Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) SEMINAR Spring 2003

Bridge Engineering (BE) Rak-11.146 Sillanrakennuksen seminaari

Rak-11.163 Licentiate Seminar in B. E.
Mikko Hilli 030404 1 (15)

Eurocodes

DESING OF COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE

STRUCTURES, BRIDGES

Mikko Hilli

Presentation 11.04.2003 time 08, R9

CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 2
INTRODUCTION 2
1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2
2 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES 5
3 FATIQUE 10
4 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE 13
5 REFERENCES 15
HUT/BE/S Mikko Hilli 2 (15)

ABSTRACT

This seminar presentation is based on prEN 1994-2 Design of steel and concrete composite
structures, part 2, bridges, which quite unfinished, therefore there are some corrections in the
text. Most of them are just in the wording but there are also some wrong coefficients in the
formulas. Generally in this part of Eurocode basis on other parts of Eurocode, and there are
lots of references on other parts of Eurocode, for that reason is necessary to have following
parts also, EN 1990, EN 1991, EN 1992, EN 1993. Which are:

EN 1990 Basis of structural design

EN 1991 Actions on structures

EN 1992 Design of concrete structures

EN 1993 Design of steel structures

INTRODUCTION

In Eurocodes EN 1994 part 1 and 2 are exclusive. They give partially how composite
structures should be design, unless it is calculated in a more precise way. On the other hand
Eurocode is indented for clients, designers, contractors and public authorities therefore it is
quite massive piece of work. That’s why I have been forced to neglect the part, which handled
columns of this presentation

1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

1.1Effective width

According to prEN 1994-2 The total effective width in typical cross-section beff can be
defined as follows:

beff = b0 + ∑ β i bei (1)

Where b0 is the distance between the shear connectors, for composite plates b0=2aw, where aw
is the smaller value of 200mm or 10 times the width of steel flange. The coefficient bei is the
effective width of the web. The effective width is bei =Le/8 but not greater than the geometric
width bi, which is the distance from the farthest shear connector to a point mid-way between
adjacent webs or to a free edge. The length Le is the distance between points of zero bending
moments. The coefficient β I is 1.0 on the mid-spans. Otherwise is it defined as follows:

Le
β i = (0.55 + 0.025 ) ≤ 1.0 (2)
bi
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 3 (15)

Figure 1: Effective width of concrete flange. [prEN1994-2 figure 5.1]

1.2Stiffness assumptions

For material stiffness assumptions for the elastic section properties of a composite cross-
section prEN 1994-2 give some rules: If the concrete is compressed, then the material value
must be divided by the relevant modular ratio. Concrete should be ignored if is affected by
tension. The un-cracked and the cracked flexural stiffness of cross-section are defined as EaI1
and EaI2 , where I1 is the inertia moment of the effective equivalent steel section calculated
assuming concrete is un-cracked, otherwise, when concrete is cracked, the inertia moment is
calculated neglecting concrete but including reinforcement.

The torsional stiffness of box griders should be calculated for transformed cross-section,
where the slab thickness is reduced by the modular ratio n0G=Ga/Gc, where Ga and Gc are the
shear modulus. The reduced thickness is assumed to be located in the center of the slab. In
areas, where concrete has cracked due to bending and shear stresses, shear reinforcement is
required and the slab thickness should be reduced to one half.

1.3Creep and shrinkage

The effect of creep may be taken into account with the modular ratio nL, which depends on
the type of load. It’s defined in prEN 1994-2 as follows:

nL = n0 (1 + ψϕ t ) (3)

where

n0=Ea/ Ecm and Ea is the modulus of elasticity for structural steel and Ecm is the secant
modulus of elasticity for short term loading according to table 3.1 of prEN 1992-1:2001

ϕt is the creep coefficient ϕ(t,t0) according to clause 3.1.3 or to clause 10.3.1.3 of prEN
1992-1:2001. Where t is the age of the concrete at the moment considered and t0 is the
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 4 (15)

loading age. If prefabricated elements are used, the time when a section becomes effective
may be used then, for shrinkage t0=1d.

ψL is the creep factor that is depending on the type of loading. It’s 1.1 for permanent loads,
0.55 for shrinkage and 1.5 for imposed deformations due to prestressing.

1.4 Effects of cracking of concrete

In the ultimate limits state and the serveability limit state, the regions where the extreme fibre
tensile stress in the concrete exceeds the strength 2.0fctm the sections stiffness is
EaI2.Otherwise the sections stiffness is EaI1.

