Journal of International Consumer Marketing

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Consumer Intention to Buy Plant-Based Meat

Alternatives: A Cross-Cultural Analysis

Yousra Bakr, Hayat Al-Bloushi & Mohamed Mostafa

To cite this article: Yousra Bakr, Hayat Al-Bloushi & Mohamed Mostafa (2022): Consumer
Intention to Buy Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: A Cross-Cultural Analysis, Journal of
International Consumer Marketing, DOI: 10.1080/08961530.2022.2122103

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Published online: 14 Sep 2022.

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Journal of International Consumer Marketing
https://doi.org/10.1080/08961530.2022.2122103

Consumer Intention to Buy Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: A

Cross-Cultural Analysis
Yousra Bakra, Hayat Al-Bloushib and Mohamed Mostafac
a
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; bCollege of Business Studies Ardiya Safat, The Public Authority for Applied
Education and Training – PAAET, Kuwait City, Kuwait; cGulf University for Science and Technology, Hawally, Kuwait

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The purpose of this study is to explore factors affecting attitudes toward plant-based meat Plant-based meat alternatives;
alternatives (PBMA) as well as consumer intentions to buy PBMA in Canada as a Western plant-based diet; meat
country and Kuwait as an Arab country. The proposed research model extends the theory attachment; food neophobia;
theory of planned behavior;
of planned behavior (TPB) by incorporating factors such as environmental concerns, health
sustainable food choices
consciousness, and animal welfare, food choice factors (health, sustainability, cruelty-free,
and sensory appeal), meat attachment and food neophobia. Data were collected through
online surveys in Canada (n = 304) and Kuwait (n = 313). The partial least square structural
equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique was used for data analysis and hypotheses testing.
Results show that attitudes, subjective norms, and behavioral control have a significant effect
on purchase intentions. Results also show that environmental concerns, cruelty free as a
food factor choice, meat attachment, and food neophobia significantly affect attitudes toward
PBMA. There were significant differences between Canada and Kuwait in the strength of the
effect of attitude and behavioral control on purchase intentions.

1.  Introduction Counts, n.d.), it is now more vital than ever to

According to the Food and Agriculture
Organization, meat production and consumption
are responsible for several climate and environ-
mental issues (MacLeod et  al. 2013). Livestock
production is a key factor in deforestation where
it accounts for 70% of all agricultural land and
30% of land surface on the planet (Steinfeld et  al.
2006; The Good Food Institute 2019a). Livestock
production produces more emissions than the
transport sector, accounting for 18% of green-
house gas emissions as well as over 60% of
anthropogenic ammonia emissions which con-
tributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosys-
tems (Steinfeld et  al. 2006). Moreover, livestock
production is widely regarded as a major source
of water pollution and a threat to biodiversity
(Steinfeld et  al. 2006; The Good Food Institute
2019a). With meat consumption hovering over
350 million tons per year and forecasted to reach
as high as 570 million tons by 2050 (The World
promote more sustainable food options.
Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMA) are
foods made from plants or plant-derived ingre-
dients, produced in a manner that mimics the
taste, smell, and texture of real meat (Choudhury
et  al. 2020). Popular brands of PBMA include
Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods. When com-
pared to meat production, the production of
PBMA uses 47%–99% less land, emits 30%–90%
less greenhouse gas, uses 72%–99% less water
and causes 51%–91% less water pollution (The
Good Food Institute 2019b). Besides being more
environmentally sustainable, PBMA have—in
many ways—less harmful effects on human health
when compared to meat (Reinberg 2021) and
constitute a tremendous step toward animal wel-
fare (Webber, n.d.). In general, global market
revenues from PBMA have seen an increase from
$3.64 billion in 2016 to $7.75 billion in 2021 and
is forecasted to increase to $16.65 billion in 2026
(Statista 2021). This increase is mainly led by

