Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023) 480–490

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs

Climate change, food systems and the Islamic perspective on

alternative proteins
Shahid Jameel a, b, *
a
Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, Oxford, UK
b
Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: J O’Brien Background: Climate change is real and so are its unequal impacts on different geographies and societies. Food
systems are estimated to produce a third of global greenhouse gas emissions, of which meat is a major
Keywords: contributor. An emerging challenge is feeding a growing population and fulfilling its protein needs, while
Climate change limiting the climate footprint. Though more environment friendly alternative sources of proteins are becoming
Food systems
available, their acceptance will depend upon attitudes, beliefs, and behavioural choices. For Muslims, who
Alternative proteins
comprise about a quarter of the world’s population, religious guidance plays an important role in consumption
Muslim societies
Islamic law patterns and food choices.
Ethics Scope and approach: This review looks at consumption practices among Muslims in the context of food system
impacts on greenhouse gas emissions, and the need for optimal sources of protein for nutrition and achieving
food security. It discusses what is permissible (halāl) or prohibited (harām) for Muslims and how that is deter­
mined based on two primary sources – the Qur’an and the Hadith – and other secondary sources relied upon by
Muslim legists. It then reviews what is known about three alternative protein sources – plant-based diets, insects
and cultured meat, and the Islamic ethical and legal position related to these foods.
Key findings and conclusions: The findings show conflicting scholarly opinions and a limited understanding of
Muslim attitudes to alternative protein sources. Better understanding will be required for enhancing food se­
curity, while limiting food related greenhouse gas emissions.

1. Introduction
Climate change, also called global warming, is taking place at an
alarming rate and its consequences are evident from increasing reports
of flash floods, forest fires, heat waves and droughts from around the
world. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) released from anthropogenic activities,
mainly from the burning of fossil fuels, from agricultural activities and
decaying organic material are its primary drivers. These gases have
progressively accumulated in the atmosphere over time, trapping heat
and increasing temperatures. The world’s average surface temperature
during 2011–2020 was already about 1.1 ◦ C higher than pre-industrial
times (1850–1900) (IPCC, 2022). The resulting extreme weather
events brought widespread destruction to life and property and dis­
placed millions in 2022.
Food systems are estimated to contribute about a third of the GHGs,
with farmed meat contributing significantly to it. Compared to other
food sources, beef is very carbon-intensive, contributing about 25% of
food systems emissions. It is to food what coal is to fuel (The Economist,
2021). The demand for food, particularly meat, will rise as the world
population is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 and peak at about 11
billion by the turn of the century (United Nations, 2019). Current
farming practices are unsustainable due to the depletion of natural re­
sources, and the disproportionately negative climate impacts of live­
stock farming requires meat consumption to be addressed with urgency.
These concerns are further bolstered by ethical enquiries surrounding
the treatment of animals within current farming practices and the role of
individual responsibility towards consumer demands and their adverse
impacts on the environment. Such contemplations have paved the way
for serious consideration of alternative protein sources, including
plant-based diets, cultured meat and insects. Behaviors, attitudes and
consumption patterns will determine whether these new protein sources
will be accepted. For most of the world’s population, religion influences
life goals, behavioral choices and demographic outcomes. We neither
understand these sufficiently nor do we consider these enough while

* Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, Marston Road, Oxford, OX30EE, UK.
E-mail address: shahid.jameel@oxcis.ac.uk.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.06.028
Received 25 April 2023; Received in revised form 26 June 2023; Accepted 27 June 2023
Available online 28 June 2023
0924-2244/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Jameel
addressing global challenges.
Muslims comprise about a quarter of the world’s population, and are
expected to grow to about 30% by 2050 (Pew Research Center, 2015).
Countries that are a part of the Organization for Islamic Cooperation
(OIC) grouping contribute to about 23% of the global GDP (OIC, 2022)
and about 18% of GHG emissions (OIC, 2021). Several Islamic countries
have some of the highest annual per capita emissions and show a linear
relationship with per capita GDP (Fig. 1). This is not surprising since
carbon emissions are based on ‘production’ not ‘consumption’ (Fried­
lingstein et al., 2022) and many of the same Islamic countries have fossil
fuel economies that rely upon producing oil and gas. For example, the
‘production based’ and ‘consumption based’ CO2 emissions for Qatar
were estimated to be 101.15 million tonnes and 73.93 million tonnes,
respectively in 2019 (Friedlingstein et al., 2022). The ratio of
production-based versus consumption-based emissions is > 1 for fossil
fuel economies such as Bahrain (1.81), Kazakhstan (1.73), Qatar (1.37)
and Oman (1.29), whereas the United Kingdom (0.71) and European
Union (0.82) show ratios of <1. Due to their large production as well as
consumption base, the three biggest GHG emitters – China (1.07), USA
(0.92) and India (1.06) have ratios very close to 1. Though this anomaly
has to be considered when assigning responsibility in a highly connected
world, more sustainable environmental practices are needed in the Is­
lamic World.
This review will focus on alternative sources of proteins as one
pathway towards reducing GHG emissions. It will discuss the challenges
and opportunities around Muslim attitudes towards food consumption
and explore Islamic perspectives on alternative sources of protein.
Global efforts towards climate adaptation and mitigation will be suc­
cessful and sustainable when they also include the economic consider­
ations of Islamic countries and the socio-cultural and religious
sensitivities of Muslims, who make up a quarter of the world’s peoples.
2. Climate change and food systems
According to the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), GHG emissions should be reduced 45–50% from their
2019 levels by 2030 if we are to limit the global average temperature
increases to 1.5 ◦ C above pre-industrial levels by the end of this century
(IPCC, 2022). In a business-as-usual scenario, the world is expected to
reach this threshold by 2040, and will be 4.4 ◦ C warmer by the end of
this century. Climate change is projected to escalate with every
Fig. 1. Annual per capita CO2 emissions as a function of per capita GDP of all Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) countries. The circles refer to OIC countries,
some of which are identified. The triangles show data for some non-OIC countries and groupings for comparison. The dotted line represents the mean emissions to
GDP relationship based on the full data set with a R2 value of 0.683. (Source: GDP, OIC data 2021; and CO2 emissions, Our World in Data).
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023) 480–490
increment of global warming in non-linear and unpredictable ways,
putting billions at risk of natural disasters, disease and food insecurity.