When the ratios of the length of adjacent continuous span between supports (shorter/longer)
are under 0.6, the effect of cracking may be taken into account by using the flexural stiffness
EaI2 over 15% of the span on each side of the internal support and the un-cracked values
elsewhere.

1.5Temperature effects

In analysis for the ultimate limit states the temperature effect should normally be neglected,
but during concreting and hardening of concrete in extremely low climatic conditions
additional differential temperature should be considered.

1.6Classification of cross-sections

The classification system is defined in clause 5.5.2 of EN 1993-1-1:20xx. A composite

section should be defined for the least favourable class if the steel elements are in
compression. The plastic stress distribution should be used with design values of strengths
of material, except at the boundary between classes 3 and 4, where the elastic stress
distribution should be used, taking into account the sequence of construction and the
effects of creep and shrinkage. In hogging bending, concrete in tension should be
neglected. In classes 1 and 2 when reinforcement has tension, it should be in ductility
class B or C prEN 1992-1:200x table 3.5. Minimum reinforcement in effective width is
defined as follows:

As ≥ ρ s Ac (4)

where As is the effective area of concrete flange and the coefficient ρ s is defined as:

fy f ctm
ρs = δ ( )( ) kc (5)
235 f sk

• fy is the nominal value of the yield strength of the structural steel in N/mm2

• fsk is the characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement

• fctm is the mean tensile strength of the concrete

• kc is a coefficient.

• δ is equal to 1.0 and 1.1 for Classes 1 and 2

Welded mesh should not be included in the effective section unless it has been shown to have
sufficient ductility, when built into a concrete slab to ensure that it will not fracture.
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 5 (15)

In sections of filler beam decks a steel outstand flange should be classified like in table 1 and
if class 3 web is encased in concrete it may be assumed to belong to class 2.

Table 1 [prEN1994-2]

2 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

2.1 Beams

According to prEN 1994-9, the design values of bending resistance may be determined by
rigid plastic only if the cross-section is in class 1 or 2 and bonded tendons are not used,
typical plastic stress distribution is shown in figure 2. The non-linear theory and elastic
analysis is allowed to use in any class. The tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected.

When calculating plastic resistance moment Mpl,Rd following assumptions shall be made:

There is a full interaction between structural steel, reinforcement and concrete.

The effective area of the structural steel member is stressed to its design yield strength fyd in
tension or compression.

The effective areas of longitudinal reinforcement are stressed to their design yield strength fsd.
Alternatively, reinforcement in compression may be neglected.

The effective area of concrete in compression resists a stress of 0.85fcd constant over the
whole depth between the plastic neutral axis and the most compressed fibre of the concrete

For composite cross-sections with structural steel grade S420 or S460, where the distance xpl
between the plastic neutral axis and the extreme fibre of the concrete slab in compression
exceeds15% of the overall depth h of the member, the design resistance moment MRd should
be taken as β Mpl,Rd where β is the reduction factor given in Figure 3. For values xpl / h greater
than 0,4 the resistance to bending should be determined by non-linear theory or elastic theory.
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 6 (15)

Figure 2 Plastic stress distribution for composite beam whit solid slab and full shear
connection [prEN1994-2 figure 6.1]

Figure 3 defining the reduction factor β for moment Mpl.Rd[prEN1994-2 figure 6.3]

In non-linear resistance, the bending resistance may be determined by non-linear theory,

taking into account the stress-strain relationships of the material. The shear connection shall
be designed to provide full continuity of displacements at the interface between steel and
concrete. It should be assumed that the cross-section remains plane. The stresses in the
concrete should be derivate from the stress-strain curve, which is given in clause 3.1.6 of
prEN 1992-1:2001, and the stresses in the reinforcement should be derived from bi-linear
diagrams given in clause 3.2.3 of prEN 1992-1:2001 and the stresses in structural steel may
be derived from the bi-linear diagram given in 5.4.2.3 of prEN 1993-1-1:2002. The non-linear
resistance to sagging bending of the cross-sections, which are in class 1 or 2, may be
determined as a function of the compression force in the concrete. It is defined as follows:

Nc
M Rd = M a , Sd + ( M el , Rd − M a , Sd ) for N c ≤ N el (6)
N el

N c − N el
M Rd = M el , Rd + ( M pl , Rd − M el , Rd ) for N el ≤ N c ≤ N c , f (7)
N c , f − N el

where:

Mel,Rd is the moment that causes a tensile stress fyd in the extreme bottom fibre of the
steel section and the sequence of construction should be taken into account.
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 7 (15)

Ma,Sd is the sagging moment action where the concrete is neglected.