CONTACT Yousra Bakr yousra.bakr@gmail.com McMaster University, 1280 Main St W, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Ontario, Canada.
© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 Y. BAKR ET AL.
vegan and vegetarian consumers whose numbers
increase year after year (Sentient Media 2021).
However, if regular meat-eaters, who still consti-
tute the majority of the global population, reduce
their meat consumption and substitute meat with
plant-based alternatives just once a week, the
collective impact on the environment, health, and
animal welfare would be immense (Michel et  al.
2021). Accordingly, understanding the motiva-
tions and barriers to the acceptance of PBMA
amongst meat-eaters is of crucial importance.
In recent years, there has been an academic inter-
est in the acceptance of vegan foods, including
PBMA. Published studies explore the motivations
and barriers to reducing meat consumption as well
as adopting vegan and vegetarian lifestyles (Simons
et  al. 2021; Reipurth et  al. 2019). Prior research has
identified primary motivations to adopting
plant-based diets as environmental concerns (Wang
and Scrimgeour 2021; Davitt et al. 2021; Michel et al.
2021), health concerns (Estell, Hughes, and
Grafenauer 2021), as well as animal welfare (Profeta
et  al. 2021; Ploll and Stern 2020). Prior research has
also identified barriers to be meat attachment (Graça,
Calheiros, and Oliveira 2015; Circus and Robison
2019), food neophobia (Wang and Scrimgeour 2021;
Hwang et  al. 2020), among other factors.
While most published studies focus on
European and western countries, there is a lack
of research that explores how consumers in Arab
countries perceive PBMA. There is also a lack of
understanding as to what motivates the adoption
of PBMA in these countries, despite that meat
plays a central role in the region’s food culture.
Increasing urbanization and the consumer shift
toward high-protein and low carb diets have led
to an increase in meat demand, especially in Gulf
countries which host the most affluent consumers
of the Arab region (Zarrouki 2017). For example,
Kuwait was ranked second worldwide in terms
of meat consumption in 2017, with an average
consumption per capita of 119.2 kg (GDN Online
2017). At the same time, the forecasts for the
plant-based market in the MEA region valued at
$240.96 million in 2020 promises a 6.01% increase
from 2021 to 2026 (Mordor Intelligence 2020).
Given this gap in research, the purpose of this
study is to explore the acceptance and purchase
intentions of PBMA in Kuwait, in comparison
to Canada as a Western country. The study
extends the theory of planned behavior by add-
ing variables related to meat attachment, food
neophobia, relevant attitudes toward the envi-
ronment, health, and animal welfare, as well as
several food choice factors. The results of the
study would add to the growing body of litera-
ture on PBMA, and would contribute to under-
standing the readiness of Arab meat-eaters for
mainstream adoption of PBMA. The following
section presents a review of literature and intro-
duces the research model.
2.  Literature review
2.1.  Motivations to adopt a plant-based diet
Motives to adopting a plant-based diet can be
classified into egoistic motives, such as health
benefits, and altruistic motives, such as environ-
mental concerns and animal welfare (Phua, Jin,
and Kim 2020). Attitudes related to these factors
can affect the general attitude toward PBMA.
2.1.1.  Health consciousness
Health consciousness is defined as “the tendency
to focus attention on one’s health” (Iversen and
Kraft 2006). Dietary choices are commonly linked
to health and well-being (Fox and Ward 2008),
and studies have demonstrated a positive rela-
tionship between health consciousness and healthy
food choices. For example, Chen (2009) reports
a positive relationship between health conscious-
ness and attitude toward organic foods. Royne
et  al. (2014) have also reported that health con-
sciousness has a positive effect on attitude toward
dietary supplements. Plant-based products tend
to be associated with being healthy in consumers’
minds (Rondoni et  al. 2021) and health concerns
have been routinely cited as a main motive for
the reduction of meat consumption (Kemper
2020) and for following plant-based diets (Ghaffari
et  al. 2022). This discussion suggests the follow-
ing hypothesis:
H1: Health consciousness has a positive impact on
attitude towards PBMA