In 2015, the global anthropogenic GHG emissions were 53.3 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e). Of this, about a third, i.e.,
18 billion tonnes CO2e were contributed by food systems (Ritchie et al.,
2022a). Agriculture and livestock farming produce methane and nitrous
oxide from enteric fermentation in ruminants, from manure, synthetic
fertilizers and flooded rice fields. This contributed 10–14% of total GHG
emissions, which may increase to 40% by 2050 (IPCC, 2022). Land use
changes for growing crops and grazing livestock lead to deforestation
and the destruction of peatlands, which contributed 5–14% of emissions.
Deforestation also brings wild animals closer to humans and domestic
animals, increasing the opportunity for zoonotic transmission of infec­
tious diseases. The remaining 5–10% of GHG emissions came from
post-farm activities such as the processing, transport, and consumption
of food.
Producing food uses about 50% of all ice- and desert-free land, and is
responsible for approximately 80% of deforestation and 70% of biodi­
versity loss (WWF, 2021). It also uses about 70% of the world’s fresh­
water and contributes to about 80% of water pollution (United Nations,
2021). A third of the world’s population is estimated to face water
scarcity by 2050, which will further affect food production and biodi­
versity (United Nations, 2021). The yields of four key crops that provide
half of the world’s calories are predicted to fall by about 20–40% for
corn, 5–50% for wheat, 20–30% for rice, and 30–60% for soyabean.
Increasing temperatures also reduce the nutritional quality of foods (Zhu
et al., 2018), which means that more food will be needed per capita to
achieve similar levels of nutrition. This will have spin off effects in
driving up food prices and increasing poverty. Higher prices for crops
will also lead to more expensive cattle feed, making meat less affordable.
We are a world of meat eaters, consuming about 340 million tonnes
annually at an average of 43 kg per person per year (Ritchie & Roser,
2021). People living in Europe, America and Australia consume about
80–100 kg per person, i.e., over twice the global average, while about
half of those in Africa consume less than 10 kg per person per year
(Ritchie & Roser, 2021).
3. Food security and the protein problem
Food security includes the availability of food, its access and utili­
zation. Between 1961 and 2020 the world population increased 2.6
S. Jameel Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023) 480–490

times (United Nations, 2019) and food production increased 2.9 times
(Ritchie et al., 2022b) while using only 5% more land (World Bank, n.
d.). This was achieved through breeding of new crop varieties, and
intensive use of water and chemical fertilizers, which have associated
environmental costs. Even though the world produces sufficient food,
undernourishment decreased only marginally from 13.2% in 2001 to
8.9% in 2019 (Roser & Ritchie, 2022). Globally, about 768 million
people are undernourished of which 425 million live in Asia and 278
million in Africa (Roser & Ritchie, 2022), which are home to about 97%
of the world’s Muslims. About 176 million people, corresponding to
10.5% of the population of OIC member states suffer from hunger and
malnutrition as a result of anthropogenic and natural factors that
include war and internal conflicts, extreme weather conditions, pes­
t/locust outbreaks, difficult economic conditions, weak commodity
prices, lack of adequate infrastructure, and poverty (OIC, 2021).
Undernourishment affects a third of the children in developing
countries, and is responsible for a third of deaths in children under the
age of five (Horton et al., 2010), with the problem being most severe in
South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Children suffering from under­
nourishment often go on to experience learning difficulties and health
complications later in life, and are unable to optimally contribute to
socioeconomic development (Horton et al., 2010). Such populations
cannot also build resilience and adapt to climatic changes. In 2016,
about 50% of adults living in OIC countries reportedly suffered from
anaemia (OIC, 2021). Of the total global burden, children in the OIC
Fig. 2. Of the estimated food systems related emissions of 18 billion tonnes of
countries contributed to 10.3% of stunting and 3.1% of wasting. Coun­ carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e), the contributions from agricultural activity,
tries in Sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia, South Asia and Latin America are land use changes and post-farm activities are shown. This graph uses data for
the worst affected, contributing to 80.6% of wasting among children in 2015 (Source: Crippa et al., 2021; Ritchie et al., 2022a).
OIC countries (OIC, 2021).
Per capita calorie supply, which is a measure of food supply, has Yeast as a source of protein biomass or engineered to produce animal
increased globally since 1961, including in Asia and Africa. Beyond and plant proteins (Jach et al., 2022) and cultured meat (Good Food
calories, proper nutrition also requires macronutrients, especially pro­ Institute, n.d.) provide familiar sources of protein without the need for
teins that are essential for growth and maintenance. Protein deficiency industrial-scale farming and its associated emissions.
has been linked to impaired growth, tissue repair, and turnover. Even
though global average protein supply increased from 61 to 82 grams per 4. The Muslim world and food consumption
capita between 1961 and 2019, about one billion people worldwide get
insufficient protein, the problem being most severe in Central Africa and The global Muslim population is expected to grow from 1.6 billion to
South Asia, where about 30% of children get too little protein (Roser & 2.76 billion, or from 23.2% to 29.7% of the world’s population between
Ritchie, 2022). Human diets include both animal and plant proteins – 2010 and 2050 (Pew Research Centre, 2015).
the global average being 40% and 60%, respectively, with wide varia­ For many of the world’s people, including Muslims, food is a part of
tion across regions. As incomes and priorities change, region-specific their identity and traditions, a source of pride and often an expression of
strategies for protein supplementation would be needed (Henchion cohesion and belonging within the family and the wider community.
et al., 2021). Global meat production increased from 70.6 million tonnes Muslims are required to eat only permissible (or halāl) food and show
in 1961 to 337.2 million tonnes in 2020, with China, USA, India and UK gratitude towards Allah by invoking His name upon the animal before it
being the largest producers (Ritchie & Roser, 2021). Similarly, meat is sacrificed. The two biggest celebrations within the Islamic faith also
production in the OIC countries also increased from 18.7 million tonnes include references to consumption in general and to food in particular.
