Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Rural Studies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jrurstud

Rural cooperatives in the digital age: An analysis of the Internet presence

and degree of maturity of agri-food cooperatives' e-commerce
Eduard Cristobal-Fransi∗, Yolanda Montegut-Salla, Berta Ferrer-Rosell, Natalia Daries
Dept. Business Management, University of Lleida, C/ Jaume II, 73, CP. 25001, Lleida, Spain

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The aim of this article is to determine whether the websites belonging to agri-food cooperatives facilitate ef-
Agro-food cooperatives fective communication in an online environment and are adapted to e-commerce. To this end, a model is pro-
e-Commerce posed for analysing these websites based on the content analysis method, and structured according to the fol-
Web content analysis lowing dimensions: Information, Communication, E-Commerce and Additional Functions. In addition, eMICA
eMICA model
methodology (extended Model of Internet Commerce Adoption) is applied to study the degree of maturity of this
Web 2.0
type of organization. The two methods are ultimately integrated with a principal component analysis (PCA). The
model was applied to 104 cooperatives with an online presence. The results indicate that although oil co-
operatives are better prepared than their wine and fruit counterparts, all of these companies still have a long way
to go when it comes to facilitating effective communication and interaction with their target public. The the-
oretical contribution of the article, its implications for management, the limitations of the study and future lines
of research are also presented.

1. Introduction
The current globalized environment and increase in the dis-
semination and use of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) have led to major changes in society in general and in companies
in particular, giving rise to the so-called Information Society (Laudon
and Traver, 2017).
The main uses that companies make of social networks are their
integration into marketing strategies and for contacting and informing
customers (Hofacker and Belanche, 2016). Therefore, one of the po-
tential uses of ICTs for companies is better access to foreign trade
(Burstein and Vogel, 2017; Ming et al., 2017), since e-commerce has
reduced transaction costs and facilitated contact between users from
any part of the world by eliminating the geographical barriers that
existed in traditional commerce (Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2015). Thus,
the use of ICTs is important for organizations, companies and of course
cooperatives. Due to their limited human and financial resources, the
latter only enjoy restricted access to the international market, in-
formation and communication technologies being essential in mini-
mizing these effects (Galloway et al., 2011).
The present study is framed within this context. There are two main
reasons for analysing the web presence and level of maturity in e-
commerce use in agroindustrial cooperatives (olive oil, fruit and wine)
in Catalonia: firstly, due to the economic weight and social status of
cooperatives in Spain. Agricultural cooperatives represent an important
part of the economic activity in the Spanish agri-food sector, with a
turnover of €28.99 billion in 2016. Agri-food cooperatives comprise
3,740 companies and 1,150,341 members throughout the country,
providing employment for more than 100,831 workers, mostly in rural
areas, which makes them an economic, social and cultural engine in
rural and sparsely populated areas of the country. This sector represents
around 10% of Spanish GDP. Of the 3,740 agri-food cooperatives, 712
are located in Andalusia, 437 in Castilla-La Mancha, 354 in Castilla y
León, 339 in Valencia, 311 in Catalonia and the rest are distributed
among the rest of the regions. Catalonia is the fifth most important
region, with an annual turnover of 7.1% of the total (Oscae, 2017). The
second reason is the importance of these organizations as a means of
contributing to economic, social and environmental development in a
sustainable and responsible manner, as their activity is based on the use
of endogenous resources in the area, creating stable employment, which
constitutes progress in rural areas, achieving a better redistribution of
resources and providing more effective services of a social nature
(Iliopoulos and Valentinov, 2018; Sanchís et al., 2015).
E-commerce consists of the purchasing and selling of products or
services through electronic systems, such as computer networks and the
Internet (Kasemsap, 2018). It has become one of the preferred ways of