Figure 1.  Conceptual model.
2.1.2.  Environmental concern
Dunlap and Jones (2002, p. 485) define
Environmental Concerns as “the degree to which
people are aware of problems regarding the envi-
ronment and support efforts to solve them.”
Research shows that consumers’ environmental
awareness can influence the perceived value of
products and therefore, can influence their choice
of products (Papista and Krystallis 2013). It has
also been shown that consumers with higher con-
cern for the environment were more likely to buy
green products and consider the effect of their
purchases on the environment (Mostafa 2007).
Yadav and Pathak (2016) have also found that
there is a significant positive relationship between
consumers’ environmental concern and their atti-
tudes toward green products. In the context of
plant-based foods, environmental concerns have
been one of the main motives to follow a
plant-based diet which incorporates more sus-
tainable food choices (Profeta et  al. 2021; Michel
et  al. 2021; Fox and Ward 2008). A significant
percentage of those who tried plant-based foods
before believe they are more sustainable and more
environmentally friendly (Davitt et  al. 2021).
Miguel, Coelho, and Bairrada (2020) and Hwang
et  al. (2020) have reported a significant positive
relationship between environmental concerns and
Journal of International Consumer Marketing 3
attitude toward or intention to buy plant-based
food. This discussion suggests the following
hypothesis:
H2: Environmental concerns have a positive impact
on attitude towards PBMA
2.1.3.  Animal welfare
Concerns for animal welfare are one of the most
cited altruistic motives to adopting plant-based
diets (Fox and Ward 2008; Ploll and Stern 2020).
In general, avoidance of animal products is
related to concerns over animal welfare (Izmirli
and Phillips 2011). Since meat consumption is a
behavior associated with attitudinal ambivalence
(Berndsen and van der Pligt 2004), Rothgerber
(2013) have reported several strategies used by
meat-eaters to justify the behavior such as denial
of animal suffering, or the belief that humans are
superior to animals. Similarly, Bilewicz, Imhoff,
and Drogosz (2011) have reported that the per-
ceived level of similarity between animals and
humans is different between consumers who fol-
low an omnivore versus a vegetarian diet, where
meat-eaters “deny animals certain characteristics”
mostly related to secondary emotions such as
love and melancholy. On the other hand, con-
sumers who support anti-speciesism believe that
4 Y. BAKR ET AL.
all species deserve the same moral consideration
and animals should not be consumed for human
benefit (Espinosa and Treich 2021). Accordingly,
consumers with higher attitudes toward animal
welfare are less likely to be meat-eaters than flex-
itarians, which means that attitudes toward ani-
mal welfare might be a strong predictor to one’s
diet (De Backer and Hudders 2015). This discus-
sion suggests the following hypothesis:
H3: Animal welfare concerns have a positive impact
on attitude towards PBMA
2.2.  Food choice measures
Steptoe, Pollard, and Wardle (1995) developed a
measure for motives underlying food choice which
includes nine factors: health, mood, convenience,
sensory appeal, natural content, price,weight con-
trol, familiarity and ethical concerns. Lindeman
and Väänänen (2000) later expanded the scale to
include dimensions related to animal welfare, polit-
ical views, religion, and environmental protection.
Studies utilized dimensions from the food choice
questionnaire to assess motivations for healthy
eating, as well as consumption of green and
organic products (Tandon et  al. 2020). In the con-
text of plant-based foods, Wang and Scrimgeour
(2021) examined the impact of health and envi-
ronmental concerns dimensions on the adoption
of plant-based diets where ethical concerns had
a significant positive impact on willingness to
adopt a more plant-based diet. Similar results
were reported by Haverstock and Forgays (2012)
where animal rights, environmental, and health
dimensions were significant motivating factors for
animal product limiters. Other studies explored
the effect of sensory appeal (taste and texture) on
the acceptance of plant-based foods/diets, and it
was a significant factor affecting food perceptions
and choice (Pandey, Ritz, and Perez-Cueto 2021;
Profeta et  al. 2021). In this study, two dimensions
from the original food choice questionnaire will
be tested—health and sensory appeal—in addition
to animal welfare and sustainability:
H4: Health as a food choice measure has a positive
impact on attitude towards PBMA
H5: Sustainability as a food choice measure has a
positive impact on attitude towards PBMA
H6: Cruelty-free as a food choice measure has a pos-
itive impact on attitude towards PBMA
H7: Sensory appeal (taste, texture, smell and look)
as a food choice measure has a positive impact on
attitude towards PBMA
2.3.  Meat attachment
One of the main barriers against the adoption of
PBMA is known as meat attachment, which is
the affective bond between consumers and meat
(Graça, Calheiros, and Oliveira 2015). Graça,
Calheiros, and Oliveira (2015) developed a meat
attachment questionnaire (MAQ) that consists of
four dimensions: hedonism (meat consumption
as a source of pleasure), affinity (degree of liking
for meat), entitlement (meat consumption as a
human right) and dependence (degree of reliance
on meat consumption). The MAQ was used to
assess consumers’ willingness to reduce meat con-
sumption and adopt a more plant-based diet in
several studies. Graça, Calheiros, and Oliveira
(2015) report that meat attachment has a negative
impact on the willingness to adopt a more
plant-based diet. Similarly, consumers with low
meat attachment are more likely to be following
some form of a plant-based diet, as opposed to
consumers with high meat attachment scores who
are more likely to be meat-eaters (Circus and
Robison 2019). There is also a negative associa-
tion between the level of meat attachment and
meat substitution (Profeta et  al. 2021; Wang and
Scrimgeour 2021; Bryant et  al. 2020). This dis-
cussion suggests the following hypothesis:
H8: Meat attachment has a negative impact on atti-
tude towards PBMA
2.4.  Food neophobia
Food neophobia is the inclination to avoid
unknown foods (Pliner and Hobden 1992). Food
neophobia is considered a barrier to trying for-
eign and new foods (Lähteenmäki and Arvola
2010) which include novel meat substitutes.
Several studies have assessed the impact of food
neophobia on the adoption of meat substitutes
such as plant-based foods, cultured meat, hybrid
meat, and insect-based meat substitutes (Michel
et  al. 2021; Profeta et  al. 2021; Hwang et  al.
2020). Michel et  al. (2021) and Forestell, Spaeth,