in 2000 to 34.6 million tonnes in 2018 (OIC, 2021). The ‘Eid Al-Fitr’ is a festival of thanksgiving that marks the end of
Studies show that increasing atmospheric GHG levels and global Ramadan, the holy month of fasting for Muslims that is centred around
warming are linked to reduced protein content of edible crops, leaving abstinence from food and worldly pleasures, and around piety and
people who depend only upon plant-based diets at risk of not consuming empathy. The ‘Eid Al-Adha’ or the ‘Feast of Sacrifice’, which pays
sufficient proteins needed for good health (Medek et al., 2017). Except homage to Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham for Christians and Jews) and his
for pulses, some nuts and seeds, plant-based proteins often lack essential son Ismail (Ishmael for Christians and Jews), is wholly concerned with
amino acids that are readily available in animal-based proteins. Quan­ the sharing of food. Muslims are obliged to sacrifice a suitable animal as
titative studies using stable isotope methods have also shown animal part of the celebrations, with the aims of responsible consumption and
proteins (eggs) to be broken down more efficiently in the digestive tracts distributing meat to the poor and needy.
of children compared to plant-based proteins (lentils), with the recom­ Muslims rely largely upon Islamic rulings for the permissibility of
mendation to supplement children’s diets with eggs to reduce stunting food products, which are often certified by authoritative bodies. The
(Shivakumar et al., 2019). global halāl food market reached $2.2 trillion in 2022 and is projected to
The challenge is to address protein deficiency by supplementing diets grow at a compound annual growth rate of 10.8% to $4.18 trillion by
with high quality proteins with minimal GHG emissions. Beef, lamb and 2028 (IMARC, 2022). Though the term halāl popularly refers to meat
mutton are emissions-intensive due to the use of farmland and pastures, (food), it includes everything permitted under Islamic law as opposed to
deforestation, and cattle emitting methane. But eggs, poultry, fish and that which is prohibited (harām). Consequently, the halāl industry
milk provide high quality animal proteins with lower associated emis­ covers a much broader area of products and services, including personal
sions (Fig. 3). Several new technologies are also transforming food healthcare, cosmetics, travel and tourism, financial services, etc. Ac­
systems. Niche proteins such as insects (Gerretsen, 2021) and seaweed cording to Adroit Market Research (2021), the $4.5 trillion global halāl
(Clark, 2019) are being explored as alternatives to animal proteins.

482
S. Jameel
Fig. 3. Greenhouse gas emissions shown in kilogram CO2 equivalents per 100 grams of protein (top) or per 1000 kilocalories (bottom) from the indicated foods
(Source: Ritchie et al., 2022a).
market is expected to grow to about 11.2 trillion by 2028. Recent studies
have found that halāl certified products are also sought by non-Muslims
for being symbolic of hygienic, good, humane and ethical products
(Wilkins et al. 2019). This should make the inclusion of Muslims and
halāl certified food products an integral part of the discourse on
acceptability and success of alternative foods.
For alternative protein sources to gain acceptance among Muslims,
these must first be regarded as halāl. The question of whether food is
determined as halāl or harām is not straightforward. It is a complex
process that involves legal, ethical and social considerations as well as
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the understanding and interpretation of sacred texts, culture and
traditions.
4.1. What is Halāl?
The primary sources of Islamic law are Qur’an and Hadith. The
Qur’an is the sacred book of Islam, made up of 114 chapters (surahs) and
6,236 verses, which Muslims believe to be the literal word of God
revealed to Prophet Muhammad (d. 632) ( , peace be upon him) over a
period of 23 years. The Hadith are collated reports of the sayings and
S. Jameel
actions of Prophet Muhammad . Islamic jurists use both the Qur’an
and Hadith to deliberate if something is halāl or harām.
Within the Islamic legal tradition there exists the understanding that
everything being God’s creation, all is permissible except that which has
been explicitly prohibited. Muslim scholars have derived this principle
of permissibility and natural utility from clear verses in the Qur’an, e.g.,
verse 29 in chapter 2 (2:29; Surah al-Baqarah) and verse 45:13 (Surah al-
Jathiyah). This explains why there is greater emphasis in the Qur’an on
the prohibited, rather than that which is permissible, something also
observed when dealing with food consumption.
There are numerous verses in the Qur’an that pertain to the con­
sumption of food, the most prominent being verses 5:3 and 2:173. The
Qur’an also contains specific guidance on the consumption of aquatic
animals (verses 5:96; 16:14; and 35:12), wild game (verses 5:1; 5:4; and
5:95–96), and cattle and other livestock (verses 5:1; 6:142; 16:5; 22:28;
22:30; 22:36–37; 36:72; and 40:79). Examples of prohibited foods
would be animals already found dead (carrion), the blood of animals,
the flesh of swine (pork), meat that has been consecrated or sacrificed in
a name other than God, meat from permitted animals but killed by
strangulation, beating, falls or gored to death. Scholars agree that if a
permitted animal can be sacrificed in the lawful way following an injury,
then it can be consumed.
For food consumption, the Qur’an stipulates it to be halāl and also
‘tayyib’, which is defined as good, wholesome or beneficial as opposed to
‘khabith’, which refers to impure, harmful or disgusting. According to
Alzeer et al. (2018), an indication of whether or not a food is tayyib, is
the comfortable feeling one experiences when consuming it. In contrast,
that which is regarded as khabith is “anything disgusting and repulsive
by human’s nature, or that has potential to harm human’s health”.
Ambali and Bakar (2014) explain that upholding the requirement of
tayyib in the processing of food includes maximizing hygiene and min­
imising contamination. There are several references to this in the
Qu’ran, including verses 2:168, 2:172, 2:267, 5:88 and 16:114.
The requirement for food to be tayyib implies that all food that is
tayyib is halāl, but not all halāl food is tayyib (Alzeer et al., 2018). As food
may be consumed and processed in accordance to Islamic requirements,
if it leads to an uncomfortable feeling or illness, it is not tayyib and
should not be eaten. An example of this would be allergy to a halāl food
product such as gluten in some cereals and certain proteins found in
nuts.
4.2. Determining Halāl or Harām
As new realties emerge, questions are asked that may not have clear
and obvious answers in Islamic sources. In such instances, scholars
specialising in Islamic law or Shariah commonly use the principles of
qiyās (reasoning by analogy), ijma (consensus), urf (local custom) and
istihsān (juristic preference) when deliberating on legal matters. All of
these are traditionally guided by the concept of Maqased Al-Sharia or the
‘aims and objectives of the shariah’ and the principle of Maslaha or ‘the
greater good’ (Calis, 2022). Both principles stipulate that all rulings
must preserve the sanctity of life, religion, mind, progeny, and property.