Nel is the compressive force in the concrete slab corresponding to moment Mel,Rd.

2.1 Elastic resistance to bending

Stresses should be calculated by elasticity theory, using an effective cross-section. In

calculations, limiting stresses are fcd in concrete in compression, fyd in structural steel in
tension or compression and fsd in reinforcement in tension or compression where the
compressed reinforcement in concrete slab may de neglected. Creep may be taken into
account by using a modular ratio according to formula (3).

2.2 Resistance to vertical shear

Where the vertical shear Ved exceeds half of the shear resistance Vrd or Vb,Rd, allowance
should be made for its effect on the resistance moment. On the resistance to bending for class
1 and 2, the influence of the vertical shear area given in figure 4, the design steel strength may
be reduced to (1-ρw)fyd where:

VSd
ρ w = (2 − 1) 2 (8)
VRd

These assumptions are also applicable when calculating Mf,Rd, where the resistance of the
flanges should be taken as the total length of concrete

For classes 3 and 4 it is applicable to use the calculated stresses of the composite section.

Figure 4 plastic stress distribution due the vertical shear force [prEN1994-2 figure 6.8]

2.1 Lateral-torsional buckling of composite beams

The design buckling resistance moment of a laterally unrestrained uniform beam with class 1
or 2 should be taken as:

M b. Rd = χ LT M Rd (9)

Where
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 8 (15)

Mb,Rd is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling depending on the relative
slenderness λLT

MRd is the design resistance moment under hogging bending.

The relative slenderness λLT may be calculated by:

M Rk
λLT = (10)
M cr

Where:

MRk is the resistance moment of the composite using the characteristic material
properties.

Mcr is the elastic critical moment of the composite section for lateral-torsional
buckling. If the slab is attached with two or more steel members the structural
model may be like in figure x.x. Also the favourable effect of the St. Venant
torsion stiffness GIat may be taken into account.

Figure 5 Example for modelling to lateral-torsional buckling [prEN1994-2 figure 6.12]

The rotation stiffness ks at the top–steel flange level may be represent as:

k1k2
ks = (11)
k1 + k2

Where

k1 is the flexural stiffness of the cracked concrete in the direction transverse to the
steel beam k1=αEaI2/a. Coefficient αE is 4 for a slab with continuous across
the steel beam and 2 for a simply supported or cantilever slab.

Ea t 3 w
k1 is the flexural stiffness of the steel web k2 = . A partially encased
4(1 − υ 2 a )hs
Ea twb 2 f
steel beam the flexural stiffness may be calculated by: k2 =
16hs (1 + 4nt w / b f )
where n is the modular ratio for long-term effects. Other parameters are shown
in figure 5 or represented earlier.

2.2 Longitudinal shear force in beams

HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 9 (15)

In members with some cross-sections in class 1 or 2 there may be lengths where the design
bending moment MEd exceeds the bending resistance Mel.Rd=Ma.Ed+kMc.Ed, where Ma.Ed and
kMc.Ed are the design bending moments for steel and composite elements, and factor k (≤ 1) is
the lowest value that is reached at that cross-section

The design shear resistance of a headed stud is the smaller value of following formulas:

 πds  1
PRd =  0.8 f u  (12)
 4 γi

or

(
PRd = 0.29α d 2 ( f ck Ecm ) ) γ1
i
(13)

Where

d is the diameter of the shank of the stud

fu is the tensile strength of the material but not greater than 500N/mm2

fck is the characteristic cylinder strength of concrete

Ecm is the mean value of the secant modulus of concrete

h h
α =0,2(f/d+1) if 3 ≤ ≤ 4 and α=1 if 4 ≤
d d

h is the height of the stud.

For angle connectors the design shear resistance is determined as follows:

PRd = 10bh3/ 4 f ck 2 / 3 / γ υ (14)

Where b is the length of the angle, h is the height of the angle, and other dimensions are the
same as above. The applicable maximum value for the height of the angle connector is 10
times the thickness of the angle or 150mm, and the length of the angle connector should be
more than 300m. The eccentric of the force is e=h/4 and the welds should be designed for
1.2PRd.