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ecristobal@aegern.udl.cat (E. Cristobal-Fransi), ymontegut@aegern.udl.cat (Y. Montegut-Salla), berta.ferrer@aegern.udl.cat (B. Ferrer-Rosell),
ndaries@aegern.udl.cat (N. Daries).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.11.011
Received 8 May 2019; Received in revised form 21 October 2019; Accepted 7 November 2019
0743-0167/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Eduard Cristobal-Fransi, et al., Journal of Rural Studies, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.11.011
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al.
shopping by users, since its ease and convenience. Therefore, co-
operatives as an industry focused on the consumer cannot ignore this
way of commercialization. Some studies demonstrate that E-commerce
has become an important factor in determining the future survival of
organizations (Holsapple and Singh, 2000).
As we have previously commented, the online buyer mainly seeks to
optimally manage the purchase process (Anesbury et al., 2016). The
online shopping experience significantly increases the consumer's in-
tention to use the Internet to purchase products (Soopramanien, 2011).
In this way, it is justified that cooperatives have an optimal online
presence.
Thus, the need arises to conduct a study into the use of e-commerce
and the Internet in the context described, the aim being to analyse agri-
food cooperatives' use of new technologies, focusing on producers of
olive oil, fruit and wine to determine the main factors that condition
their behaviour on the Net.
The main aim of this work, then, is to analyse the websites of
agricultural cooperatives in Catalonia to determine whether they take
advantage of the possibilities offered by the Internet and Web 2.0. The
Web 2.0 tools facilitate the transmission of information, interoper-
ability and collaboration among users such as: Social Networks, Wikis,
Blogs, Video hosting sites, online sales pages, Podcasts, among others
(O'Really, 2005). This exploratory type research will allow us to ex-
amine the current situation of the websites in this type of industrial
facility in depth. Few studies in Spain have identified these aspects from
a marketing perspective and with this level of detail applied to the
sector of the social economy and cooperativism.
Therefore, this study aims to achieve the following objectives:
- To propose an integral model for evaluating the Internet presence of
agroindustrial cooperatives based on four content variables
(Information, Communication, E-Commerce and Additional
Functions), as well as an analysis of their level of maturity in con-
ducting e-commerce based on the eMICA model. Finally, both web-
analysis methods are integrated by means of a principal component
analysis.
- To use the proposed model to analyse the websites of all the agri-
cultural cooperatives with an online presence in Catalonia (104).
- To provide recommendations and suggestions for a more efficient
management of the online presence of agricultural cooperatives,
determine the extent to which they use the potential of ICTs for
marketing and communication with their publics via their websites
and provide practical recommendations for improvement.
2. The agro-industrial sector and the Internet
Technological development has influenced all of the productive
sectors, including those pertaining to olive oil (Fernández Uclés et al.,
2016; Giagnocavo et al., 2017), winegrowing (Gil et al., 2015; Roselli
et al., 2016) and horticulture (Granollers et al., 2013; Zheng et al.,
2019), thereby improving cooperatives' internal processes. As compa-
nies that act in markets, cooperatives cannot and should not be left
behind. If these organizations wish to retain their place in the market
and compete successfully with other economic sectors, they need to be
at the forefront of this technological revolution (Bernal Jurado et al.,
2018; Luo and Hu, 2015; Mathur and Ambani, 2005; Montegut et al.,
2013; Zeng et al., 2017).
If we focus on oil sector, Klonaris and Agiangkatzoglou (2018) ad-
dressed different aspects of the olive oil export process from a multi-
disciplinary perspective, analysing elements of competitiveness in dif-
ferent markets in which ICT use occupies a relevant place. As Perlines
et al. (2013) pointed out, the Internet provides cooperatives with a
powerful tool with regard to participation and managing organizational
knowledge, enabling the capturing, processing and use of data wher-
ever necessary and in the conditions required by users. This allows a
decentralization of the information needed to take decisions, making it
2
Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
available where problems arise, giving quick solutions, and gaining in
agility and responsiveness. At the same time, e-commerce via the In-
ternet offers an important instrument to help these organizations fulfil
some of their main functions, such as promoting, coordinating and
developing common economic goals with their partners and strength-
ening and integrating their economic activity (Burke and Sewake, 2008;
Zhang et al., 2018).
Regarding the wine sector, Neilson and Madill (2014) analysed how
the websites of wineries located in different wine regions in five
countries had a great influence on attracting visitors and increasing
sales. Kolb and Thach (2016) studied the adoption of Web 2.0 and so-
cial networks by German wineries, with the aim of determining the
impact of winery size on the use of social networks and response time to
consumer emails.
The results showed a relatively low adoption of Web 2.0 (27%) by
German wineries, size being relevant in explaining a higher level of ICT
use. If we focus on the use of social networks, we find that both wineries
and wine are complex products, which consumers frequently search for
more information about before buying (Szolnoki et al., 2018). These
authors investigated the adoption of social networks and Web 2.0 ac-
tivities in wineries located in Germany, the United States, New Zealand
and Australia. The results showed that Facebook was the main platform
wineries used to interact with consumers, but that reasons for con-
sulting the wineries' profile on social networks were very diverse.
Finally, we find different studies related to the horticultural sector,
such as that carried out by Montegut and Cristobal-Fransi (2012), re-
viewing different aspects of managing Catalan sweet fruit cooperatives;
Campos-Climent et al. (2012), studied the influence of ICT in front of
the challenges of globalization and trade liberalization; or the one
conducted by Granollers et al. (2013), which included a usability
analysis on the websites of agro-food cooperatives in the fruit sector.
The results of the latter study showed that, generally speaking, the
websites of this type of organization are used more to inform users
about aspects of the cooperative such as its history, presentation, fa-
cilities, what products it sells or how it sells them than using the ICT
platform to sell the product itself. They also found an improbable level
of usability. From the point of view of demand, Jin et al. (2017) carried
out an investigation into customers' preferences when buying fresh fruit
over the Internet. Results showed that the diversity of product offered
and its certification had significant effects on willingness to pay,
especially for products labelled “green” and “organic”.
Several studies show that information exchange is a fundamental
tool in managing cooperatives, since as well as the same aspects as any
other company, they must also deal with internal ones linked to rela-
tions with members (Jafar and Eshghi, 2011). Generally speaking, ICTs
help to coordinate resources, activities and those people that interact in
the relationships the cooperative maintains with different parties, both
intraorganizational (members and employees) and interorganizational
(clients, suppliers, representative bodies, administration, competitors,
society and other interest groups).
Bachev (2016) stated that the characteristics of cooperatives, based
on democratic ownership and a control formula supported by their
principles and values, offer a type of management that is in accordance
with the requirements of the Knowledge Society. In line with this,
Giagnocavo et al. (2017) indicated that the specific characteristics of
cooperative enterprises, which derive from cooperative principles,
could offer opportunities above and beyond the positive effects of using
ICTs to obtain competitive advantages.
3. Methodology
Due to the great importance websites have for organizations as
elements of communication and representation, developing an ade-
quate methodology to evaluate their ideal characteristics is a subject of
great interest to researchers and professionals. Furthermore, a review of
the literature reveals that different authors corroborate the lack of a
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al.
universally recognized methodology for evaluating websites (Bauer and