Contemporary discussions on Islamic bioethics no longer occur along
the binary lines of what was traditionally considered to be halāl or
harām. Notions of contaminated (or innately bad) and uncontaminated
food now include pesticides, preservatives and genetically modified
products (Yasin, 2014), and more recently, as discussed in this paper,
alternative proteins such as cultured meat and insects. The Qur’anic
requirement for food consumption to be tayyib have also called for the
consideration of factors such as usury, monopoly and environmental
wellbeing when deliberating on the permissibility of food products from
an Islamic perspective (Yasin, 2014).
There are five main schools of Islamic jurisprudence, four among the
Sunnis – Hanafi, Shafi’i, Hanbali and Malaki, and one among the Shi’as –
Jafari. The International Islamic Fiqh Academy (IIFA), which is a sub­
sidiary body of the OIC, also discusses issues related to Shariah by
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adapting collective Islamic legal rulings or ‘fatwas’, which are more
reliable than an individual fatwa. It is noteworthy that since judicial
scholars have no divine authority in the Islamic tradition, a fatwa can be
guidance, but is not legally binding on Muslims. It remains for the in­
dividual to decide if they want to live by a fatwa or not. Thus, Muslim
attitudes towards the consumption of alternative protein sources are not
simply a matter of obtaining a unified legal opinion, but also include
aspects of food culture and tastes, which determine attitude and
acceptance.
4.3. Islamic perspectives on the ethics of food and environment
The discourse that champions alternative food sources is mostly
grounded in ethical and moral considerations around the issues of
health, environment and animal welfare. The Islamic discourse on
environmental and animal ethics is situated within the understanding
that Man is God’s steward or ‘Khalifa’ on Earth. According to this
narrative, the Earth, including all its inhabitants, is entrusted to Man,
who will be questioned on the use (or abuse) of this trust on the day of
reckoning.
There is a sense of responsibility towards animals and their welfare
within Islamic eco-ethics. The Prophet is reported to have said, “A
woman was punished due to a cat she had imprisoned until it died, so
she entered the Hellfire. She did not give it food or water while it was
imprisoned, neither did she set it free to eat from the vermin of the
earth.” (Sahih al-Bukhari 3295, Sahih Muslim 2242). The Qur’an also
refers to animals as belonging to ‘communities’ (verse 6:38) and having
‘languages’ (verse 27:18), await God’s sustenance (verse 67:19) just as
humans do, and spend their time praising God (verse 24:41). The Qur’an
also reports one of Prophet Soliman’s miracles to be his ability to un­
derstand and talk to animals (verse 27:19), and Prophet Noah was
instructed to place onto his ark a pair of each animal species (verse
23:27). Although the sacrifice of animals for their meat is ingrained in
the Islamic tradition, there are rules that acknowledge the emotional
and psychological awareness of animals and seeks to minimise the harm
done to them. The conditions that baby animals should not be separated
from their mothers and that animals should not witness the sacrifice or
be treated poorly or beyond their capacities are rules that signify the
importance of animal welfare (Ghotbi, 2020). From an Islamic
perspective, the Earth and its inhabitants are sacred manifestations or
‘signs’ of the omnipotence of God, where faith is only realised when the
sanctity of Creation is understood and maintained. Thus, Islamic phi­
losophy places Man within the cycle of all that is created, not outside of
it.
In Islamic teachings there is a clear link between ethics and food
consumption. The Qur’an says, “O children of Adam, take your adornment
at every mosque, and eat and drink, but be not excessive. Indeed, He likes not
those who commit excess.’ (verse 7:31). A Hadith from the Prophet
adds, “A human being fills no worse vessel than his stomach. It is sufficient
for a human being to eat a few mouthfuls to keep his spine straight. But if he
must (fill it), then one third of food, one third for drink, and one third for
air.” (Sunan Ibn Majah, Hadith 3349).
This link is most apparent during the month of Ramadan, when
Muslims are obliged to refrain from eating and drinking from sunrise to
sunset. The significance of fasting is nestled in the understanding that
self-discipline, in this case through the abstinence of food, nourishes the
soul. Fasting also builds communal bonds through empathy, forcing
those who have, to experience the lives of have not, and in doing so,
reinforce social responsibility. Therefore, from an Islamic perspective,
food is not just fuel for the body but is also vital for cultivating ethics and
morality and should nourish both body and soul. The connection be­
tween consumption, ethics and spirituality is further emphasised in the
teachings of Muslim mystics. For example, in reference to Adam and
Eve’s fall from Heaven, the Muslim philosopher, Imam Al-Ghazali (d.
1058–1111) argued that the desire for consumption (of food) facilitated
Man’s first sin, and advises on abstinence from food for increased
S. Jameel Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023) 480–490

spirituality. biotechnology, and the Muslim perspectives related to their

The Qur’an makes numerous references to ecology and environment, consumption.
urging the reader to contemplate Creation to see evidence of God’s ex­
istence (Ozdemir, 2003). Beyond the concept of Khalifa and trust, the
5.1. Plant-based diets
Islamic discourse on environmental ethics also includes the principles of
adl (justice) and mizan (balance). These principles stipulate that Man
Diets consisting of vegetables, fruits, legumes, oilseeds and whole
must uphold justice and the natural order of things, and the failure to do
grains, are more environment friendly than meat and dairy based diets
so invites God’s wrath in the form of seismic changes to the Earth’s
(Fig. 3). These are not just a 21st century fad but have been around for a
climate, causing destruction and anarchy (Abdul-Matin, 2010). The
long time. Ancient Egyptians had a predominately plant-based diet
Qu’ran says, “Corruption has appeared throughout the land and sea by
(Fehér et al., 2020), and in India it is part of the cultural landscape and
(reason of) what the hands of people have earned so He may let them taste
culinary traditions with about 30–40% of the population being strictly
part of (the consequence of) what they have done that perhaps they will re­
vegetarian (Shridhar et al., 2014). But the numbers are much more
turn (to righteousness)” (verse 30:41). Hadith sources also provide in­
modest elsewhere. For example, only 9% of people in the UK, Italy, and
structions on the importance of consumption and conservation. The
Germany call themselves vegetarian as do only 3% in Austria and 4% in
Prophet is reported to have cautioned over the excessive use of water
USA (Leitzmann, 2014; Cramer et al., 2017).