and Kane (2012) found that consumers with a
negative attitude toward plant-based diets tend
to have high food neophobia scores, which means
that food neophobia predicts low purchase inten-
tions of plant-based foods (Bryant et  al. 2020).
This discussion suggests the following hypothesis:
H9: Food neophobia has a negative impact on attitude
towards PBMA
2.5.  Theory of planned behavior
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) has been
one of the most influential theories to explain
human behavior since its development (Ajzen
2011). The theory has four main components:
behavior, attitude, subjective norms and behav-
ioral control, where attitude, subjective norms
and behavioral control affect behavioral inten-
tions (Ajzen 1991). The TPB has been used
to explain consumers’ dietary choices includ-
ing the consumption of fruits and vegetables,
organic produce, healthy food, among others
(Yazdanpanah and Forouzani 2015). In the con-
text of plant-based foods, the TPB explains the
adoption of plant-based diets, as well as a variety
of plant-based and vegan products (Wang and
Scrimgeour 2021; Ploll and Stern 2020).
Studies testing the impact of subjective norms
on the adoption of plant-based diets or foods
report inconsistent results. Some studies could
not establish a significant relationship between
social influences and attitudes or social influences
and behavior intention (Pandey, Ritz, and
Perez-Cueto 2021; Miguel, Coelho, and Bairrada
2020). However, de Lanauze and Sirieix (2022)
report that social influences are a crucial factor
in the adoption and maintenance of a plant-based
diet. Wang and Scrimgeour (2021) and Contini
et  al. (2020) also report a significant relationship
between subjective norms and willingness to
adopt a plant-based diet.
Perceived behavioral control is the perceived
difficulty of performing a certain behavior which
is determined by a set of control beliefs or factors
that can facilitate or impede the behavior
(Fishbein and Ajzen 2009). Barriers to the adop-
tion of plant-based foods can include price, famil-
iarity, cooking ability, availability, among others
(Contini et  al. 2020; Aschemann-Witzel et  al.
Journal of International Consumer Marketing 5
2021). There is a significant relationship between
perceived behavioral control and willingness to
adopt a plant-based diet (Wang and Scrimgeour
2021; Pandey, Ritz, and Perez-Cueto 2021). This
discussion suggests the following hypotheses:
H10: Attitude towards PBMA has a positive impact
on intention to buy PBMA
H11: Subjective norms (normative beliefs) have a
positive impact on intention to buy PBMA
H12: Behavioral control (availability, price and cook-
ing ability) has a positive impact on intention to
buy PBMA
2.6.  Multi-group differences
In this study, the researchers choose to compare
between Canada and Kuwait. Based on Hofstede
(2001), there are significant cultural differences
between both countries. Canada has a signifi-
cantly higher score in Individualism (score of 80)
versus a score of 25 in Kuwait. On the other
hand, Kuwait has significantly higher scores in
uncertainty avoidance (score of 80) and power
distance (score of 90) as opposed to 48 and 39
in Canada respectively.
Previous cross-cultural studies on food choices
confirm that cultural aspects affect food choices,
“specifically with individualistic, feminine and
tolerant societies” (Djekic et  al. 2021). In general,
food choice is a behavior that is heavily moder-
ated by norms and culture (Montanari 2006). A
difference in food choice motives is also expected
to exist between different countries. For example,
Phillips et  al. (2012) reported differences between
European and Asian students’ attitudes toward
animal welfare and perceptions of animal rights
as a result of different socio-political situations.
Unlike most western countries, animal welfare is
not yet a political priority in most Middle Eastern
countries (Aidaros 2014), which can affect con-
sumers’ perceptions toward animal welfare, as
well as the effect on purchase decisions and food
choices. Similarly, Rahman and Luomala (2021)
report that differences in the cultural dimension
of individualism versus collectivism have a posi-
tive impact on environmental responsibility which
had a positive effect on the consumption of green
products. Different levels of uncertainty avoidance
6 Y. BAKR ET AL.
would also affect the level of food neophobia,
which can affect the attitudes toward PBMA (Seo,
Kim, and Jang 2018; Djekic et  al. 2021).
Research on the Theory of Planned Behavior
across cultures also reported that the effect of
the different constructs on attitude and behavior
is different in different countries (Hassan, Shiu,
and Parry 2016; Park 2000). A lower score in
individualism is associated with a stronger effect
of subjective norms on behavior intention, as
noted by Park (2000). Similarly, a higher score
in power distance would cause differences in per-
ceived behavioral control as well as subjective
norms as reported by Hassan, Shiu, and Parry
(2016). Therefore, this study proposes that:
H13. There are significant differences in the effect
of PBMA purchase intention between Canada and
Kuwait.
Figure 1 presents the research model with the
hypotheses.
3.  Method
Data were collected via online surveys in Canada
and Kuwait. Data in Canada was collected by
Asking Canadians and data in Kuwait was col-
lected by TGM Research. Participants targeted
were residents of Kuwait or Canada, aged 18 years
or older. The final datasets included 304 partic-
ipants from Canada, and 313 participants from
Kuwait. The Canadian sample was 51% male,
48% female and 1% non-binary, while the Kuwaiti
sample was 56% male, 42% female, 1% non-binary,
and 2% preferred not to say. In Kuwait, 74% of
the participants followed an omnivore diet, and
26% followed a flexitarian diet, while in Canada,
76% followed an omnivore diet and 24% followed
a flexitarian diet. In Canada, 68% have tried
PBMA before versus 47% in Kuwait.
The questionnaire was originally drafted in
English, then translated to Arabic by a researcher
fluent in both languages. To ensure accuracy of
translation, back-to-back translation was used.
Participants were given the choice to choose the
language of preference. All constructs were mea-
sured through 5-point Likert scales except for
Attitude which was measured by a 5-point seman-
tic differential scale. Most scales were adapted
from previous research except for the TPB
constructs which were developed by the research-
ers following the guidelines of Ajzen (2006) and
Francis et  al. (2004) and were validated during the
pretesting stage of the questionnaire. The measure-
ment scale for Health Consciousness is adapted
from Gould (1990). The scale for Environmental
Concerns is adapted from Dunlap and Jones
(2002). The scale for Animal Welfare is from
Miguel, Coelho, and Bairrada (2020) and the scale
for Food Choices factors is adapted from Steptoe,
Pollard, and Wardle (1995). The Meat Attachment
scale is adapted from the original scale developed
by Graça, Calheiros, and Oliveira (2015). Finally,
the Food Neophobia scale is adapted from Pliner
and Hobden (1992). A soft launch was conducted
in both countries for 50 participants each. No
changes were made to the scales since the datasets
yielded acceptable reliability scores. The question-
naire also included questions about the partici-
pants’ demographics, dietary habits, shopping
habits, as well as previous engagement with PBMA.
4.  Results
Following Latif, Perez, and Sahibzada (2020), the
data analysis reported in this study is guided by
the following six steps:
1. Assessing the common/mono method bias.
2. Checking the reliability and validity of the
constructs.
3. Performing the descriptive analysis.
4. Assessing the hypothesized relationships.
5. Performing mediation analysis.
6. Performing multi-group analysis.
To conduct the PLS-SEM analysis, R version
4.1 (R Development Core Team 2021) with
SeminR package was used. We also used IBM
SPSS version 25.0 software package to conduct
the descriptive analysis and the Harman’s single
factor analysis, respectively. We discuss here the
steps outlined above in some detail.
4.1.  Common method bias
Common method bias (CMB) is recognized across
different research fields as a threat to results integ-
rity. This bias occurs “when both the independent