Where a concrete haunch is used between steel beam and concrete slab, then the angle should
be more than 45o from the out stand edge of the connector. The concrete cover from the side
of haunch should be more than 50mm and the distance between the steel beam and the
connectors which resist uplift should be over 40mm. See figure 6
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 10 (15)

Figure 6 Dimensions for the haunched slab[prEN1994-2 figure 6.15]

The maximum distance between the connectors is four times the thickness of the slab or
800mm. In the composite plates the spacing in the direction of compression should not exceed
40t 235 / f v where t is the thickness of the flange and fv is the nominal yield strength of the
flange. If the steel compression flange that would otherwise be in lower class is assumed to be
in class 1 or 2 because of restraint from the shear connectors, then the distance between
connectors should not be more than:

If the slab is contacted with full length 22t 235 / f y

And otherwise 15t 235 / f y

For the headed stud connectors the height of the stud should be more the 3d, where d is the
diameter of the shank. The head should be more than 1.5d and the depth not less than 0.4d.
When spacing studs the maximum space in the direction of shear force is 5d and in the
transverse direction for solid slabs it is 2.5d and for others 4d. The diameter of welded stud
should not be more than 1.5 times the thickness of the plate or flange, to which it is welded.

3 FATIQUE

According to prEN 1994-2 the fatigue strength curve of an automatic welded headed stud is
given with normal weight concrete by

( ∆τ R ) N = ( ∆τ c ) N
m m
(15)

Where ∆τ R is the fatigue strength,

∆τ c is the reference value at 2 million cycles with ∆τ c = 95 N / mm 2
m is the slope of fatigue strength curve with value (m=8), but it is still under
discussion.
N is the number of stress range cycles.
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 11 (15)

Figure 7: Fatigue strength curve for headed stub in solid slabs [prEN1994-2 figure 6.8-1]

In case of studs in lightweight concrete, the value fatigue strength can be calculated with the
above formula where ∆τ R and ∆τ R are multiplied with coefficient η which is:

densityclass
η= (16)
2.2

The minimum and maximum effective bending moments and internal forces due to the
relevant fatigue loading should be calculated as follows

M max, f , E = M perm + λ M max, f (17)

M min, f , E = M perm + λ M min, f (18)

Where

Mperm is the most adverse bending moment in the composite section for the characteristic
combination where the fatigue load is the leading action.

Mmax,f is the maximum bending moment due to the relevant fatigue load

Mmax,f is the minimum bending moment due to the relevant fatigue load

λ is the damage equivalent factor, which is given for steel element in XXX of EN1993-
2:200X and for reinforcement is given in XXX of EN 1992-2:200X

The effect of tension stiffening of concrete between cracks on the stress ranges in
reinforcement may be taken as follows:

M max, f , E
σ max, f , E = σ s ,max (19)
M max

M min, f , E
σ min, f , E = σ s ,max (20)
M max

Where

Mmax is the bending moment in the composite section for the fatigue loading
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 12 (15)

σ s ,max is the stress in the reinforcement, and it is defined as follows,

σ s ,max = σ s ,max,0 + ∆σ s (21)

where σs,max,o is the stress in the reinforcement due to Mmax which is calculated neglecting
concrete in tension, and ∆σs is given.

If Mmin,f,E causes compression in the concrete slab, the stresses σ min, f , E and the structural steel
should be determined with the cross-section properties of the uncracked section using the
modular ratio n0 for short term loading for the bending moment Mmin,f.

The stress ranges in reinforcement and structural steel should be calculated as follows:

M min, f , E
∆σ E = σ max, f , E − σ min, f , E (22)
M max

3.1 Shear connection

The longitudinal shear force per unit length shall be calculated by elastic analysis.

For verification of stud shear connectors based on nominal stress ranges, the equivalent
constant stress range for 2 million cycles is given by

∆τ E ,2 = λv ∆τ (23)

Where λv is the damage equivalent depending on the spectra and the slope m is the fatigue
strength curve and ∆τ is the stress range. The damage equivalent factor is λv,1=1.55 for stud
connector in road bridges, where the length of the span is up to 100m. For railroad bridges the
damage equivalent factor may be taken from figure 3.1

Figure 8, Values λv,1 for load model 71[prEN1994-2 figure 6.8-2]

3.2 Fatigue assessment based on nominal stress ranges

The fatigue assessment for reinforcement should be made by checking the criterion.
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 13 (15)

γ Ff ∆τ E ,2 ≤ ∆σ R ( N *) / γ Mf (24)

where ∆σE is the equivalent constant amplitude stress range and ∆σR(N*) is the reference
value of fatigue strength.