when performing the obligatory ablution before prayer, stating that one
Beyond its health benefits, a plant-based diet is also considered more
should be mindful of the use of water “even if you were on the banks of a
environment friendly. A study commissioned by Beyond Meat, a pro­
flowing river” (Sunan Ibn Majah, Hadith 425) and in another tradition
ducer of plant-based meat substitutes, reported their ‘Beyond Burger’ to
the planting of trees is encouraged, even in the face of eminent death
generate 90% less GHG emissions and use 46% less energy, 99% less
(Musnad Ahmad, Hadith 12491).
water, and 93% less land use compared to a burger made from US beef
All this ought to focus attention on the contemporary issue of food
(Heller & Keoleian, 2018, pp. 1–38). However, there are concerns as
waste, which is estimated to account for almost 10% of food-related
well. For example, plant-based foods have substantially higher sodium
emissions (Fig. 2). Food waste includes retail and other distribution of
levels compared to their equivalent meat products (Curtain & Grafe­
food, out-of-home consumption (e.g., in restaurants, etc.), and house­
nauer, 2019) and are classified as ‘ultra-processed foods’, some of which
hold food waste. Despite clear Qur’anic guidance and Prophetic tradition
are associated with high fat, sugar and salt, leading to obesity (Mac­
related to waste, household food waste in Islamic countries is high
diarmid, 2022). However, this is being addressed by the industry. For
(Fig. 4). Unlike per capita GHG emissions that show a strong correlation
example, Impossible Burger 2.0 (Impossible Foods, CA, USA) is reported
with per capita GDP (Fig. 1), household food waste is independent of
to have 30% less sodium and 40% less saturated fats than its predeces­
GDP. Though only Islamic countries are mapped in Fig. 4, a large
sor, and lacks both cholesterol and gluten (Mellon, 2020). The Impos­
number of countries that are poorer than the global average appear to
sible Burger has also received halāl and kosher certification in 2018
waste more food at home than richer countries (Fig. 4). For example, the
(Mellon, 2020). Other climate concerns surrounding vegetarian meat
per capita GDP and per capita household food waste per annum for
are associated with the agricultural systems, including fertiliser and
Africa are $2,009 and 110 kg, respectively; for Europe these are $31,589
pesticide use and their negative effects on biodiversity, and deforesta­
and 66 kg, respectively.
tion (Benton et al., 2021).
Despite being more environment friendly, the plant-based meats
5. Alternative protein sources and the Islamic discourse
industry has failed to convert the masses. The stock of industry leader
Beyond Meat (CA, USA) fell from a high of $235 in July 2019 to only $16
Within the Islamic tradition the responsibility for preserving Nature
in February 2023 (NASDAQ: BYND). Low enthusiasm towards alterna­
rests with Man. How has this understanding impacted the lived expe­
tive meat is reportedly due to the lack of texture and taste and its high
riences of Muslims, specifically in their search for more environment-
price in compared to ‘real’ meat. Although health is one of the reasons
friendly and ready sources of nutrition? In this section we will discuss
for which people make the switch from meat to plant-based diets, it is
alternative sources of proteins such as plant-based diets, eating insects
also one of the reasons people do not make the switch. Available data
(entomophagy), cultured meat and animal proteins produced using
raises real concerns about the lack of nutrients and vitamins, and the

Fig. 4. Per capita household food waste per annum as

a function of per capita GDP for all Organization of
Islamic Cooperation (OIC) countries. The circles refer
to OIC countries, some of which are identified. The
triangles show data for select non-OIC countries. The
horizontal and vertical dotted lines running through
the global average point divide the countries into four
quadrants based on household food waste and GDP.
Sources: GDP, OIC data 2021; and household food
waste, Our World in Data through UN Statistics
Division.

485
S. Jameel
availability of essential amino acids from plant-based diets (O’Keefe
et al., 2022).
While proteins from soybean and pea traditionally occupy this space,
yeast and seaweed are two other vegetarian sources worth mentioning
due to their high protein content and reduced environmental impact
compared to terrestrial plants.
5.1.1. Yeast proteins
Yeasts are single cell eukaryotes belonging to the fungi family and
are commonly used in the food (e.g., baking) and pharmaceuticals in­
dustries. They grow at high rates on sugars, and for commercial pro­
duction in inexpensive culture media containing molasses (a waste
product from the sugar industry), mineral salts and a source of nitrogen.
Commercial yeast biomass, which can be produced cheaply, is 50%
protein, a rich source of vitamins and folic acid, and is used as a vitamin
supplement (Jach et al., 2022). In the biotechnology and pharmaceuti­
cals industries, yeasts are also an established eukaryotic host for the
production of heterologous proteins. Some examples of yeast-derived
pharmaceuticals in commercial use include human insulin, human
serum albumin, growth factors, interferons and the hepatitis B vaccine
(Madhavan et al., 2021). In the food sector, Perfect Day (Berkeley, CA,
USA) uses the yeast Trichoderma reesei to produce cow casein and whey
proteins, which are then used in non-dairy ice cream, cheese and other
milk products (Mellon, 2020).
Studies have shown the protein content of yeast biomass to be
comparable or higher than milk, meat and soybean, and it contains all
essential amino acids needed in human diet (Jach et al., 2022). As an
inexpensive protein source, it is ideal for animal feed, which currently
relies largely on soya, producing which requires land, water, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides. Hatlen et al. (2012) found that Atlantic salmon
fed on a yeast diet had comparable weights to those grown on conven­
tional meals, demonstrating the suitability of yeast biomass as an
alternative protein source. Maximizing the efficiency of yeast cell
biomass and amino acid production, and keeping costs down is critical
for the successful integration of yeast protein into conventional farming
practices. As in plant-based meat, one barrier to human consumption is
texture, but this is being developed commercially (Tyndall et al. 2022).
Though still vegetarian, yeast biomass can be a valuable source of pro­
teins for animals and humans, whilst safeguarding the environment by
reduced demand on natural resources like land and water, increased
utilization of agricultural waste, and decreased production of green­
house gases.