and dependent variables are measured within one
survey, using the same response technique” (Kock,
Berbekova, and Assaf 2021, p. 3). The most com-
mon test for CMB is Harman’s single factor test
(Fuller et  al. 2016). The test suggests that CMB is
present if all measured items produce one factor
accounting for at least 50% of the variance
(Podsakoff et  al. 2003). In this study, Harman’s test
revealed that a single factor explained only 20.84%,
20.83% and 20.44% in the Canadian, Kuwaiti and
overall samples, respectively, which implies that the
CMB does not represent a serious threat to the
integrity of the study results.
4.2.  Reliability and validity
The reliability of the constructs was assessed using
both Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability
(CR). Werts, Linn, and Joreskog (1974) suggested
the use of CR because it is not influenced by the
number of items on the scale. Initial assessment
of the overall sample resulted in eliminating items
with factor loadings lower than 0.6. Table 1 pres-
ents the country-specific and the overall sample
results of scales’ reliability and validity as well as
factor loadings for the remaining items. The table
shows that almost all reliability alpha values are
higher than the recommended threshold of 0.7.
The table also shows that all average variance
extracted (AVE) and CR values are all greater than
or very close to 0.5 and 0.7, respectively. Taken
together, the results reported in Table 1 confirm
the convergent validity of the scales.
Cross-loadings were used to assess discrimi-
nant validity and variance inflation factor (VIF)
was used to assess multicollinearity. All VIF val-
ues were less than the recommended threshold
of 5. All factor loadings are higher than their
cross-loadings, which corroborates discriminant
validity. The heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT)
method proposed by Fornell and Larcker was
also used to assess discriminant validity. Table 2
reports the HTMT results, which also corrobo-
rates the discriminant validity of the scales.
4.3.  Descriptive analysis
Descriptive analysis results revealed striking simi-
larity regarding the perception of plant-based meat
Journal of International Consumer Marketing 7
alternatives between Canada and Kuwait. Most of
the independent sample t-tests conducted yielded
non-significant results between the two samples.
4.4.  Structural model
We assessed the hypothesized direct relationships.
Results are shown in Figure 2 and detailed in
Table 3. Path coefficient estimates with T-stat
above 1.96 and with confidence intervals that do
not include zero are considered significant at 0.05
confidence level. Results show that attitudes
toward PBMA are positively influenced by envi-
ronmental concerns (H2), and Cruelty Free as a
food choice factor (H6) at a significant level. As
expected, there is a significant negative relation-
ship between Meat Attachment and Food
Neophobia and Attitudes, therefore H8 and H9
were supported. Results show negative insignifi-
cant relationships between Health Consciousness,
Animal Welfare, and Health as a food choice
factor, thus H1, H3 and H4 were not supported.
Although the relationships between Attitudes and
Sustainability and Attitudes and Sensory Appeal
as food choice factors were positive, they did not
reach statistical significance at the traditional 0.05
level. Thus, H5 and H7 cannot be supported.
Theory of Planned Behavior relationships were
all significant, where Attitudes toward PBMA,
Normative Beliefs and Behavioral Control had
positive effects on Purchase Intentions, therefore
H10, H11, and H12 were supported. The same
results were reported for both the Canadian and
Kuwaiti samples.
4.5.  Mediation analysis
For the overall sample results show that, apart
from the insignificant mediation between animal
welfare and purchase intention and between sus-
tainability and purchase intention, all other medi-
ated relationships are statistically significant. The
findings for each country-specific analysis seem
to generally agree with the results reported for
the overall sample. For example, for the Canadian
sample, the mediating role of meat attachment,
food neophobia, health consciousness, and
cruelty-free are all significant. Roughly the same
findings were reported in the Kuwaiti sample.
8 Y. BAKR ET AL.

Table 1. Factor loadings, reliability and convergent validity.