Scharl, 2000; Camprubí and Coromina, 2016; Gonçalves et al., 2018;
Herring, 2009; Law et al., 2010).
The methods most widely used in research to evaluate websites are
mainly based on surveys, experimental evaluation and content analysis
(Chiou et al., 2010). According to Law et al. (2010), the methodological
approaches most commonly used in research for measuring websites
can be divided into five different types: 1) the accounting method; 2)
the automatic method; 3) the numerical computing method; 4) the user
opinion method; and 5) the combined method. The accounting method
is used in the current investigation as it is one of the most adopted
instruments to evaluate websites (Law et al., 2010). This is an ad-
vantage, since having many previous studies it is easy to draw up a
complete list of attributes to evaluate. Another advantage is that re-
search is applied to the agri-food cooperative sector, and as shown in
this paper, most of the cooperatives have an Internet presence. This
situation facilitates access to its websites and, therefore, to obtaining
information.
Regarding the analysis, numerous studies refer to a series of four
major types of indicator: technical, commercial, content-related and
design-related (Benbunan-Fich, 2001; Chiou et al., 2010; Cristobal-
Fransi et al., 2017a). From a market orientation perspective, however,
websites are evaluated by identifying users as potential clients, which is
why evaluators focus more on aspects related to the promotion of ac-
tivities, online transactions and details regarding products and services
(Álvarez Díaz, 2014). In the present work, we have chosen to adopt this
research perspective.
As Fig. 1 shows, our methodological model includes both Web
Fig. 1. Design of the research process.
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Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Content Analysis and the eMICA adapted to agrarian cooperatives. The
variables used to evaluate the extent to which e-commerce has been
adopted by the cooperatives' websites were adapted from the eMICA
model and selected through the literature review. In turn, it was also
decided that in order to move from one level to another and consolidate
its position, a website must have a minimum number of attributes
(Álvarez Díaz, 2014; Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2018; Daries et al., 2018).
Therefore, a website will only move onto the next level if it includes the
variables corresponding to the previous level or layer. The scale is di-
chotomous for all variables (web content analysis dimensions and at-
tributes of eMICA levels).
The analysis focused on the websites belonging to olive oil, fruit and
wine cooperatives in Catalonia. In order to achieve the proposed aims,
the websites of all cooperatives included in the Federation of
Cooperatives of Catalonia (FCAC) were analysed. After discarding those
that did not have a functioning website, 104 websites were obtained out
of a total of 158 cooperatives. Therefore, the first notable finding is that
only 65.8% of Catalan cooperatives have an online presence. As already
mentioned, the aim is to analyse the use cooperatives make of this web
presence including ecommerce performance. The fieldwork was carried
out between November 2018 and January 2019.
3.1. Web content analysis (WCA)
In order to develop a model to structure the web content analysis in
line with agricultural cooperatives, a review of the existing literature
was carried out (Álvarez Díaz, 2014; Camprubí and Coromina, 2016;
Lee and Morrison, 2010; Lim et al., 2009; Platania, 2014; Rekik et al.,
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al.
Table 1
Proposed model for web content analysis.
Source: Authors' own data.
Variables Definition
Information This dimension evaluates the information available on the agricultural
cooperatives' websites and how easy it is for the user to find it.
Communication This dimension measures the website's capacity to interact with customers,
whether through communication mechanisms, Web 2.0 resources or the
availability of information in different languages.
E-commerce This dimension evaluates how safe it is to carry out commercial activities on
the website.
Additional functions This dimension measures the website's capacity to transmit security through
data protection elements and certifications and the use of new media such as
the mobile version of the website or apps.
2018), on the basis of which the following model is proposed (see
Table 1). This model provides us with an overview of the resources
cooperatives have on their websites that allow users to obtain in-
formation and interact with them, whether for the purpose of e-com-
merce activities (product sales, tourist visits, services for partners, etc.)
or to ask questions on a secure platform that guarantees compliance
with the quality standards of a website.
The presented model is composed of four variables of analysis for
each website: Information, Communication, E-Commerce, and
Additional Functions, as shown in Table 1. Each of the variables has its
own categories and items to be evaluated. The evaluation indicators are
shown in Tables 2–5 for the variables of Information, Communication,
E-Commerce and Other Functions, respectively. In line with that pro-
posed by Neuendorf (2016), the process of content analysis was de-
signed following eight steps:
Table 2
List of categories and items for the Information variable (I).
Source: Authors' own data.
INFORMATION VARIABLE
1. Information
I.1.1- Description of the cooperative (address, number and information about
members, origin, history, etc.)
I.1.2- Contact: phone number, fax or e-mail
I.1.3- Images of the cooperative
I.1.4- Visual and written information about the products offered, their different
qualities and their price
I.1.5- News/events communication
I.1.6- Information about the location of the cooperative
I.1.7- Web links for agri-food products (olive oil, fruit or wine)
I.1.8. Virtual tour
I.1.9. Opening hours of cooperative or agro-store
2. Facilities
I.2.1- Location of plantation (olive groves, orchards or vineyards)
I.2.2- Information on the climate being suitable for growing a quality product on the
plantation (olive groves, orchards or vineyards)
I.2.3- Information on the processes followed to make the product
I.2.4- Information on the different areas where the cooperative operates
I.2.5- Information about the store/s or final distribution channels
3. Surrounding area
I.3.1- Links to different areas of the Web with information about olive groves,
orchards or vineyards, their beauty and history
I.3.2- Tourist information about the area (tourist attractions, weather, etc.)
I.3.3- Links to other related businesses (e.g. restaurants in the area, food fairs …)
4. Promotion
I.4.1- Promotions of events, advertisements, banners, fairs, promotion calendar and
brand events
I.4.2- Incentives: vouchers/coupons, exclusive Internet offers, online competitions,
promotions for different products
I.4.3- Information on guided tours (schedules, rates, contact)
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Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Authors
Álvarez Díaz (2014), Carmona et al. (2012), Chiou et al. (2010),
Cristobal-Fransi et al. (2018), Daries et al. (2018), Davidson (2007),
Escobar and Carvajal (2013), Granollers et al. (2013), Heinze and Hu
(2006), Lee and Morrison (2010), Liao et al. (2006), Robbins and
Stylianou (2003)
Álvarez Díaz (2014), Chiou et al. (2010), Cristobal-Fransi et al. (2018),
Daries et al. (2018), Davidson (2007), Escobar and Carvajal (2013),
Heinze and Hu (2006), Lee and Morrison (2010), Walcott (2007)
Álvarez Díaz (2014), Chiou et al. (2010), Cristobal-Fransi et al. (2018),
Daries et al. (2018), Escobar and Carvajal (2013), Lee and Morrison
(2010), Ting et al. (2013)
Álvarez Díaz (2014), Cristobal-Fransi et al. (2018), Daries et al. (2018),
Davidson (2007), Ting et al. (2013), Walcott (2007)
Table 3
List of categories and items for the Communication variable (C).
Source: Authors' own data.
COMMUNICATION VARIABLE
1. Interaction with customers
C.1.1- Establishment's e-mail and telephone number
C.1.2- Possibility of collecting customer comments online
C.1.3- Instant messaging
C.1.4- Online surveys
C.1.5- Frequently asked questions section
C.1.6- Customers can choose to receive a newsletter
C.1.7- Restricted access area for customers or members
C.1.8- Possibility for customers to vote on the quality of/satisfaction with services
provided
2. Web 2.0 resources
C.2.1- Web syndication (RSS)
C.2.2- Podcasting/vodcasting
C.2.3- Applications that allow the publication of content by the user
C.2.4- Possibility for customers to share content (retweet, share, etc.)
C.2.5- Link to the cooperative's blog
C.2.6- Links to external image and video platforms (Instagram, YouTube, Flickr, etc.)
C.2.7- Links to cooperative's social networks (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.)
C.2.8- Link to Wikipedia
3. Languages
C.3- Website available in more than one language
Table 4
List of categories and items for the variable E-commerce (EC).
