A Numerical Primer for the Chemical

Engineer, Second Edition Edwin

Zondervan
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-numerical-primer-for-the-chemical-engineer-second
-edition-edwin-zondervan/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-
loucas/

Data Mining A Tutorial Based Primer Second Edition

Roiger

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-mining-a-tutorial-based-
primer-second-edition-roiger/

The Certified Software Quality Engineer Handbook Second

Edition Linda Westfall

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-certified-software-quality-
engineer-handbook-second-edition-linda-westfall/

Finite Element Analysis A Primer Second Edition Sarhan

M Musa

https://textbookfull.com/product/finite-element-analysis-a-
primer-second-edition-sarhan-m-musa/
Numerical Methods for Engineers and Scientists Using
MATLAB Second Edition Esfandiari

https://textbookfull.com/product/numerical-methods-for-engineers-
and-scientists-using-matlab-second-edition-esfandiari/

Guidelines for safe automation of chemical processes

Second Edition

https://textbookfull.com/product/guidelines-for-safe-automation-
of-chemical-processes-second-edition/

Experimental methods and instrumentation for chemical

engineers Second Edition Patience

https://textbookfull.com/product/experimental-methods-and-
instrumentation-for-chemical-engineers-second-edition-patience/

Rowan's Primer of EEG, 2e Second Edition Fields

https://textbookfull.com/product/rowans-primer-of-eeg-2e-second-
edition-fields/

Learning SciPy for Numerical and Scientific Computing

Second Edition Sergio J. Rojas G.

https://textbookfull.com/product/learning-scipy-for-numerical-
and-scientific-computing-second-edition-sergio-j-rojas-g/
A Numerical Primer
for the
Chemical Engineer
Second Edition
A Numerical Primer
for the
Chemical Engineer
Second Edition

Edwin Zondervan
MATLABr is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The Math-
Works does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use
or discussion of MATLABr software or related products does not constitute endorsement
or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use
of the MATLABr software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
c 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-31538-9 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Rea-
sonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author
and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the conse-
quences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if
permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not
been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted,
reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and record-
ing, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access
www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Cen-
ter, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-
for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system
of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trade-
marks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
In memory of my dear father,
Ekke Zondervan.
Contents

Introduction xiii

Preface xv

1 The role of models in chemical engineering 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The idea of a model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Model building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Model analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Model solution strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 The seven-step modeling procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Ingredients of process models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Errors in computer simulations 13

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Significant digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Round-off and truncation errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Break errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Loss of digits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Ill-conditioned problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 (Un-)stable methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

vii
viii Contents

3 Linear equations 21
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Linear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 The inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 The determinant of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.6 Useful properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.7 Matrix ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.8 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.9 Spectral decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4 Elimination methods 31
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 Gaussian elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4 LU factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5 Iterative methods 41
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Laplace’s equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.3 LU factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.4 Iterative methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.5 The Jacobi method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.6 Example for the Jacobi method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6 Nonlinear equations 53
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2 Newton method 1D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Contents ix

6.3 Newton method 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6.4 Reduced Newton step method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.5 Quasi-Newton method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

7 Ordinary differential equations 63

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.2 Euler’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.3 Accuracy and stability of Euler’s method . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.4 The implicit Euler method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.5 Stability of the implicit Euler method . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6 Systems of ODEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.7 Stability of ODE systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.8 Stiffness of ODE systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.9 Higher-order methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.10 Boundary value problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

8 Numerical integration 81
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.2 Euler’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.3 The trapezoid method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.4 Simpson’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.5 Estimation of errors using numerical integration . . . . . . 87
8.6 The Richardson correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

9 Partial differential equations 1 91

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.2 Types of PDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.3 The method of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
x Contents

9.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

10 Partial differential equations 2 99

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.2 Transport PDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.3 Finite volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.4 Discretizing the control volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.5 Transfer of heat to fluid in a pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10.6 Simulation of the heat PDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

11 Data regression and curve fitting 109

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.2 The least squares method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.3 Residual analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
11.4 ANOVA analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.5 Confidence limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

12 Optimization 117
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.2 Linear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.3 Nonlinear programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.4 Integer programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
12.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
12.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

13 Basics of MATLAB 129

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
13.2 The MATLAB user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Contents xi