Canada Kuwait Overall
Λ Alpha CR AVE Λ Alpha CR AVE Λ Alpha CR AVE
HC1 0.910 0.906 0.929 0.727 0.761 0.857 0.890 0.617 0.856 0.878 0.911 0.672
HC2 0.909 0.795 0.846
HC3 0.896 0.805 0.841
HC4 0.874 0.796 0.838
HC5 0.646 0.770 0.710
EC1 0.727 0.863 0.902 0.650 0.749 0.757 0.822 0.481 0.708 0.807 0.866 0.565
EC2 0.875 0.693 0.808
EC3 0.838 0.692 0.777
EC4 0.880 0.602 0.757
EC5 0.692 0.721 0.702
AW1 0.741 0.838 0.892 0.674 0.844 0.858 0.904 0.702 0.814 0.848 0.897 0.686
AW2 0.860 0.829 0.844
AW3 0.856 0.870 0.856
AW4 0.822 0.807 0.797
S1 0.959 0.912 0.958 0.919 0.948 0.852 0.930 0.870 0.951 0.883 0.944 0.895
S2 0.959 0.917 0.941
H1 0.918 0.897 0.916 0.734 0.848 0.883 0.918 0.738 0.864 0.887 0.921 0.745
H2 0.919 0.896 0.889
H3 0.709 0.806 0.807
H4 0.865 0.883 0.889
CF1 0.949 0.854 0.931 0.871 0.932 0.793 0.905 0.826 0.940 0.820 0.916 0.845
CF2 0.918 0.886 0.899
SA1 0.836 0.867 0.890 0.674 0.721 0.865 0.890 0.671 0.830 0.866 0.906 0.708
SA2 0.609 0.791 0.802
SA3 0.914 0.867 0.868
SA4 0.889 0.887 0.862
MA1 0.735 0.869 0.896 0.522 0.747 0.857 0.885 0.494 0.735 0.860 0.888 0.500
MA10 0.759 0.725 0.744
MA11 0.731 0.754 0.743
MA12 0.770 0.669 0.712
MA2 0.791 0.748 0.759
MA3 0.804 0.760 0.775
MA6 0.577 0.551 0.573
MA9 0.574 0.640 0.584
FN1 0.792 0.854 0.886 0.570 0.814 0.637 0.737 0.340 0.800 0.760 0.810 0.436
FN2 0.630 0.400 0.399
FN4 0.863 0.678 0.820
FN5 0.881 0.675 0.827
FN6 0.697 0.315 0.450
FN8 0.625 0.447 0.507
A1 0.939 0.934 0.958 0.883 0.893 0.873 0.922 0.797 0.918 0.906 0.941 0.842
A2 0.926 0.873 0.901
A3 0.953 0.913 0.933
BC1 0.681 0.664 0.815 0.597 0.758 0.723 0.842 0.639 0.677 0.688 0.823 0.610
BC2 0.786 0.794 0.816
BC3 0.841 0.845 0.840
NB1 0.935 0.892 0.933 0.823 0.882 0.881 0.927 0.809 0.916 0.894 0.934 0.825
NB2 0.929 0.926 0.932
NB3 0.855 0.890 0.876
PI1 0.954 0.958 0.973 0.922 0.922 0.916 0.947 0.856 0.943 0.944 0.964 0.899
PI2 0.968 0.941 0.959
PI3 0.958 0.913 0.943

4.6.  Multi-group analysis 5.  Discussion

Finally, we tested whether there is a significant 5.1.  Predictors of attitude toward PBMA
difference between Canada and Kuwait regarding
This study attempted to explore the acceptance
the intention to buy plant-based meat alternatives.
and purchase intentions of PBMA in Kuwait and
The results show that significant differences were
Canada. Besides the TPB framework, the research
only found for attitudes and behavioral control,
model tested the effects of relevant attitudes
otherwise, all other differences were not signifi-
(health consciousness, environmental concerns
cant, implying that H13 cannot be accepted at the
and animal welfare) as well as food choice factors
traditional 0.05 significance level. This result might
(health, sustainability, cruelty free, and sensory
indicate that the plant-based meat alternatives are
appeal) and meat attachment and food neophobia
perceived quite similarly in Canada and Kuwait.
Table 2.  Discriminant validity—Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT)—Overall sample.
HC EC AW S H CF SA MA FN A BC NB PI
Health Consciousness (HC)
Environmental Concerns (EC) 0.595
Animal Welfare (AW) 0.561 0.741
Sustainability (S) 0.491 0.519 0.558
Health (H) 0.647 0.490 0.522 0.717
Cruelty Free (CF) 0.459 0.548 0.713 0.837 0.646
Sensory Appeal (SA) 0.452 0.459 0.604 0.521 0.672 0.531
Meat Attachment (MA) 0.161 0.155 0.162 0.163 0.177 0.160 0.270
Food Neophobia (FN) 0.370 0.310 0.321 0.253 0.337 0.266 0.260 0.224
Attitude (A) 0.134 0.348 0.249 0.290 0.148 0.335 0.125 0.393 0.252
Behavioral Control (BC) 0.308 0.226 0.153 0.222 0.313 0.219 0.138 0.113 0.406 0.361
Normative Beliefs (NB) 0.066 0.100 0.069 0.266 0.103 0.194 0.042 0.145 0.142 0.283 0.189
Purchase Intentions (PI) 0.204 0.330 0.279 0.411 0.289 0.376 0.160 0.412 0.285 0.720 0.428 0.427
Journal of International Consumer Marketing
9
10 Y. BAKR ET AL.

Table 3.  Direct relationships: path coefficient estimates, significance, and hypotheses results.
Canada Kuwait Overall sample
Hypotheses
β T β T β T results
H1. Health consciousness → attitude −0.068 −0.953 −0.095 −1.305 −0.104 2.165 Rejected
H2. Environmental concerns → attitude 0.318 4.536 0.210 3.343 0.202 4.314 Confirmed
H3. Animal welfare → attitude −0.020 −0.292 −0.125 −1.693 −0.047 −0.909 Rejected
H4. Health → attitude −0.168 −2.178 −0.015 −0.168 −0.105 −2.002 Rejected
H5. Sustainability → attitude −0.043 −0.534 0.027 0.306 0.080 1.528 Rejected
H6. Cruelty free → attitude 0.163 2.281 0.185 2.408 0.140 2.853 Confirmed
H7. Sensory appeal → attitude 0.069 0.856 0.057 0.569 0.075 1.599 Rejected
H8. Meat attachment → attitude −0.353 −6.785 −0.348 −7.376 −0.360 −10.770 Confirmed
H9. Food neophobia → attitude −0.248 −4.334 −0.161 −3.159 −0.201 −4.947 Confirmed
H10. Attitude -> purchase intentions 0.648 16.275 0.452 9.239 0.562 17.468 Confirmed
H11. Normative beliefs -> purchase 0.183 4.012 0.184 3.212 0.224 6.547 Confirmed
intentions
H12. Behavioral control -> purchase 0.096 2.560 0.287 5.945 0.157 4.910 Confirmed
intentions