Source: Authors' own data.
E-COMMERCE VARIABLE
EC.1- Online payment
EC.2- Secure online transaction (in relation to purchase processes, digital signature,
encryption, mobile security code)
EC.3- Interaction with the server: database query (access to customer profile and
possibility of modifying it, access to purchase history, etc.)
- Step 1. Formulating research questions or hypotheses: The more
advanced cooperative websites with regard to the adoption of e-
commerce will make greater use of different web possibilities.
- Step 2. Identifying variables: Variables related to information,
communication, e-commerce and functionality provided by the
agro-food cooperative websites.
- Step 3. Defining categories and measurement units: To analyse all
olive oil, fruit and wine cooperatives' websites. There are several
tasks to be accomplished in this step: choose units of analysis to
study (in this case the Catalan agrarian cooperatives) and define the
categories. In other words, the different items that determine the
web presence of this type of companies.
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al.
Table 5
List of categories and items for the variable Additional functions (AF).
Source: Authors' own data.
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS VARIABLE
1. Data security
AF 1.1- Privacy policy or legal notice
AF 1.2. Data Protection Act
2. Certifications
AF 2.1- Quality certifications ISO 9000/9001
AF 2.2- Food safety registration
AF 2.3- Environmental certifications (ISO 14000)
AF 2.4- Other certifications
3. Other certifications
AF 3.1- Having a web link to the mobile version of the website
AF 3.2- Availability of cooperative's app
- Step 4. Creating the coding scheme: A code book was produced
containing the categories and how they were measured. All items
were included in the following dimensions: information, commu-
nication, e-commerce, and functionality.
- Step 5. Sampling: Websites belonging to Catalan olive oil, fruit and
wine cooperatives with a presence on the Internet were selected.
- Step 6. Coding test: The code book was tested by two trained coders,
who evaluated the agricultural cooperatives' websites.
- Step 7. Coding: The coding for the sample was processed in-
dependently based on the code book.
- Step 8. Data analysis: Data were analysed by evaluating the presence
or absence of certain characteristics and aggregating the data in
tables and graphs.
3.1.1. Information (I)
One way of exploiting the area surrounding the cooperative as a
tourist resource, the treatment and handling of the product, and the sale
of said product and its promotions is to offer high quality information to
the user who visits the website. Establishing suitable communication
channels is key in transmitting the necessary information about the
cooperative and everything related to olive oil, fruit or wine to clients
or potential clients. Therefore, disseminating information has to be one
of the main objectives of an agro-food cooperative website. Hence the
inclusion of this information dimension in our analysis, evaluating the
presence of aspects related to the available information according to
four categories: 1) information about olive oil, fruit and wine co-
operative; 2) facilities and services offered; 3) surrounding area; and 4)
promotion (see Table 2).
3.1.2. Communication (C)
The capacity to interact in communication between the customer
and the company or cooperative is key when designing web presence
(Marimon et al., 2010) since it brings advantages such as longer website
visits, better processing and greater impact of information and the
creation of a relationship with the customer (Daries et al., 2018). This
variable, which consists of three categories, is used to measure the web
tools the cooperative has available to communicate with its customers
(see Table 3). Additionally, it also identifies whether there is a version
of the website in another language (English, at least).
3.1.3. E-commerce (EC)
This variable refers to the website's capacity to distribute and sell
agri-food products. It evaluates aspects related to mechanisms for
payment via, in general, the shopping cart, secure online transactions,
with payment methods indicated before further steps, and finally, in-
teraction with the server, the customer being able to consult their
purchase history at any time and without encountering any issues (see
Table 4).
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Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
3.1.4. Additional functions (AF)
Following the work by Álvarez Díaz (2014) and Daries et al. (2018),
it was decided to add a series of additional aspects taking into account
Spanish regulations on e-commerce, data protection and quality certi-
fication. At present, functionality and accessibility are becoming of
critical importance to users (Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2018). Furthermore,
and taking into account the increasing use of mobile technology, it was
also considered pertinent to include the existence of a mobile version of
the website (see Table 5). According to Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) and
Mozas et al. (2016), mobile devices are set to become one of the main
tools for information search and online purchase payments.
As mentioned previously, in order to achieve the established aim,
we opted to evaluate the websites from a marketing perspective. The
evaluation procedure entailed identifying the contents and services
offered online and the analysis then consisted of identifying a series of
possible informative contents and interactive services considered useful
or attractive for a website user (Álvarez Díaz, 2014; Montegut et al.,
2013; Lee and Morrison, 2010). Each of the items was chosen from the
literature review, with new elements being added to adapt them to the
context of agricultural cooperatives.
To carry out the fieldwork, a template was developed based on the
previously proposed model, in which the different aspects to be taken
into consideration were identified from the literature. In order to de-
termine the status of the websites in relation to online presence, level of
information and interaction on the Internet, the researchers decided to
use the content analysis technique from a quantitative perspective
(Álvarez Díaz, 2014; Chiou et al., 2010; Lee and Morrison, 2010). To
this end, a template of 48 indicators was created to analyse Informa-
tion, Communication, E-commerce, and Additional functions variables
for each of olive oil, fruit or wine cooperatives' websites, in line with
the model proposed above.
3.2. The eMICA model
The Model of Internet Commerce Adoption (MICA) was originally
developed for research applied to the metal manufacturing industry in
Australia (Burgess and Cooper, 1998). The model proposes that in the
development of commercial websites, companies usually start with a
simple website, and that this presence becomes more complex over
time, incorporating new processes as their experience in and knowledge
of ICT use increases. MICA consists of three stages, which in turn in-
corporate three levels of business processes: a) Web-based promotion;
b) the supply of information and services; and c) the transaction pro-
cess. These stages of development provide a roadmap indicating the
level at which a business sector is located in its development of e-
commerce applications, which in our case are agricultural cooperatives.
As websites continuously evolve, this movement is reflected through
the different stages of development from their inception (promotion),
through consolidation (provision) and finally maturity (processing).
Differing levels of complexity and functionality are added in the model.
This incorporation of levels reflects the company's growth from having
a static Internet presence to a dynamic website through increasing le-
vels of interactivity, incorporating value chain integration and in-
novative applications to add value through the management of in-
formation and greater functionality (Burgess, 2016; Burgess et al.,
2005).
Subsequently, the MICA model has been applied to different sectors,
mainly in the tourism industry (Doolin et al., 2002; Burgess et al., 2011;
Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2018; Daries et al., 2018; Lin et al., 2009; Ting
et al., 2013) but also in other sectors such as the agrifood industry
(Bernal Jurado et al., 2018; Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2017a,b; Platania,
2014; Sepúlveda-Robles et al., 2014). This has allowed the initial model
to be improved to create an extended model of Internet Commerce
Adoption (eMICA), where several layers of sophistication are added and
the MICA model is adapted to the new virtual environment and the
particular features of the Web (see Table 6).
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al. Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 6
Extended model of Internet commerce adoption.
Source: Burgess et al. (2011) based on Burgess and Cooper (2000).
eMICA Examples of functionality