13.3 The array structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

13.4 Basic calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
13.5 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
13.6 Reading and writing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.7 Functions and m-files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.8 Repetitive operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

14 Numerical methods in Excel 137

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
14.2 Basic functions in Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
14.3 The Excel solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
14.4 Solving nonlinear equations in Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
14.5 Differentiation in Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
14.6 Curve fitting in Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

15 Case studies 145

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.2 Modeling a separation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.3 Modeling a chemical reactor system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.4 PVT behavior of pure substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
15.5 Dynamic modeling of a distillation column . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.6 Dynamic modeling of an extraction cascade (ODEs) . . . . 153
15.7 Distributed parameter models for a tubular reactor . . . . . 159
15.8 Modeling of an extraction column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
15.9 Fitting of kinetic data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
15.10 Fitting of NRTL model parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.11 Optimizing a crude oil refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
15.12 Planning in a manufacturing line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Bibliography 177

Index 181
Introduction

Since 2008 I have been lecturing a course on numerical methods, at first at

Eindhoven University in the Netherlands and since 2015 at Bremen University
in Germany. The course is set up specifically for chemical engineers. There are
good references for this subject, and everyone who has a heart for numerical
methods probably possesses the book Numerical Recipes by William Press
and co-authors.
When I started collecting material for the course, it began with the online ma-
terial of John Hult (Cambridge), who allowed me to use his materials with the
proper acknowledgments. I also discovered some materials concerning com-
puter errors from Roel Verstappen (Groningen), which I thought could be
important to incorporate in the course.
After development of MATLAB code, exercises, assignments, and lecture
slides, I thought it could be handy to put everything into a syllabus, as a
useful guide for the students attending the class.
In 2013, it turned into a real book and was published with CRC! After using
the book successfully in the last few years, I noticed that several corrections
and extensions were needed to further improve the book. For example, a more
detailed discussion on model development in the first chapter was needed. A
chapter on numerical integration was missing as well. I also thought a short
description on boundary value problems could be useful, as I was discussing
it in class, but it was not documented in the book.
After carefully making the modifications, I can proudly say that I am happy
that a second edition of my book is now released. A numerical primer for the
chemical engineer will give you a taste for this exciting field and prove that
this discipline is alive and vivid. There is a reference list with useful books and
papers. In case you are interested, you can contact me regarding MATLAB
code, references, and other course materials.
I hope this second edition will be a useful companion. Enjoy!

xiii
Preface

This book emphasizes the derivation and use of a variety of numerical methods
for solving chemical engineering problems. The algorithms are used to solve
linear equations, nonlinear equations, ordinary differential equations, and par-
tial differential equations. It also includes chapters on linear and nonlinear re-
gression, and on optimization. MATLAB R ∗ is adopted as the programming
environment throughout the book. MATLAB is a high-performance comput-
ing program. An introductory chapter on MATLAB basics has been added
and Excel users can find a chapter on the implementation of numerical meth-
ods in Excel. Worked-out examples are given in the case study chapter to
demonstrate the numerical techniques. Most of the examples were written in
MATLAB and are compatible with the latest versions of MATLAB.
It is important to mention that the main purpose of this book is to give
students a flavor for numerical methods and problem solving, rather than as
an in-depth guide to numerical analysis. The chapters end with small exercises
that students can use to familiarize themselves with the numerical methods.
The material in this book has been used in undergraduate and graduate
courses in the chemical engineering department of Eindhoven University of
Technology. To aid lecturers and students, course materials have also been
made available on the Web at http://www.crcpress.com/product/ISBN/
9781138315389.
Finally, the author would like to thank everyone who has been helpful and
supportive in the creation of this book, especially some of the PhD students
at Eindhoven University who have assisted during lectures and directly in-
fluenced the content of this book: Juan Pablo Gutierrez, Esayas Barega, and
Arend Dubbelboer.
Edwin Zondervan
January 2014
∗
MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product informa-
tion, please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508 647 7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com

xv
1
The role of models in chemical engineering

1.1 Introduction
The concept of a model has been around since ancient times. Models appear in
all branches of science and engineering. However, it is often said that modeling
is more art than science or engineering. In this chapter we will discuss general
aspects of models, and more specifically the models that describe (chemical)
process systems. It is not intended as an in-depth discussion.
Ultimately, this book is about solving the developed models in a numerical
fashion. We could consider Ptolemy’s Amalgest (150 BC) as one of the first
recorded studies on modeling and numerical analysis in which numerical ap-
proximations to describe the motions of the heavenly bodies with accuracy
matching reality sufficiently were developed (Figure 1.1). This is basically the