Figure 2.  Path diagram of significant relationships in the structural model—overall sample. Dashed lines indicate non-significant
coefficients.

on attitudes toward PBMA. Results revealed that
Meat Attachment had the strongest significant
effect on Attitudes toward PBMA (β = −0.360
in overall sample) where the relationship was
negative. Similar results were reported separately
in Canada and Kuwait at β values of −0.353 and
−0.348 respectively. These results are consistent
with previous research on meat attachment and
its effect on willingness for substitution (Profeta
et  al. 2021; Wang and Scrimgeour 2021; Bryant
et  al. 2020). In general, meat has a strong pres-
ence in both Arab and Western cuisines (Hamdan
et  al. 2021). Meat is perceived as a source of plea-
sure and meat consumption is associated with a

sense of entitlement and perceived as an “unques-
tionable right” (Graça et  al. 2015). Therefore,
this result is not surprising. Similarly, the pres-
ent results report a significant negative effect of
Food Neophobia on Attitudes toward PBMA (β =
−0.201 in the overall sample). Food neophobia is
generally associated with willingness to try new
experiences as well as consumption of vegetables
and healthier diets (Forestell, Spaeth, and Kane
2012). Individuals with a high food neophobia
score tend to consume less fruits and vegetables
as reported by Costa, Silva, and Oliveira (2020),
which explains the results of the present study.
This study highlights the effect of concerns
about the environment as an altruistic motive
to the adoption of PBMA. The results report
that Environmental Concerns had a significant
positive effect on Attitudes toward PBMA
(β = 0.202 in the overall sample). This result is
consistent with previous studies related to the
adoption of more sustainable products, includ-
ing green and plant-based foods (Profeta et  al.
2021; Michel et  al. 2021; Mostafa 2007). Despite
that, it appears that Sustainability is not yet a
major decisive factor for food choice where the
relationship between Sustainability as a food
choice factor and Attitudes toward PBMA was
not significant. Surprisingly, other motives like
Health Consciousness and Animal Welfare had
a negative effect on Attitudes toward PBMA at
a nonsignificant level. The negative relationship
between Health Consciousness and Attitude
infer that in both Canada and Kuwait, the sam-
ples may be perceiving meat as a healthier alter-
native and a main source of dietary protein,
when compared to PBMA. This is consistent
with what Haverstock and Forgays (2012)
reported about health concerns being one of
the reasons why former vegetarians brought
back meat into their diet. Similarly, the negative
(nonsignificant) relationship between Animal
Welfare and Attitudes may be explained by meat
consumers having a sense of entitlement to eat-
ing meat, and perceiving animal slaughter as a
natural part of an animal’s purpose in life
(Bilewicz, Imhoff, and Drogosz 2011; Rothgerber
2013). Despite that, results report that Cruelty
Free as a food choice factor had a significant
positive effect on Attitude toward PBMA
Journal of International Consumer Marketing 11
(β = 0.140 in the overall sample). This empha-
sizes the proposition that attitude toward meat
consumption is an ambivalent attitude (Berndsen
and van der Pligt 2004) where consumers don’t
perceive eating meat as harmful to animal wel-
fare, yet their attitude toward PBMA tends to
be—in part—predicted by considering cruelty
free as a food choice factor.
5.2.  Theory of planned behavior and purchase
intention of PBMA
The results of the study strongly emphasize the
applicability of the Theory of Planned Behavior
in predicting willingness to buy PBMA. Results
show that Attitude toward PBMA is the strongest
predictor of Purchase Intentions (β = 0.562 in the
overall sample). This matches previous studies
where attitudes had a positive significant effect
on purchase intentions of plant-based yogurt
alternatives (Pandey, Ritz, and Perez-Cueto 2021),
and on following a plant-based diet (Wang and
Scrimgeour 2021). Our results also show a sig-
nificant positive relationship between Subjective
Norms and Purchase Intentions, which supports
previous research on the effect of subjective
norms on food choices and dietary behaviors (de
Lanauze and Sirieix 2022; Contini et  al. 2020).
Finally, our results report a positive relationship
between Behavioral Control and Attitude toward
PBMA, where the study particularly addressed
PBMA availability, affordability, and cooking abil-
ity. These results also match results reported by
previous studies (Wang and Scrimgeour 2021;
Pandey, Ritz, and Perez-Cueto 2021). When
assessing differences between the Canadian and
Kuwaiti samples, Subjective norms had a slightly
stronger influence on Attitudes in Kuwait versus
Canada, which supports results reported by Park
(2000) that lower scores in individualism are
associated with stronger effect of subjective norms
on behavior, despite that our multi-group analysis
revealed that the difference between both coun-
tries did not reach a significant level. On the
other hand, multi-group analysis revealed that
there is a significant difference in the relationship
between Attitudes and Intentions, and Behavioral
Control and Intentions between Canada and
Kuwait, where in Canada there was a relatively
12 Y. BAKR ET AL.
higher effect of Attitude on Purchase Intention
and in Kuwait there was a relatively higher influ-
ence of Behavioral Control on Purchase Intentions.
This matches evidence reported by Hassan, Shiu,
and Parry (2016), that cross-country variations
exist in the effect of Attitude and Perceived
Behavioral control on Purchase Intentions.
6.  Implications and recommendations
6.1.  Marketing Implications
Despite that results show an above average accep-
tance of PBMA in both Kuwait and Canada,
there seems to be barriers to the acceptance of
plant-based meat substitutes. With the rise in the
number of vegans and vegetarians in the MENA
region, and with the increase in the availability
of PBMA in the markets, it is crucial to under-
stand how consumers in Arab countries perceive
these products and what factors predict their
acceptance. One major barrier is meat attach-
ment, whose roots are deeply embedded into the
food culture in both Arab and Western countries.
Therefore, marketing efforts should be directed
toward presenting PBMA as an equivalent substi-
tute to meat in terms of sensory appeal, cooking
methods, as well as eating rituals, which can con-
vince consumers with high meat attachment to
view these products as a satisfactory substitute to
meat. Another major barrier to the adoption of
PBMA is subjective norms. Unfortunately, since
meat consumption is considered as the accepted
food norm in society, this may hinder efforts
for convincing the larger segment of meat eat-
ers to substitute meat with PBMA. Accordingly,
marketers need to capitalize on the minority
influence. In this situation, using celebrities and
well-known influencers can act as a catalyst for
attitude change.
As for motivators, more efforts should be
directed toward educating consumers about the
environmental effects of meat production versus
plant-based alternatives to capitalize on the effect
of environmental concerns on attitudes toward
PBMA. It seems that for meat eaters, other
motives like Animal Welfare and Health
Consciousness do not seem to have a significant
effect on attitudes toward PBMA at the present
time. Yet, the results imply that consumers tend
to perceive PBMA as a less healthy alternative
than Meat which can act as a barrier to the adop-
tion of PBMA in the future. This calls for increas-
ing awareness about the negative health effects of
exaggerated meat consumption, which can also
help with reducing consumer attachment to meat.
Most importantly, the significant effect of behav-
ioral control on purchase intentions calls for
increasing awareness of PBMA and supplementing
the market with the necessary information to
increase consumers’ self-efficacy to purchase these
products, including making PBMA more available
and more affordable to the average consumer.
6.2.  Theoretical implications and future research
The present study has a number of theoretical and
research implications. First, the study addresses a
research gap which is the lack of research on the
acceptance of Arab consumers of more sustainable
food choices like PBMA. Previous studies on the
region have focused on organic and green foods
as well as agri-food products (Timpanaro et  al.
2022; Mostafa 2007) and—to our knowledge—
there are no studies exploring the acceptance of
PBMA as a sustainable food choice in the Arab
region, which makes this study novel. The results
of the present study support the cultural relevance
of the TPB framework, the meat attachment and
the food neophobia scales, and the applicabil-
ity of our research model to different cultures.
Despite that food is heavily moderated by culture,
the present study infers that the acceptance of
PBMA as well as the predictors of attitude toward
PBMA seem to be universal in nature, since the
multi-group analysis did not reveal significant
differences between Kuwait and Canada across
the majority of the model relationships.
Future research can assess the applicability of
the model on other countries in the MENA
region, with more focus on how subcultural fac-
tors like religion would affect the acceptance of
PBMA. The results also reveal a number of find-
ings that need further exploration. The negative
relationship between Health Consciousness and
Attitudes toward PBMA calls for further research
on how consumers perceive PBMA from a health
perspective, in comparison to meat. The