Phase 1: Promotion Level 1 Name, history, origins, physical address, contact details and activities carried out
Basic information
Level 2 Email and/o contact form, information about oil, events, fairs, website languages, certifications, news and promotions
Rich information
Phase 2: Provision Level 1 Basic product catalogue, hyperlinks to further information, recipes, information about visits, training, promotion, online surveys,
Low interactivity download annual report and page sharing
Level 2 Complete product catalogues, user support (FAQs, website maps, georeferencing, webcam, etc.), information on the sector,
Medium interactivity brochure and/or photo download, word search, newsletter by email, online store as a showcase
Level 3 Exclusive area for customers, chat, discussion forums, multimedia, presence and access on social networks, possibility to accept
High interactivity comments online, vote on quality, satisfaction of products offered, etc.
Phase 3: Process Level 1 Secure transactions, digital signature and encryption, status and order tracking, interaction with servers and databases, Web 2.0,
user-generated content

This model based on evaluation by phases allows websites to be Table 8

evaluated from the level of promotion to the transactional processes Second phase variables.
that constitute the final stage of a website, although it does have some Source: Authors' own data based on the eMICA model (Burgess et al., 2011).
limitations. Schmidt et al. (2008) pointed out that it tends to reduce the PHASE 2: PROVISION (DYNAMIC INFORMATION)
level of complexity in research, and that a website can be at two levels
of development at the same time, or in none. Our goal, after adapting Level 1: Low level of interactivity (minimum of 3 variables out of the 9 proposed)
Prices and basic information for the products
the model, is to test the degree of maturity of olive oil, fruit and wine
Links with further information of interest about the products (benefits of their
cooperatives' websites, and with this in mind the eMICA model includes consumption, recommendations by doctors …)
the logical dimensions of a website as a technological platform; that is, Possible recipes and cooking tips
information, communication and transaction (Marimon et al., 2010). Information about visits
If we focus on agrifood organizations, we can state that they have Training
Online surveys about the product
not been pioneers in the intensive use of digital resources, and therefore Promotions
not all possibilities deriving from ICTs are taken advantage of Montegut Page sharing
et al. (2013). In our case, studies carried out in this field indicate that Download the cooperative's annual report
agricultural cooperatives' websites do not incorporate advanced func- Level 2: Medium level of interactivity (minimum of 3 variables out of the 8
proposed)
tions for maintaining customer relations, as they tend to use their
Website map
websites as communication tools, ignoring the possibility of interaction Webcam
and communication with the customer (Fernández-Uclés et al., 2016). Download of brochures and/or photos
News by e-mail
Privacy policy or legal notice
3.2.1. First phase: promotion (information)
FAQs
This first phase focuses on the use of the Web as an instrument for Word search
the agricultural cooperative to promote its products on the market (see Online product catalogue
Table 7). It is characterized by a low level of functionality and basic Level 3: High level of interactivity (minimum of 4 variables out of the 11 proposed)
Exclusive section for customers/members
content of a visual and informative nature. It comprises two levels: the
Multimedia apps
first level requires a minimum of two of the four proposed variables and Blogs, forums and/or chats
the second requires a further three from the seven possible. Newsletter by e-mail
Access to cooperative's profiles on social networks
Possibility of collecting customer comments online
3.2.2. Second phase: provision (dynamic information)
Possibility for customers to vote on quality
This second phase determines whether the website offers dynamic Possibility for customers to vote on satisfaction regarding products offered
information about the olive oil, fruit and wine cooperative and its Virtual tour of the cooperative and its entire process
surroundings. The latter aspect is key, since a cooperative represents a Mobile web version
App download for mobile

Table 7
First phase variables.
Source: Authors' own data based on the eMICA model (Burgess et al., 2011). primary element in territorial development (Montegut et al., 2013). The
phase has three levels. The first level requires a minimum of 3 variables
PHASE 1: PROMOTION (INFORMATION)
of the 9 proposed, the second 3 from 8, and the third 4 of 11 (see
Level 1: Basic Information (minimum of 2 variables from the 4 proposed) Table 8).
Contact information: Name of cooperative, address, telephone, fax and other
Date and Time last updated
Information on the location of the cooperative (google maps with location and other) 3.3. Integration of eMICA and WCA methods
Information on activities carried out by the cooperative
Level 2: Abundant Information (minimum of 3 variables out of the 7 proposed)
Once the two methods have been implemented, the following step is
E-mail and/or Contact form
Information about olive oil, fruit or wine (quality and variety) to obtain the integrated results from the proposed model. Thus, to this
Events or fairs end we combine the items of the eMICA model and the four variables of
Website available in more than one language the web content analysis. Firstly, we relate the obtained eMICA levels
Quality certifications with the mean of items for each WCA variable. To do this, we use the
News
comparison of means (ANOVA) by type of cooperative. Finally, a
Promotions and incentives through the Internet (vouchers/coupons, online only
offers, online competitions) principal component analysis (PCA) is carried out to complement the
variance analysis in order to establish and compare the cooperatives'