FIGURE 1.1
(Left) An image of Ptolemy; (Right) Ptolemy’s model of our solar system

1
2 A Numerical Primer for the Chemical Engineer

essence of numerical analysis. Numerical analysis is concerned with obtaining

approximate solutions to problems while maintaining reasonable bounds of er-
ror, because it is often impossible to obtain exact answers. Numerical analysis
makes use of algorithms to approximate solutions. Model development and
solving the models is important to the world, for example in astronomy, con-
struction, agriculture, architecture, and, of course, in engineering! In chemical
engineering we use models and their (numerical) solutions to describe reactors
and separators (dynamic and steady state), to perform computational fluid
dynamics, to solve thermodynamic equations of state, to optimize process
performance, to design and synthesize processes, and to regress experimental
data, e.g., isotherms, kinetics, and so forth.

1.2 The idea of a model

In Figure 1.2 we can see an image by the Belgian surrealist Rene Magritte. It
is a pipe, and below this pipe is a sentence in French that says, “Ceci n’est
pas une pipe” (“this is not a pipe”). Actually, it is, indeed, not a pipe; it is an

FIGURE 1.2
“The Treachery of Images” by Rene Magritte
The role of models in chemical engineering 3

Type of model Criterion or classification

Mechanistic Based on mechanisms/underlying phenomena
(first principles)
Empirical Based on input-output data, trials or experiments
Stochastic Contains elements that are probabilistic in nature
Deterministic Based on cause–effect analysis
Lumped parameter Dependent variables not a function of spatial position
Distributed Dependent variables as a function of spatial position
parameter
Linear Superposition applies
Nonlinear Superposition does not apply
Continuous Dependent variables defined over continuous space
Discrete Only define for discrete values of time and/or space
Hybrid Containing continuous and discrete behavior

TABLE 1.1
Model types and their classifications

image of a pipe. Models are similar. Models are not the reality, they are an
approximate description of reality. Eykhoff [20] defines an engineering model
as a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system
to be constructed) which presents knowledge of that system in a usable form.
This implies basically that a model is (always) a simplification of reality. A
model as such can give insight into the behavior of the system under study, but
it does not always mean that this insight is phenomenological. For example,
if an engineer develops a controller for a distillation tower, he would like to
know how the distillation tower behaves dynamically. Whether this knowledge
is based on first principles or not is not really relevant for his purposes. In
Table 1.1 the different model types are listed.
The mathematical forms of the different model types can involve linear alge-
braic equations, nonlinear algebraic equations, ordinary differential equations,
differential algebraic equations and partial differential equations. Each of the
equation forms requires special techniques for solution.

1.3 Model building

Although there have been many attempts to structure the process of setting up
process models to describe phenomena or systems, the general notion is that
each modeling problem requires a custom-made approach. The applications
and requirements are so different that general model development strategies
would be extremely difficult and decisions regarding the modeling of a system
4 A Numerical Primer for the Chemical Engineer

can often best be made by an expert. However there is some kind of agreement
on the four elementary steps in the modeling process: problem definition,
design, evaluation and application.
In the problem definition phase, the modeling problem and the goal of the
model are properly formulated. This formulation is based on performance and
structure requirements with respect to the application and on the modeling
expertise of the modeler. In the design phase, the structure and key variables
of the model are identified.
For mechanistic models, the structure of the model reflects the physical struc-
ture of the system. This often means that additional steps have to be taken
such as the formulation of physical and chemical laws and a proper translation
of the major assumptions made in the design stage.
Key in the process is the application of conservation principles for conserved
extensive quantities. Another important component is the development of con-
stitutive relations, which are normally used to complete the model.
The conservation principle holds for mass, energy and momentum, and states
that these quantities are neither destroyed or created but simply change form.
Conservation principles lead to typical gas-liquid-solid systems involving the
mass, component and energy balances. In particulate systems, particle number
balances for the generation of population balance equations are also consid-
ered.
Constitutive relations are normally algebraic equations. Constitutive equa-
tions describe five classes of relations in a model, the mass, energy/heat trans-
fer, the reaction rate expressions, the so-called property relations (thermody-
namic constants and relations), the balance volume relations which define the
connections between mass and energy, and the equipment and control con-
straints. For a detailed description of conservation and constitutive equations
the reader is referred to Hangos and Cameron [25].
In the evaluation phase the model is verified with respect to its structure and
the results of the model are validated with the real world situation. In this
phase also the requirements with respect to model structure as formulated
in the problem definition phase are evaluated. If all criteria are satisfied, the
model can be applied.