Commercial ventures in producing meat alternatives from fungi are
led by Quorn (Stokesley, UK; https://www.quorn.co.uk/), which was
established in 1998, and uses the fungus Fusarium venenatum to produce
mycoproteins that are key ingredients in its products. More recent no­
tables include Meati Foods (Colorado, USA; https://meati.com/) and
MushLabs (Berlin, Germany; https://www.mushlabs.com/) that use
mushroom root or mycelium to produce meat alternatives (Mellon,
2020).
5.1.2. Seaweed proteins
The health benefits of seaweed, particularly red algae, are well
documented. Other species are being explored for their antihyperten­
sive, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties (Admassu et al., 2018).
Vázquez-Delfín et al. (2019) showed that two red algae, Macrocystis
pyrifera and Chondracanthus chamissoi, have higher protein contents
than some terrestrial plants, and Lourenço et al. (2002) reported
seaweed species of genera Ulva (green algae), Undaria (brown algae) and
Entormorpha (green algae) to have protein levels comparable to common
vegetables. The protein content of seaweed differs according to species,
maturity, and geographical location, with brown, green and red edible
seaweed to be the best. The use of seaweed protein as feed for aqua­
culture and livestock has also been explored and found to be equivalent
or better than soybean or fishmeal used in these industries (Angell et al.,
2016). Adding seaweed into the diets of cattle have also been suggested
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023) 480–490
to reduce their methane emissions by up to 80% through changes to the
gut microbiome (Roque et al., 2021).
High protein content and productivity, and the ability to thrive
without arable land and fresh water makes seaweed an attractive
alternative source of proteins. One of the main challenges is the estab­
lishment of efficient extraction methods that yield high protein levels
(Angell et al., 2016). Companies such as Good Catch (Pennsylvania,
USA; https://goodcatchfoods.com/) and New Wave Foods (California,
USA; https://www.newwavefoods.com/) use seaweed to produce
plant-based seafood substitutes that are already on supermarket shelves
(Mellon, 2020).
5.1.3. Muslim perspective on plant-based diets
By definition, all plant-based foods are considered halāl. Some
traditional Islamic views advocate for the eating of meat, based the
understanding that one cannot prohibit that which God has made
permissible (and vice versa). However, other Islamic scholars have
encouraged vegetarian diets, as long as individuals adapting this life­
style do not regard the eating of meat as being prohibited or harām (Ali,
2015).
The Muslim-American thinker Hamza Yusuf argues that eating meat
every day is ‘unethical’. He cites Umar ibn al-Khattab (d. 644), a com­
panion of the Prophet , and the second Caliph of the Islamic world as
saying, “Beware of meat, because it has an addiction like the addiction of
wine” (Yusuf, 2015), and comments that the Prophet would only eat
meat once a week, referring to him as ‘semi-vegetarian’. With a view on
ethical concepts in the Qur’an and Hadith, the Prophet’s way of
moderation and responsible consumption, and the environmental im­
pacts of modern livestock farming, the Canadian Islamic scholar and
neuroscientist Mohamed Ghilan opines, “Given the current status of the
planet and practices in the animal agriculture industry, and the
numerous relevant verses in the Quran and available Hadiths, the Sun­
nah would be to give up all animal products and go vegan. Otherwise,
one would have to explain how the Beloved ‫ ﷺ‬would stand for the
destruction of total ecological systems, deforestation, overfishing, ani­
mal abuse that is both physical and emotional, as well as atmospheric
and water pollution.” (Ghilan, 2016).
The few studies available on Muslim attitudes towards non-meat
diets are confined to those living in Western societies and do suggest
an openness to vegetarian diets. The main motivation appears to be
concerns for health, environment, and animal welfare. A study on fifteen
Muslims living in Cairo, Egypt, who identified themselves as non-meat
eaters offers insight into some of the social challenges associated with
adopting vegetarianism in Muslim communities (Adams, 2018). These
included accusations from extended family members, colleagues and
strangers of being anti-Islam, on the premise that one should not shun
that which God has made lawful. Others expressed concern over health,
believing that adequate vitamins and minerals cannot be obtained from
non-meat diets. The counter arguments for these opinions rest on con­
cerns for environment and health, with participants reporting that any
discourse centred around religion would often get heated and so,
preferred not to approach the subject from this perspective. Other
studies indicate Muslims in that geography to see meat eating as being a
part of their Islamic identity and the adoption of non-meat-eating habits
as adopting a Western identity (Adams, 2018).
5.2. Eating insects
The consumption of insects (entomophagy) is reportedly practiced
by over two billion people globally, and is more environment friendly
than other sources of animal proteins (Orsi et al., 2019). An estimated 2,
140 insect species have been classified as edible (Mitsuhashi, 2016), of
which the most commonly eaten are beetles, butterflies, bees, wasps,
ants, grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets (Van Huis et al., 2013). How­
ever, as in all food production and consumption, the eating of insects is
not without risk. Not all insects are edible, some are edible only at select
S. Jameel
stages of their development, and some require specific culinary practices
to safeguard against any consumption associated illness (Govorushko,
2019).
The benefits of entomophagy include environmental sustainability,
socio-economic outcomes, and health and nutrition. Insect cultivation
has lower emissions as it uses a fraction of the land, energy, and water
(Van Huis et al., 2013). For comparable protein yields, crickets produce
up to 80% less methane than cows, 8–12 times less ammonia than pigs,
are 12–25 times more efficient at converting their food into proteins and
use only about 12% of the land compared to beef. Food waste, which
contributes significantly to emissions, can be recycled by feeding it to
insect larvae. Replacing half of the meat eaten worldwide with meal­
worms and crickets is estimated to cut farmland use by a third and
reduce emissions (Alexander et al., 2017). Insects provide a good source
of proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins (Van Huis et al., 2013) and their
farming and cultivation makes less demands on natural resources,
including land, in comparison to traditional livestock (Oonincx et al.,
2010). Insect farming can also be practiced widely, especially amongst
the poorest and those most affected by food insecurity, with positive
socio-economic outcomes.
Although more research needs to be done on the nutrient composi­
tion and benefits of insects for human consumption, studies have so far
been encouraging. For example, insects contain a variety of essential
macro- and micronutrients, and have higher protein content on a mass
basis, compared to traditional animal and plant foods such as beef,
chicken, fish, soybeans and maize (Teffo et al., 2007). But there are
significant cultural barriers to consuming insects as well. Many perceive
insects negatively as being filthy, spreaders of diseases and at best a
nuisance to animals, crops and humans. Can this negative perception
change? Some studies advocate introducing insects into human diets
indirectly by adding in a powdered form to enhance nutrition, while
limiting the ‘yuck factor’ (Tao & Li, 2018).