6
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al.
website content and technological maturity, or in other words, to
compare the global website experience and complexity between type of
cooperatives. SPSS 23 has been used for all of the analyses.
PCA is a multivariate analysis method using interdependence ap-
plied to a dataset with numerical variables. The aim is to reduce the set
of variables to a small number of synthetic components, with a minimal
loss of information. It is a descriptive technique that linearly combines
the original set of items and seeks to find relations between items in-
volved. In our case, the variables included in the analysis are the sum of
the items (frequency) of each WCA variable and the eMICA levels for
each cooperative.
4. Results
4.1. Web content analysis
In order to identify the presence of each of the elements and facil-
itate the analysis, the results presented here represent the percentage of
agricultural cooperatives that use each tool proposed for the web con-
tent analysis, and the statistical significance and the power (Cramer's V)
of the correlation between the cooperative-type variables and the item
analysed.
As can be seen in Table 9, content related to information about the
cooperatives themselves (I.1) is better represented than information
regarding their facilities (I.2), surrounding area (I.3) and promotions
(I.4). Although these latter items are less represented, we can still state
that some informative elements regarding facilities are met in more
than 50% of cases, namely, the location of the plantations (I.2.1), the
quality of the plantations (I.2.2) and the processes followed to make the
product (I.2.3).
Regarding the negative aspects, it is worth highlighting the scarce
existence of links to websites that evaluate oil products (I.1.7) and to
virtual tours (I.1.8). In the category of information on facilities, there is
little visibility of aspects related to information on the different areas
where the cooperatives operate (I.2.4). Undoubtedly the most im-
portant aspect to improve, however, is the almost complete absence of
links to different websites with information on how oil is produced and
the beauty and history of the location (I.3.1) or information on in-
centives to purchase online (I.4.2).
Items I.1.4, I.1.5, I.1.9, I.2.4, I.2.5, I.3.2, I.3.3, 1.4.1 and I.4.3 dis-
play statistically significant differences between the three types of co-
operatives. Those in charge of managing the cooperatives' websites
should reinforce these attributes pertaining to the Information dimen-
sion, since they are key and can be decisive elements in customer in-
terest or the decision to purchase products through the website.
Generally speaking, the fruit cooperatives make less intensive use of
their websites, although they have improved substantially compared to
previous studies (Granollers et al., 2013; Montegut et al., 2013).
As Table 9, the items related to communication present significantly
lower percentages than those of the information variable. Generally
speaking, these cooperatives barely use their website to establish a
dialogue with users. The most common ways of communicating with
users are through the traditional means of telephone and e-mail (C.1.1).
This is followed by a restricted access area for customers or members
(C.1.7), with a lower representation. Newsletters (C.1.6) are used to a
lesser extent, as is the possibility for customers to vote on the quality of
and satisfaction with the services provided (C.1.8). In all other aspects
representation is quite low, suggesting that interaction with customers
through the website is a pending issue for the cooperatives analysed.
On the other hand, results are significantly better for communica-
tion via Web 2.0, or at least more items are used in more than one case.
A bit over 50% of the websites analysed had links to social network
profiles such as Facebook, Twitter or Linkedin (C.2.7). To a lesser ex-
tent, we found links to platforms with external images or videos such as
Youtube or Flickr (C.2.6), and finally we observed that content syndi-
cation (C.2.1) and a link to the cooperative's blog (C 2.5) had a much
7
Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
more limited presence.
We also observe differences in this aspect depending on the activity
of the cooperative. For example, in terms of interaction, oil co-
operatives stand out when it comes to instant messaging, and above all
the possibility of voting on the quality of the services provided. Fruit
cooperatives stand out for having a restricted area for customers, and
wine cooperatives for sending newsletters.
To end the analysis of the communication variable, we focus on the
websites being available in different languages. Presentation in more
than one language is generalized in this sector, but it is not enough.
Although 79.8% of the websites analysed offer their information, pro-
ducts and services in at least two different languages, it is worth noting
that the languages offered by some of the smaller cooperatives' websites
are Spanish and Catalan. Thus, although web content analysis meets the
established requirements, communication through the website in these
two languages may not be sufficient for international customers. No
statistically significant differences were found between the three types
of cooperatives regarding communication variable.
Our analysis regarding e-commerce variable has allowed us to find
that, despite progress in e-commerce, this type of agro-industrial or-
ganization has a low implementation of mechanisms for online pay-
ment services and their components. Although none of the variables
established in this category has less than 8% participation in compar-
ison with other sectors, such as the tourism industry where a very high
percentage of bookings and payments are made through the Internet,
the data obtained through the analysed cooperatives are significantly
low. If we analyse the data by activity, the results are more significant.
It is in the oil sector where there have been greater advances, followed
by wine cooperatives and at a great distance by fruit cooperatives. For
example, interaction with the server (EC.3) is only implemented by
41.3% of oil cooperatives, 18.2% of wine cooperatives, and just 8% of
fruit cooperatives (see Table 9).
Behaviour of the last content variable (additional functions) is si-
milar to that of the previous. Information regarding the privacy policy
or legal notice (AF.1.1) reaches 65.2%, while information on data
protection law (AF.1.2) only obtains 2.2% (in the oil cooperatives). This
is a significantly low figure, since a large percentage of the websites
have access to registered customers or members, and not having the
security to comply with data protection legislation is unacceptable.
With regard to quality certifications, we observe that few of the web-
sites analysed had them, although the fruit cooperatives had the most
(20% related to quality and 8% environmental). The items related to
certifications are statistically significant. On the other hand, more than
72% had other certifications (AF 2.4), even if these varied greatly, in-
cluding international, national, regional or simple recognition awards.
Lastly, but no less important, regarding the availability of a mobile
version (AF 3), we see that although quite high percentages of the
analysed websites have links to a mobile version (FA 3.1), only very few
say they have a mobile application (AF 3.2).
The analysis of these four indicators shows that the vast majority of
these cooperatives have a basic and often static online presence. Oil
cooperatives are the most active, followed by wine and finally fruit
cooperatives. These results are consistent with studies that have been
conducted on different sectors, which indicate that websites are static
showcases of products and services that do not take advantage of their
dynamic and collaborative capacity to foster a bilateral relationship
with users regarding their content (Álvarez Díaz, 2014; Bernal Jurado
et al., 2018; Cristobal-Fransi et al., 2018).
4.2. Results for the eMICA model
The information contained in this section is an indicator of the si-
tuation in which agri-food cooperatives find themselves with respect to
commercial Internet applications. If we analyse the overall results, we
see that there is still room for improvement in this type of organization's
adoption of e-commerce. Therefore, this part of the online presence
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al. Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 9
Categories and items of Web Content Analysis.
Olive oil Fruit Wine V.C. & Sig.

INFORMATION
1. Information about cooperatives 0.00 0.00 0.00
I.1.1- Description of the cooperative (address, number and information about members, origin, history, etc.) 93.5 100.0 93.9
I.1.2- Contact: phone number, fax or e-mail 95.7 100.0 100.0
I.1.3- Images of the cooperative 65.2 88.0 81.8
I.1.4- Visual and written information about the products offered, their different qualities and their price 100.0 100.0 90.9 0.253*
I.1.5- News/events communication 54.3 40.0 72.7 0.248*
I.1.6- Information about the location of the cooperative 97.8 100.0 100.0
I.1.7- Web links for agri-food products (olive oil, fruit or wine) 0.0 0.0 0.0
I.1.8. Virtual tour 0.0 0.0 6.1
I.1.9. Opening hours of cooperative or agro-store 54.3 24.0 57.6 0.273*
2. Facilities 2.2 8.0 3.0
I.2.1- Location of plantation (olive groves, orchards or vineyards) 89.1 92.0 84.8
I.2.2- Information on the climate being suitable for growing a quality product on the plantation (olive groves, orchards or vineyards) 63.0 48.0 69.7
I.2.3- Information on the processes followed to make the product 69.6 68.0 54.5
I.2.4- Information on the different areas where the cooperative operates 15.2 48.0 18.2 0.317**
I.2.5- Information about the store/s or final distribution channels 45.7 44.0 81.8 0.345**
3. Environment 2.2 8.0 18.2 0.245*
I.3.1- Links to different areas of the Web with information about olive groves, orchards or vineyards, their beauty and history 21.7 16.0 30.3
I.3.2- Tourist information about the area (tourist attractions, weather, etc.) 26.1 32.0 63.6 0.341**
I.3.3- Links to other related businesses (e.g. restaurants in the area, food fairs …) 10.9 44.0 39.4 0.340**
4. Promotion 4.3 4.0 6.1
I.4.1- Promotions of events, advertisements, banners, fairs, promotion calendar and brand events 43.5 24.0 60.6 0.273*
I.4.2- Incentives: vouchers/coupons, exclusive Internet offers, online competitions, promotions for different products 21.7 12.0 15.2
I.4.3- Information on guided tours (schedules, rates, contact) 10.9 8.0 42.4 0.379**
COMMUNICATION
1. Interaction with customers 0.0 0.0 0.0
C.1.1- Establishment's e-mail and telephone number 97.8 100.0 100.0
C.1.2- Possibility of collecting customer comments online 10.9 8.0 12.1
C.1.3- Instant messaging 6.5 0.0 0.0
C.1.4- Online surveys 0.0 0.0 0.0
C.1.5- Frequently asked questions section 0.0 0.0 0.0
C.1.6- Customers can choose to receive a newsletter 13.0 20.0 24.2
C.1.7- Restricted access area for customers or members 60.9 68.0 39.4
C.1.8- Possibility for customers to vote on the quality of/satisfaction with services provided 15.2 4.0 9.1
2. Web 2.0 resources 0.0 0.0 0.0
C.2.1- Web syndication (RSS) 6.5 8.0 12.1
C.2.2- Podcasting/vodcasting 2.2 4.0 0.0
C.2.3- Applications that allow the publication of content by the user 2.2 0.0 0.0
C.2.4- Possibility for customers to share content (retweet, share, etc.) 34.8 32.0 39.4
C.2.5- Link to the cooperative's blog 2.2 4.0 0.0
C.2.6- Links to external image and video platforms (Instagram, YouTube, Flickr, etc.) 13.0 4.0 21.2
C.2.7- Links to cooperative's social networks (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.) 63.0 48.0 66.7
C.2.8- Link to Wikipedia 0.0 0.0 3.0
3. Languages
C.3- Website available in more than one language 78.3 88.0 75.8
E-COMMERCE
E-commerce 19.6 8.0 18.2
EC.1- Online payment 32.6 8.0 24.2
EC.2- Secure online transaction (in relation to purchase processes, digital signature, encryption, mobile security code) 32.6 8.0 24.2
EC.3- Interaction with the server: database query (access to customer profile and possibility of modifying it, access to purchase history, 41.3 8.0 18.2 0.323**
etc.)
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS
1. Data security 2.2 8.0 0.0
AF 1.1- Privacy policy or legal notice 65.2 60.0 60.6
AF 1.2. Data Protection Act 2.2 8.0 0.0
2. Certifications 0.0 0.0 0.0
AF 2.1- Quality certifications ISO 9000/9001 0.0 20.0 6.1 0.316**
AF 2.2- Food safety registration 0.0 0.0 0.0
AF 2.3- Environmental certifications (ISO 14000) 0.0 8.0 0.0 0.249*
AF 2.4- Other certifications 73.9 76.0 66.7
3. Mobile version 0.0 4.0 0.0
AF 3.1- Having a web link to the mobile version of the website 58.7 52.0 69.7
AF 3.2- Availability of cooperative's app 0.0 4.0 3.0