1.4 Model analysis

The analysis or evaluation of models concerns two parts: numerical perfor-
mance validation and model structure verification. Validation and verification
are two strictly different criteria for model analysis.
The role of models in chemical engineering 5

Verification is related to the mathematical correctness of the model structure.

Using commonsense is of importance, but there are also instruments available
which aid the verification process. For example, one could study the range in
which the parameters of the model are valid, or one could study the sensitivity
of the parameters in relation to the outputs of the model. Models should be
kept as simple as possible. If one model contains more parameters than another
its performance can be better but it is also more complex. There are structure
tests available that quantify the model structure on the basis of modeling error
and model complexity. One of these tests is, for example, Akaike’s information
criterion.
In model validation the outputs of the model are compared with actual mea-
surements from the system to determine whether the model describes the
real system adequately. Cross-parameter validation, residual tests, and the
root mean squared error are a few examples of model validation instruments.
Chapter 11 on data regression will discuss model validation in more detail.

1.5 Model solution strategies

The main objective of this book is to prime the reader with the actual numeri-
cal solution strategies to the formulated process models. In Table 1.2 common
solution approaches are listed for different equation systems.

Equation system Solution strategy

Linear Matrix inversion
Ch. 2,3,4 Gaussian elimination
Jacobi method
Nonlinear Newton’s method
Ch. 5 Secant method
Broyden’s method
ODEs Euler’s method (implicit/explicit)
Ch. 6 Runge Kutta method
PDEs Method of lines
Ch. 7,8 Finite Volume Method

TABLE 1.2
Model types and solution strategies
6 A Numerical Primer for the Chemical Engineer

1.6 The seven-step modeling procedure

In setting up models for engineering application, a good practice is to follow
a well-described sequence of modeling steps. Several modeling methodologies
have been proposed, but here we will follow the seven-step procedure discussed
in Cameron and Hangos.
You should understand that development of the model through a sequence of
steps often leads to iterations—moving up and down through the modeling
steps—especially when unusual or unwanted developments occur later in the
process. No one gets it right the first time.
Before starting the setup of a process model, the problem definition should be
clearly stated. This defines the process, the modeling goal, and the validation
criteria. These decisions precede the seven-step modeling procedure, which
is given in the form of an algorithmic problem. An algorithm is a systematic
procedure for carrying out the modeling task. Figure 1.3 shows the systematic
modeling procedure of Cameron and Hangos.
For an algorithmic problem, you should formally specify the following items:

1. The inputs to the problem should be listed in the “Given” section.

2. The desired output of the procedure should be listed in the “Find”
or “Compute” section.
3. The method description should be listed in the “Procedure” or
“Solution” section.

By following the above principles, the following algorithmic problem statement

can be constructed.
The seven-step modeling procedure:
Given:

1. A process system
2. A modeling goal
3. Validation criteria
4. A mathematical model
The role of models in chemical engineering 7

FIGURE 1.3
Systematic model building steps

The seven steps for model development:

Step 1: Define the problem
In Step 1, all relevant inputs and outputs have to be fixed. The type of spatial
distribution has to be defined (i.e., distributed or lumped models), and the
necessary range and accuracy of the model need to be specified. Additionally,
the time characteristics of the model should be identified (i.e., stationary or
dynamic).
Step 2: Identify the controlling factors or mechanisms
The next step is to explore the physicochemical processes and phenomena
taking place in the system that are related to our modeling goal. These are
called the controlling factors or mechanisms. The most common controlling
8 A Numerical Primer for the Chemical Engineer

factors include (1) chemical reaction, (2) diffusion, (3) conduction of heat, (4)
forced convection heat transfer, (5) free convection heat transfer, (6) radiation
heat transfer, (7) evaporation, (8) turbulent mixing, (9) heat or mass transfer
through a boundary layer, and (10) fluid flow.
When modeling, we must understand that there is a set of process charac-
teristics that are never fully identified. We often only identify and include a
subset of essential characteristics in the model, which means that some es-
sential characteristics might be missing from our model description. It could
also very well happen that we include unnecessary complexity in our model
or include process characteristics that are actually not part of the system.
The issues sketched above are not easy to deal with and depend strongly on
our understanding of the system. Model validation is key here.
One cannot take all possible controlling mechanisms into account, and for that
reason, a filter should be applied when considering the following key elements:

