told me that he came from a country underneath the [marsh] and said that there were
a great many things there which we did not possess. One day, without knowing that I had moved from where I
was standing at the side of the [marsh], I found myself in this country of which “Umlanjeni” spoke to me. There
were a great many Kraals [cattle enclosures] with cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. Their huts were round, and very
smoothly plastered, and they were filled with corn, bread and sugar. The first Kraal I came to was “Umlanjeni’s”; he
said that he would not give me anything to eat, as their food would kill any person from the country above so long
as all the cattle were not killed,—that one little girl had already died who [ate] it. In leaving this place I ascended a
perpendicular hole, and was carried by “Umlanjeni.” When I reached the top I found that the water was spread over
this place. I asked “Umlanjeni” why it was that the water did not flow down this hole. He said it was not water but a
sort of door belonging to their country.

Citation
Crais, Clifton C., and Thomas V. McClendon. The South Africa Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham: Duke University
Press, 2014.

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Primary Sources: Indigenous Responses to Imperialism
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Eman M. Elshaikh
Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in
the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also
completed her master’s in social sciences and is currently pursuing her PhD. She was previously a World History Fellow at
Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History.

Image credits
This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0 except for the following:

Cover: circa 1850: A Native American war party rides out to battle. Original Artwork: Painting by John Mix Stanley (American
painter, 1814-1872). © MPI/Getty Images.

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