V.C. = V Cramer; * Sig: 0.05; ** Sig: 0.01.

analysis focuses on e-commerce.
The fact that only 5.8% of the websites met the requirements of
Phase 3, and that the vast majority were located in Phase 1 (75% had
not met the requirements of the first level of Phase 2), indicates the low
degree of functional maturity reached by these cooperatives in the
development of their websites. This is indicative of a certain shift from a
static perspective to a dynamic website with increasing levels of in-
teractivity. However, it should be noted that despite the results re-
vealing that a quarter of the websites had medium interactivity, this
number was largely represented by cooperatives that had information
for download or a subscription option, with a lower representation of
Web 2.0 tools or an online store.

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E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al. Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Regarding Phase 3 or the Process phase, which comprises 5.8% of
the websites evaluated, we can see that, as well as offering secure
payment processes and payment gateways, most of the websites also
provided communication mechanisms that favour interactivity with
users. If we analyse this by activity, we observe that it is those be-
longing to the wine cooperatives that had a higher level of interaction
and maturity (9.1% were in the third phase).
If we ignore the level each cooperative is located in (let us recall
that the analysis is progressive, that is, if an organization does not meet
the requirements of a level, the subsequent levels are not analysed), we
observe that only 24% of the cooperatives object of study allowed the
complete purchase process through the Internet. However, these figures
differ considerably depending on the type of cooperative: 32.6% for oil,
8% for fruit and 24.2% for wine. Even so, this means that three quarters
of the cooperatives analysed did not facilitate e-commerce, which could
easily result in a loss of potential customers.
4.3. Principal component analysis
Before interpreting the items and levels of each of the methods and
making a more in-depth data analysis, we correlated the mean of the
web content analysis items for each variable with the phases obtained
(or not) from the eMICA model. It is worth noting that more co-
operatives met the requirements of higher levels without having met
the requirements of previous levels or phases (these have not been in-
cluded in Table 10). That is, the websites of some cooperatives met the
requirements of the first phase of promotion and the third related to
process, but did not meet the requirements of the provision phase. Thus,
results of ANOVA show that the Information variable is related to
phases 1 and 2 of the eMICA (statistically significant Eta values of 0.435
and 0.405 respectively). The e-commerce variable is strongly correlated
with having completed phase 3 (Eta value is 0.947) but does not cor-
relate with having completed phase 1. In addition, we also observe that
cooperatives that meet the requirements of all phases generally have
more items in each variable of the content analysis.
On the other hand, it is worth noting that of all of the possible items
the cooperatives' websites can contain in the web content analysis (48
items), wine cooperatives have the most (18.39 items on average) and
fruit cooperatives the least (16.28), although this difference is not
statistically significant. If we look at cooperatives that do not meet the
requirements of the provisioning phase (44 olive oil cooperatives, fruit
19 and wine 29), we see that there are statistically significant differ-
ences in terms of the mean number of web content items and type of
cooperative. Those wine cooperatives that do not meet the require-
ments of phase 2 have an average of 17.48 items of content, and fruit
cooperatives one of 14.32 items. Finally, significant differences were
observed in the mean number of items in the Information and E-com-
merce variables for cooperatives meeting the requirements of the first
phase (statistically significant Eta values of 0.356 and 0.298 respec-
tively). Also, the cooperatives that met the requirements of phase 2 (2
olive oil cooperatives, fruit 6 and wine 4) had more content items in the
E-commerce variable (statistically significant Eta value of 0.687), and
the cooperatives that met the requirements of the third phase (15 olive
oil cooperatives, fruit 2 and wine 8) had more content items in the
communication variable (statistically significant Eta value of 0.551).
After analysing each of the attributes for each phase of the eMICA
reached, we integrated the two methods for web analysis to compare
the level of online presence and maturity of olive oil, fruit and wine
cooperatives' websites. We did this by means of principal component
analysis, which included all the features of the two methods (the 4
variables of web content analysis and 6 levels of eMICA).
We found one component related to information and low and
medium interactivity; and a second component related to e-commerce
and electronic processing. The highest level of phase 2 (high interac-
tion), was distributed almost equally between the two components, but
we included it in component 2 since we believe that high interactivity
allows online processing and purchasing. The total variance explained
by the two components is 63.82%, which is relatively low, but rea-
sonable and sufficient considering the number of variables included and
components extracted (Hair et al., 2009).
Once we had the loadings (Varimax rotation) for each variable in
the two components, and the mean for the frequencies of each variable
by type of cooperative, we established the following formulas to com-
pare the online presence and maturity of the three types of co-
operatives.
- Component 1 Information and Interaction = (0.844 x
Information) + (0.743 x additional functionalities) + (0.795 x
Level1.2_rich_info) + (0.611 x Level2.1_low_interact) + (0.707 x
Level2.2_medium_interact).
- Component 2 E-commerce and Processing = (0.674 x
Communication) + (0.913 x ecommerce) + (−0.586 x
Level1.1_basic_info) + (0.587 x Level2.3_high_interact) + (0.913 x
Level3_process).
The two methods are integrated by multiplying results of both
components (see Table 11).
When integrating the two methods, we observe that cooperatives'
websites have much more information than e-commerce technology.
We also note that oil cooperatives' websites are the most complex
(78.06), since, although they do not have so much information and
interaction, do have a higher level of e-commerce and processing. Not
far behind we find wine cooperatives, also with quite complex websites,
and at a greater distance, with a lower level of online maturity and
presence, are fruit cooperatives.
It is worth adding that the extracted components were statistically
significant with the cooperative type variable (p-values of less than
0.05).
5. Conclusions
The future of the agriculture industry should focus on innovation
and the use of ICTs. Therefore, Internet presence is key and should be
used in all its dimensions. Not only as an element for promotion but also