1. The hierarchy level(s) relevant to the model

2. The type of spatial distribution
3. The necessary range and accuracy
4. The time characteristics

Step 3: Evaluate data for the problem

Models of real process systems are of the gray-box type: we almost always
need to use either measured process data directly or estimate parameter val-
ues in our models. It is important to consider both measured process data
and parameter values together with their uncertainties or precision. Typi-
cally, industrial measured data has uncertainties between 10 and 30#, while
laboratory or pilot plant data has uncertainty ranges of 5%–20%, but, for
example, reaction kinetic data can have uncertainties up to 500%!
In Step 3, we need to look at the data required for modeling, found in literature
or measured directly. The outcomes of this data evaluation might lead us back
to the decisions in Steps 1 and 2.
Step 4: Develop a set of model equations
The equations in a process model are either differential (partial as well as
ordinary) or algebraic in nature. Differential equations originate from conser-
vation balances; therefore, they can be termed balance equations. Algebraic
equations are usually of mixed origin and are generally called constitutive
equations.
Step 5: Find and implement a solution procedure
After setup of the mathematical model, we must identify its mathematical
form and find or implement a solution procedure. In all cases we must make
sure that the model is well posed; that is, excess variables or all degrees of
The role of models in chemical engineering 9

freedom are satisfied. We must also try to avoid numerical problems, such
as high index systems. Lack of solution techniques may prevent a modeler
using a particular type of process model, and that can lead to additional
simplifications. This could be the case with distributed parameter process
models.
Step 6: Verify the model solution
Verification is determining whether the model is behaving correctly. Is it coded
correctly and giving you the intended answer? This is not the same as model
validation, where we check the model against reality. You need to check care-
fully that the model is correctly implemented. One aspect is the correct pro-
gramming practice, where a top-down algorithm design can help out. The
other component is to verify whether the model exhibits the right qualita-
tive characteristics; for example, if modeling a reactor, an increase in reactor
temperature should deliver an increase in conversion.
Step 7: Validate the model
Model validation concerns the determination of the quality of the model as
compared to independent observations or assumptions. Often only a partial
validation is carried out in practical cases, depending on the modeling goal.
There are several possibilities to validate a process model. The actual vali-
dation method strongly depends on the process system, the modeling goal,
and the possibilities of getting independent information for validation. These
possibilities include:

1. Experimentally verify the assumptions.

2. Compare the model behavior with the process behavior.
3. Develop analytical models for simplified cases and compare behav-
ior.
4. Compare with other models using a common problem.
5. Compare the model directly with process data.

The tools to carry out this task include the use of sensitivity analysis to
identify the key controlling inputs or system parameters as well as the use
of statistical validation tests. They can involve hypothesis testing and the
use of various measures such as averages, variances, maxima, minima, and
correlation factors.
If the validation results show that the developed model is not suitable for a
modeling goal, then one has to return to Step 2 and perform the sequence
again. Usually validation results indicate how to improve the model. We can
often identify inadequate areas in our model development, and for that reason,
not all modeling efforts are lost. Once more, it is mentioned that often one
has to move up and down through the seven-step modeling hierarchy in an
iterative fashion.
10 A Numerical Primer for the Chemical Engineer

1.7 Ingredients of process models

The modeling procedure described in the previous section demonstrates that
a model resulting from this procedure is not simply a set of equations. It
incorporates a lot more information. To encourage clarity of presentation and
consistency of the process model, a structural presentation incorporating all
key ingredients is suggested.
List the:

1. Assumptions: time characteristics, spatial characteristics, flow con-

ditions, controlling mechanisms or factors, neglected dependencies
(such as temperature or concentration dependency of physicochem-
ical properties), and the required range of states and associated
accuracy.
2. Model equations and characterizing variables: the differential (bal-
ance) equations for
a. overall mass, component masses for all components for all
phases in all equipment at hierarchical levels, energy (or en-
thalpy) and momentum
b. constitutive equations for mass transfer, heat/energy transfer
and reaction rates, property relations (thermodynamic rela-
tions for equilibrium, temperature pressure, and composition),
balance volume relations (relationships between mass and en-
ergy balance regions), and equipment and control equations.
3. Initial conditions: needed for differential balance equations in dy-
namic process models.
4. Boundary conditions: must be specified for differential balance equa-
tions in spatially distributed process models.
5. Parameters: the values and/or sources of the parameters have to be
specified with their units and precision.