Several commercial products for human and animal consumption are
already in the market. Eat Grub (London, UK; https://www.eatgrub.co.
uk/) sells various ready-to-eat snacks, cooking ingredients and protein
powders from several edible insects such as grasshoppers, crickets,
mealworms and buffalo worms, which are also available through chains
such as Amazon and Sainsbury’s. Chapul (Salt Lake City, USA) sells
cricket flour (https://chapul.com/products/chapul-cricket-flour-pro
tein), and Ynsect (Évry-Courcouronnes, France; https://www.ynsect.
com/) has developed vertical insect factories to produce mealworms
for animal and human nutrition, and fertilizer for plants. The insect
protein industry is expected to grow to about $8 billion by 2030 (Bar­
clays, 2021).
5.2.1. Muslim perspective on entomophagy
Entomophagy was practised widely in Arabia and locusts were
considered a favourite food with medicinal properties before the advent
of Islam (Tajudeen, 2020). The four Sunni and the Shi’a schools of
thought all agree that the eating of locusts is permissible due to an
existing Hadith. The Prophet Muhammad was reported to have said,
“Two kinds of dead meat have been permitted to us: fish and locusts”
(Sunan Ibn Majah, Hadith 3218). However, for eating other insects there
is no consensus Islamic legal position because other than locusts no in­
sects are specified as being permissible for consumption within the
hadith chronicles (Tajudeen, 2020). Therefore, this leaves room for
scholarly reflections on their permissibility, leading to difference of
opinions. Some scholars are of the view that the consumption of grass­
hoppers and crickets are also permissible as these fall under the same
category as locusts (Majelis Ulama Indonesia, 2000).
The Hanafi school of thought, followed by about half of the world’s
Muslims, especially those living in South Asia, regard the eating of all
insects (except locusts) as prohibited, citing that insects fall under the
category of being ‘filthy’ and are therefore harām (Al-Fatawa al-Hin­
diyya, n.d.). This view is also shared by the Shafi and Hanbali schools of
thought, which are followed by 18% and 2% of the Muslim population,
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respectively. But the Maliki school, followed by about 15% of the
Muslim population, primarily on the Arabian Peninsula and in North
and West Africa allows the consumption of all other insects, provided
they are not harmful to health and their consumption is regarded as
culturally acceptable (Tajudeen, 2020). For the Maliki school, a neces­
sary condition for permissibility is to kill the insect with the intention of
making it fit for consumption (dhakat), which is akin to ritual slaughter
for animals (Dar Al-Ifta Egypt, 2013). The prominent Shia scholar Sayid
Ali Al-Sistani, who follows the Jafari legal school, believes that the
eating of all insects is prohibited, with the exception of the locust, which
can only be eaten once it has the ability to fly and should be alive before
being caught for consumption (Al-Sistani, 2015).
Although most schools of Islamic jurisprudence prohibit the eating of
all insects other than locusts, there are calls to reconsider what is meant
by the term ‘filthy’, within the Islamic legal context. According to
Tajudeen (2020), prohibiting the consumption of all insects without an
exception is “a technical error and fallacy of generalization”. Proponents
of entomophagy have urged Islamic jurists to consider scientific evi­
dence of its nutritional and ecological benefits, and some believe this
may warrant changes to the Islamic legal position. Though insects are
consumed in parts of the Islamic world, this review found no systematic
studies that explored the attitudes of Muslims from different geogra­
phies to entomophagy.
5.3. Cultured meat
Cultured meat, introduced in 2013, is produced by harvesting and
growing meat cells in the laboratory (or factory). The process involves
isolating stem cells from a live animal, growing and differentiating in
culture to large numbers. These cells are then be manipulated via tissue
engineering techniques that provide a ‘biomaterial scaffold’, to take up
three-dimensional shapes that mimic muscle or fat tissue in form, sen­
sory and nutritional properties (Post et al., 2020). This process means
that fewer animals will be needed for meat production, cutting down on
the land, water and feed required for conventional livestock farming.
This could make cultured meat attractive in an age where climate sus­
tainability and natural resource depletion is a global priority.
Post et al. (2020) argued that their reasons for developing cultured
meat by “harnessing the potential of stem cells to multiply and form
skeletal muscle and fat tissue”, were to mitigate the negative impacts of
conventional livestock farming on environmental sustainability, public
health and animal welfare. Advocates of cultured meat argue that the
process is safer than conventional farming, as controlled laboratory
environments reduce the possibility of meat contamination and trans­
mission of bacterial infections (Bonny et al., 2015), thus doing away
with the use of antibiotics in feed (Oliver et al., 2011). This will have the
added benefit of limiting antimicrobial resistance, which is reaching
alarming levels. Though the first burger developed with cultured meat in
2013 reportedly cost about $330,000, the cost in 2019 was down to
$9.80 (Bandoim, 2022). The wholesale cost of cultured meat is projected
at $63 per kilogram (Garrison et al., 2022). Eat Just (San Francisco, USA;
https://www.ju.st/) received permission in 2020 to sell their lab
cultured chicken in Singapore, and most recently Eat Just and Upside
Foods (Berkeley, USA; https://www.upsidefoods.com) have received
approvals in the USA as well (Poinski, 2023).
If the cultured meat industry is to offer a real alternative, it must first
address some key ethical issues and its claims of being environmentally
friendly. Studies have raised concerns over the current reliance of
cultured meat on fossil sources of energy and the subsequent production
of CO2, which has a longer lifetime than the methane emitted by cattle
(Lynch & Pierrehumbert, 2019). Others point to exaggerated claims of
water consumption (Doreau et al., 2012) and land use (Dumont et al.,
2017) in conventional livestock farming. Concerns have also been raised
over the use of growth factors and hormones in media used to culture
and differentiate the stem cells. The long- and short-term effects of
growth hormones and the manipulation of culture media for
S. Jameel
macronutrient and micronutrient content are matters of concern (Chriki
& Hocquette, 2020). The use of fetal bovine serum (FBS), which is
derived from prematurely terminated cattle foetuses, is an ethical
concern, which is being addressed through alternatives being developed
by several start-up companies (Chelladurai et al., 2021). Others remind
that ethics in the discourse on cultured meat cannot be reduced exclu­
sively to that of animal welfare without considering the livelihood of
livestock farmers (Chriki & Hocquette, 2020).