significant relationship between subjective norms
and purchase intentions also calls for future
research on the effect of minority influence when
it comes to the adoption of PBMA, in compar-
ison to the majority influence of society’s norms.
7.  Limitations
Despite that the use of survey panels have advan-
tages including cost effectiveness, fast data col-
lection, and international reach (Hays, Liu, and
Kapteyn 2015), it restricted the samples to the
internet population, which is a limitation of this
study. Another limitation is the use of scales that
were originally developed for English-speaking
populations when conducting research in an
Arabic speaking country like Kuwait. However,
given the scarcity of research on the MENA
region, this choice was necessary, and to ensure
the scales validity and reliability, back-to-back
translation and pretesting were employed.
Conducting a cross-sectional study can also be
a potential limitation, especially when assess-
ing attitudes toward foods. Some foods have an
acquired taste, and food neophobia decrease and
attitudes improve as familiarity with the foods
increase over time. This means that a longitudinal
study would be recommended for future research.
Authors’ contributions
Yousra Bakr: conceptualization, writing original draft; Hayat
Al-Bloushi: methodology and data collection; Mohamed
Mostafa: data analysis, supervision. All authors participated
equally.
Availability of data
The data that support the findings of this study are openly
available in 4TU.ResearchData at http://doi.org/10.4121/20067578,
http://doi.org/10.4121/20067581, http://doi.org/10.4121/20067584.
Other tables will be provided by the researchers upon request.
Compliance with ethical standards
The authors have no potential conflict of interests to dis-
close. This study has been reviewed and approved by the
McMaster Research Ethical Board (MREB) at McMaster
University to ensure compliance with the Tri-Council Policy
Statement and the McMaster Policies and Guidelines for
Research Involving Human Participants.
Journal of International Consumer Marketing 13
Consent to participate
All participants involved in this research have provided
informed consent as part of filling out the questionnaire.
Consent to publish
All authors approved the final version of the manuscript
and consent to publish in the JICM.
Disclosure statement
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial
interests to disclose.
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