1.8 Summary
In this chapter the role of models in chemical engineering was briefly dis-
cussed. First, the basic definition of a model was introduced. Subsequently a
common way of model building was discussed, starting with a problem defi-
nition phase, followed by design, evaluation, and application. After the model
The role of models in chemical engineering 11

building phase, model analysis is done in two ways: the mathematical cor-
rectness of the model (model verification) and the numerical performance of
the model (model validation). In the final section, a short overview of model
solution strategies was given.

1.9 Exercises
Exercise 1

Describe the major steps to be taken when building a model of a process

system, and explain the reason for each step.

Exercise 2

Explain the differences between stochastic, empirical, and mechanistic models.

Describe which factors make it difficult or easy to develop these models?

Exercise 3

Review what kinds of models are used in a particular industry sector (select,
for example, the food, petrochemical, or pharmaceutical industries) and why
they are used. Discuss how the modeling efforts relate to the potential benefits
derived from their use?
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
noun—A case, Of a case, To a case, A case, O case, From a case—they
tell you that the word case is here its own nominative, genitive,
dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative, though the deuce of any
case—that is inflection of the noun—is there in the case.
Nevertheless, many a pedagogue would swear till he was black in the
face that it is so; and would lie awake many a restless night boiling
with rage and vexation that any one should be so lost to shame and
reason as to suspect that there is here also a distinction without a
difference. In strictness, in the Latin word there are only four, casus,
casui, casum, casu; and the rest are conceded out of uniformity with
other cases where the terminations are six times varied:[57] but why
insist on the full complement, where there is no case in the whole
language (but for the arbitrary one already excepted) to bear it out?
Again, it is agreed on all hands, that English nouns have genders.
Except with a few, where the termination is borrowed from another
language, such as Empress, &c., there is no possibility of generally
telling the sex implied from the form of the termination: but men
looking at the point with their Latin eyes, see genders wherever they
have been accustomed to find them in a foreign tongue. The
difference of sex is vernacularly conveyed in English by a different
word—man, woman, stag, deer, king, queen, &c.; and there is no
such thing as conventional gender in neutral things—house, church,
field, and so on. All this might be excusable as a prejudice or
oversight; but then why persist in it in the thirty-eighth edition of a
standard book published by the great firm in Paternoster-row? We
sometimes think mankind have a propensity to lying not more in
matters-of-fact than theory. They maintain what they know to be
without a shadow of foundation, and in the sheer spirit of
contradiction, or because they hate to be convinced. In the same
manner as the cases and genders of nouns, the whole ramification of
the verb is constructed, and hung up for the admiration of the
credulous upon the ideal of the Latin and Greek verb, with all its
tenses, persons, moods, and participles, whether there be anything
more than a mere skeleton of a resemblance to suspend all this
learned patch-work upon or not. ‘I love, thou lovest he loves; we, ye,
they love.’ There is a difference in the three first, so that from
announcing the verb, you know the prefix; but in the three last, what
difference is there, what sign of separation from one another, or from
the first person singular? ‘I loved’ is the past tense doubtless: it is a
difference of inflection denoting time: but ‘I did love, I have loved, I
will, can, shall, would love,’ are not properly tenses or moods of the
verb love, but other verbs with the infinitive or participle of the first
verb appended to them. Thus is our irregular verb professionally
licked into regularity and shape. When the thing is wanting it is
supplied by the name. Empedocles was a cobbler, even when he did
not cobble. A conjunction is held to be a part of speech without any
meaning in itself, but that serves to connect sentences together, such
as that, and, &c. It is proved by Mr. Horne Tooke, that the
conjunction that is no other than the pronoun that (with the words
thing or proposition understood)—as and is the imperative of the old
Saxon verb anandad (to add), upon a similar principle—‘I say this
and (or add) that’—and though it is above fifty years since this
luminous discovery was published to the world, no hint of it has
crept into any Grammar used in schools, and by authority. It seems
to be taken for granted that all sound and useful knowledge is by
rote, and that if it ceased to be so, the Church and State might
crumble to pieces like the conjunctions and and that. There may be
some truth in that.
It is strange that Mr. Horne Tooke, with all his logical and
etymological acuteness, should have been so bad a metaphysician as
to argue that all language was merely a disjointed tissue of names of
objects (with certain abbreviations), and that he should have given or
attempted no definition of the verb. He barely hints at it in one place,
viz.—that the verb is quod loquimur, the noun de quo; that is, the
noun expresses the name of any thing or points out the object; the
verb signifies the opinion or will of the speaker concerning it. What
then becomes of the infinitive mood, which neither affirms, denies,
nor commands any thing, but is left like a log of wood in the high
road of grammar, to be picked up by the first jaunting-car of ‘winged
words’ that comes that way with its moods, persons, and tenses,
flying, and turned to any use that may be wanted? Mr. Tooke was in
the habit of putting off his guests at Wimbledon with promising to
explain some puzzle the following Sunday; and he left the world in
the dark as to the definition of the verb, much in the same spirit of
badinage and mystery. We do not know when the deficiency is likely
to be supplied, unless it has been done by Mr. Fearn in his little work
called Anti-Tooke. We have not seen the publication, but we know
the author to be a most able and ingenious man, and capable of
lighting upon nice distinctions which few but himself would ever
dream of. An excess of modesty, which doubts every thing, is much
more favourable to the discovery of truth than that spirit of
dogmatism which presumptuously takes every thing for granted; but
at the same time it is not equally qualified to place its conclusions in
the most advantageous and imposing light; and we accordingly too
often find our quacks and impostors collecting a crowd with their
drums, trumpets, and placards of themselves at the end of a street,
while the ‘still, small’ pipe of truth and simplicity is drowned in the
loud din and bray, or forced to retire to a distance to solace itself with
its own low tones and fine-drawn distinctions. Having touched upon
this subject, we may be allowed to add that some of our most
eminent writers, as, for instance, Mr. Maculloch with his Principles
of Political Economy, and Mr. Mill with his Elements of Political
Economy, remind us of two barrel-organ grinders in the same street,
playing the same tune and contending for precedence and mastery.
What is Mozart to any of the four?
 MEMORABILIA OF MR. COLERIDGE