Recent studies suggest that the social acceptance of cultured meat
depends largely on how well-informed people are about its processing
and benefits in comparison to traditional farming methods. A European
study found the participants to be initially reluctant, expressing their
opposition with terms like ‘disgusting’, ‘unnatural’ and ‘playing God’
(Verbeke et al., 2015). However, after being informed of the ecological
benefits of cultured meat, participants became less averse to the idea,
whilst still expressing uncertainty about its long-term effects on personal
wellbeing and social order.
5.3.1. Muslim perspective on cultured meat
The question of the permissibility of biotechnology in food produc­
tion was first discussed by various Islamic legal institutions when
scholars were faced with the consumption of genetically modified (GM)
crops. Being a relatively new concept, the Islamic position on cultured
meat remains to be established. Though sparse, some Islamic views are
available on the permissibility of cultured meat.
Most Islamic scholars believe the same criteria laid out in the Qur’an
and Hadith with regards to the consumption of livestock are expected to
be followed for cultured meat. For example, the stipulation that cells
must originate from an animal that is halāl and that it is sacrificed in
accordance with Islamic law before the cells are taken (Hamdan et al.,
2018; Kashim et al., 2022). The necessity for the animal to be slaugh­
tered prior to the cells being removed is based on the saying of the
Prophet which states, “Whatever is cut from an animal when it is still
alive, what is cut from it is Maitah (dead meat) (Sunan Ibn Majah,
Hadith 3216), and the consumption of carcasses are prohibited in Islam.
However, other opinions also exist within the Islamic legal context, such
as that of Abdul Qahir Qamar of the International Islamic Fiqh Academy
(Jeddah, Saudi Arabia), who regards the extraction of stem cells from a
halāl live animal in the same light as the extraction of milk from a live
animal and therefore, does not regard the slaughtering of the animal as a
precondition for allowing the consumption of cultured meat (Qotadah
et al., 2022).
According to Hamdan et al. (2018) the use of FBS from unborn calves
makes cultured meat fall under the category of ‘the use of foetuses’, and
so, the animal carrying the foetus must first be slaughtered, in accor­
dance to Islamic guidelines, in order for the foetal cells to be considered
halāl. Similarly, they suggest that the meat be thoroughly washed from
the serums originating from blood sources before consumption. How­
ever, most scholars prohibit the use of FBS and other blood sources in the
culture medium, based on the Qur’anic prohibition of consuming blood
(Kashim et al., 2022; Qotadah et al., 2022). The development of alter­
natives to FBS should allay these concerns.
Though limited in scope and numbers of participants, a few studies
have investigated the attitudes of Muslims towards cultured meat with
encouraging results. Boereboom et al. (2022) found that British Muslims
were more open to eating cultured meat compared to the average British
population. Lucius (2020) found that while American Muslims were
positively disposed towards cultured meat, factors such as health,
affordability, ethical, economic, and social implications were also
important for them. The key factor was scholarly verdict on the
permissibility of cultured meat (Hamdan et al., 2021). Muslims in
Singapore, the first country to approve cultured meat, also raised reli­
gious concerns and showed that acceptance would be based on halāl
certification of cultured meat (Ho et al., 2023). There is a clear need for
more such studies that reflect views of Muslims from different parts of
the world. As cultured meat increasingly enters the market, more
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023) 480–490
opinions will weigh into the discussion and a more wholesome under­
standing on the matter will reveal itself. But an early opportunity would
be lost for the industry as well as consumers.
6. Conclusions
The Islamic perspective, which is based on the Qur’an and Hadith, is
the same worldwide, but the perspectives (or attitudes) of Muslim
change with geography, which also includes a cultural component to it.
Food itself is very cultural with practices that are acceptable in one re­
gion but not another. But, for an overwhelming majority of Muslims
worldwide, food being halāl is a common denominator. And that is
precisely why we need to understand both the Islamic perspectives and
Muslim attitudes when it comes to contemporary issues such as climate
change and food systems. The exploration of attitudes towards food
consumption, including that of alternative proteins, should be at the
heart of the discourse on both (mal)nutrition and climate change. Only
when we understand the tools as well as the factors that influence and
inform consumer decisions can scientific findings translate into societal
acceptance.
Today the discourse surrounding alternative protein sources does not
seriously consider Muslim perspectives and attitudes on the matter. Of
the few studies that do consider the views of Muslims, the conclusions
are drawn based on small sample sizes and limited geography. Now that
it is firmly established that food systems contribute to global warming
and large numbers of Muslims worldwide suffer from undernutrition
and protein deficiency, more research is needed on Muslim attitudes
towards new foods and alternative protein sources. Furthermore, better
engagement and greater attention is needed from Islamic legal entities
on this subject. Although legal deliberations do exist, they are ambig­
uous and often conflicting, and this calls for a more serious and unified
approach towards climate sustainability and health, which includes
alternative proteins (Tajudeen, 2020). Within this discourse, we
observed the view that argues for the permissibility of alternative pro­
tein food sources on the grounds of ‘tharura’ or necessity and the pres­
ervation of life. It is argued that the dire environmental situation makes
the consumption of alternative proteins, such as insects and cultured
meat, a necessity as we collectively endeavour towards sustainable ap­
proaches to ecology and human health. This line of thought is worthy of
more research in the future.
This paper also highlights that Islamic ethical and moral consider­
ations surrounding consumption and the environment go beyond sci­
entific efforts aimed at reducing global warming and are as concerned
with fulfilling Man’s purpose of acting as God’s steward on Earth and
gaining His favour. From an Islamic perspective, global sustainability is
a matter of great significance that should motivate Muslims to engage
seriously with the discourse on climate change and contribute to adap­
tation and mitigation efforts. While it is not clear if the adoption of more
sustainable food choices will have its desired impact on climate change,
it is imperative that for global sustainability the Muslim world must
become an important partner.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
Dr Sara Kadir helped in the preparation of this article. Imam Ibrahim
Amin and Professor Adil Najam made useful suggestions on the draft. All
are gratefully acknowledged.
S. Jameel Trends in Food Science & Technology 138 (2023) 480–490

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