For welded stud connectors which are always under compression the assessment should be
made by checking:

γ Ff ∆τ E ,2 ≤ ∆τ c / γ Mf (25)

where ∆τE,2 is defined above and ∆τc is the reference value of fatigue strength at 2 million
cycles. The stress of the stud should be determined with the cross-section area of the shank of
the stud using the nominal diameter d of the shank.

For welded stud connectors, which are always in tension under characteristic combination of
actions, the following formula should be checked.

γ Ff ∆τ E ,2 λFf ∆σ E ,2
+ ≤ 1,3 (26)
∆σ c / λMf ∆τ c / λMf

Where both divisions must be one or smaller.

4 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

4.1 Deformations

Deformations shall be calculated using elastic analysis.

4.2 Cracking of concrete

According to prEN 1994-2, for classes 2 to 4 the crack width is limited to 0,3 mm for
reinforced concrete and to 0.2 mm for prestressed composite bridges.

The minimum reinforcement in all sections, unless they are prestressed with tendons, is
defined as:

As = k s kc kf ct ,eff Act / σ s (27)

Where

Fct,eff is the mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete effective at first time cracks
may occur

k is a coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-equilibrating stresses,

which may be taken as 0,8

ks is a coefficient which allows for the effect of the reduction of the normal force of the
concrete slab due to initial cracking and local slip of the shear connection, which may
be taken as 0,9
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 14 (15)

kc is a coefficient which takes into account the stress distribution within the section
1
immediately prior to cracking, and it is defined by kc = + 0,3 ≤ 1, 0 . For
1 + hc /(2 z0 )
the filler beam decks kc should be 0,4.

hc is the thickness of the slab including the haunches and rids

z0 is the vertical distance between the centrioid of the un-cracked un-reinforced concrete
flange and the un-cracked un-reinforced composite section, calculated using the
modular ration n0 for short term effects.

σs is the maximum stress, which is permitted for reinforcement. The value is given in
table 4.1

Act is the area of the tensile zone. It is caused by direct loading and primary effect of
shrinkage. It may be assumed to be the slab with the effective width.
Steel stress maximum bar diameter for desing crack width
σs
wk=0.4mm wk=0.3mm wk=0.2mm
[N/mm2]
160 40 32 25
200 32 25 16
240 20 16 12
280 16 12 8
320 12 10 6
360 10 8 5
400 8 6 4
450 6 5 -
Table 2 Maximum bar diameter [prEN1994-2 table 7.2]

The maximum diameter for the minimum reinforcement can be modified as,

φs = φs* f ct ,eff / f ct ,0 (28)

where

φs is the adjusted maximum bar diameter.

φs is the maximum bar size from table 4.1

fct,0 is the reference value 2,5N/mm2

The maximum bar spacing is given in table 4.2

Steel stress maximum bar spacing(mm) for desing crack width

σs
wk=0.4mm wk=0.3mm wk=0.2mm
[N/mm2]
160 300 300 200
200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
280 200 150 50
320 150 100 -
Table 3: Maximum bar spacing [prEN1994-2 table 7.3]

In composite beams where concrete slab is assumed to be cracked the stresses to

reinforcement due to loading may be calculated as
HUT/BE/S Mikko. Hilli. 15 (15)

0, 4 f cmt
σ s = σ s ,0 + ∆σ s (30) with ∆σ s = (31)
α st ρ s

where

σso is the stress in reinforcement, calculated neglecting concrete

∆σso is the increase of stress due to tension stiffening of concrete

fctm is the mean tensile value of concrete

ρs is the reinforcement ratio, given by ρ s = ( As / Act )

α st = ( AI / Aa I a ) where A and I are the area and the second moment of the area, respectively,
of the composite section neglecting concrete in tension and profiled sheeting and Aa and Ia are
the corresponding properties of the structural steel.

5 REFERENCES

[1] European Committee for Standardivation: prEN 1992-1, Design of concrete structures
- Part 1-1:Generel structural rules , Brussel, 252 s.

[1] European Committee for Standardivation: prEN 1993-1-1, Design of steel structures,
Part 1-1:Generel structural rules, Brussel, 252 s.2002

[2] European Committee for Standardivation: prEN 1993-2, Design of steel structures -
Part 2: Steel bridges, Brussel, 182 s. 2002

[3] European Committee for Standardivation: prEN 1994-2 Design of composite steel
and concrete structures, Part 2, Bridges, Draft 1, Brussel 2001.

[4] Hannu Honkanen: Euronormien vaikutus liittorakenteisten siltojen suunnitteluun,

diplomityö. Espoo 2000. 101s.