Table 10
Results for eMICA model evaluation of cooperatives by activity.
Source: Authors' own data.
eMICA Olive oil Fruit Wine Total

Phase 1 Promotion (Information)

Level 1 Basic information 43 93.5% 25 100% 33 100% 101 97.1%
Level 2 Rich information 39 84.8% 24 96% 31 93.9% 94 90.4%
Phase 2 Provision (Dynamic information)
Level 1 Low level of interactivity 8 17.4% 7 28% 11 33.3% 26 25%
Level 2 Medium level of interactivity 5 10.9% 6 24% 9 27.3% 20 19.2%
Level 3 High level of interactivity 2 4.3% 6 24% 4 12.1% 12 11.5%
Phase 3 Process (Functional maturity) 2 4.3% 1 4% 3 9.1% 6 5.8%

9
E. Cristobal-Fransi, et al.
Table 11
Results ofeMICA and web content analysis integrated by type of cooperative.
1. Information & 2. E-commerce & Integrated model
interaction processing
Olive Oil 16.26 4.80 78.06
Fruit 16.63 3.08 51.20
Wine 18.79 4.04 75.94
for distribution and sales.
The results of this research have demonstrated that olive oil, fruit
and wine cooperatives are aware of the importance of being present on
the Web. However, it is worth noting that despite having access to the
Internet, not all of them have their own website, and mere presence on
the Web is not enough. These organizations must go beyond traditional
presence to foster online interaction and collaboration, connectivity
and the possibility of users generating and sharing content and
knowledge by means of Web 2.0 techniques. Viewed as a whole, the
websites belonging to agricultural cooperatives display a medium level
of interactivity, which is insufficient given their central role in local
economic development. In addition, less than a quarter of the websites
analysed allow for the complete purchase process through the Internet.
Progress beyond this point is likely to depend on the role these orga-
nizations award to online presence, their understanding of the benefits
derived from new technologies as they become available, their level of
innovation and their adoption of new technologies. They will also need
to consider the incorporation of Web 2.0 functionalities in the form of
consumer comments and opinions, blogs, presence on social networks
and, of course, budget constraints.
The agricultural cooperative websites analysed display important
gaps in interactivity in their online presence, since they do not fulfil
most of the proposed items at this level. This means that they do not
fulfil the eMICA process, even where they do facilitate the entire pur-
chasing process. Despite meeting the requirements of phase 3 related to
e-commerce, many of the cooperatives do not comply with phase 2 of
the eMICA process related to provision.
It is worth noting that marketing and distribution channels used by
fruit cooperatives can be significantly different than those used by olive
oil and wine cooperatives, simply due to product characteristics (fruits
are seasonal products, perishable, sensitive to temperatures, requiring a
more complex process of storage and transportation), and thus, fruit
online sale may be more complicated. This could explain why fruit
cooperatives have developed their websites in different way than olive
oil or wine cooperatives.
The main implications for researches are that the results of the study
provide further confirmation of the usefulness of the stepwise method
for developing commercial websites in the proposed sector of the
agriculture and fishing industry, comprising the extended model of
Internet Commerce Adoption (eMICA) and the web content analysis
model based on the dimensions of Information, Communication, E-
commerce and Additional Functions. The usefulness of the proposed
model for the evaluation of online presence and the degree of maturity
of electronic commerce adoption in the agri-food industry is demon-
strated. This model arises from the integration of the two web analysis
techniques, WCA and eMICA.
Regarding implications for practitioners, it is recommended that
their managers pay more attention to the website in order to improve
consumer relations, as a good online presence will have a positive
impact on the image of the organization. These recommendations can
be specified as follows:
1) When designing corporate websites for agricultural cooperatives, a
series of guidelines should be followed to include a set of funda-
mental elements around the four proposed dimensions: Information,
Communication, E-commerce and Additional Functions. An
10
Journal of Rural Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
effective Internet presence will lead to better results, in terms of
both number of visits and sales.
2) With regard to online presence and browsing strategies, it is sug-
gested that agricultural cooperatives optimize their websites to take
advantage of the potential of search engines and keyword searches.
3) It is recommended that the managers of these types of establish-
ments incorporate the innovations present in this study, such as
virtual visits, interactive maps and other Web 2.0 tools. Virtual visits
help familiarize customers with the facilities and the environment,
which improves their virtual experience and intention to buy the
product. Additional income can be obtained by offering com-
plementary services such as visits to the cooperative, courses, sam-
pling, etc., and these services being made available through the
website.
Regarding limitations, the main disadvantage of the eMICA model is
that it only measures the presence or absence of a given service or
application, but not the ease of finding a resource or the time it takes to
access it; that is, it does not evaluate website usability. We can also add
that because the eMICA model responds to a process of gradual Internet
adoption, it is possible to find cases in which websites incorporate
functionalities and elements from different stages and levels of the
model, making it difficult to categorize the websites analysed at times.
If we focus on the web content analysis, we can point out that this
research has analysed the Internet presence of agricultural cooperatives
through items obtained from the literature review, and has not taken
into account other factors such as the size of the cooperative, among
others. The services provided by agri-food cooperative websites are
constantly changing, which implies that the results obtained may vary
depending on when the study is carried out. Finally, we would also
point out that only cooperatives in a specific geographical area have
been studied.
As future lines of research, it is proposed that the number of co-
operatives be expanded to include other areas of activity and other
countries in order to have more data and be able to compare results. In
addition, personal interviews could be conducted with the managers of
these cooperatives in order to, firstly, determine which elements to
evaluate on individual websites and study the causes of their in-
formative and interactive deficiencies, and secondly, to identify the
main barriers to the mature use of the Internet that may justify the
limited presence of this type of cooperative in the third phase of the
eMICA model. Likewise, at the methodological level it is proposed that
the web content analysis be combined with other research techniques
focusing on user opinions and experience so as to provide a more
complete analysis and a greater understanding of the phenomenon
under study.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support of the Catalan Government
for the accreditation as Consolidated Research Group TURESCO (2017
SGR 49). Authors also acknowledge the INDEST grants for research
projects (2017 call). This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry
of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness [Grant id.: TURCOLAB
ECO2017-88984-R].
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