The Atlas.]
[March 22, 1829.

He said of an old cathedral, that it always appeared to him like a

petrified religion.
Hearing some one observe that the religious sentiments
introduced in Sheridan’s Pizarro met with great applause on the
stage, he replied, that he thought this a sure sign of the decay of
religion; for when people began to patronise it as an amiable
theatrical sentiment, they had no longer any real faith in it.
He said of a Mr. H——, a friend of Fox’s, who always put himself
forward to interpret the great orator’s sentiments, and almost took
the words out of his mouth, that it put him in mind of the steeple of
St. Thomas, on Ludgate-hill, which is constantly getting in the way
when you wish to see the dome of St. Paul’s.
Seeing a little soiled copy of Thomson’s Seasons lying in the
window-seat of an obscure inn on the sea-coast of Somersetshire, he
said, ‘That is true fame.’
He observed of some friend, that he had thought himself out of a
handsome face, and into a fine one.
He said of the French, that they received and gave out sensations
too quickly, to be a people of imagination. He thought Moliere’s
father must have been an Englishman.
According to Mr. Coleridge, common rhetoricians argued by
metaphors; Burke reasoned in them.
He considered acuteness as a shop-boy quality compared with
subtlety of mind; and quoted Paine as an example of the first,
Berkeley as the perfection of the last.
He extolled Bishop Butler’s Sermons at the Rolls’ Chapel as full of
thought and sound views of philosophy; and conceived that he had
proved the love of piety and virtue to be as natural to the mind of
man as the delight it receives from the colour of a rose or the smell of
a lily. He spoke of the Analysis as theological special-pleading.
He had no opinion of Hume, and very idly disputed his originality.
He said the whole of his argument on miracles was to be found stated
(as an objection) somewhere in Barrow.
He said Thomson was a true poet, but an indolent one. He seldom
wrote a good line, but he ‘rewarded resolution’ by following it up
with a bad one. Cowper he regarded as the reformer of the Della
Cruscan style in poetry, and the founder of the modern school.
Being asked which he thought the greater man, Milton or
Shakspeare, he replied that he could hardly venture to pronounce an
opinion—that Shakspeare appeared to him to have the strength, the
stature of his rival, with infinitely more agility; but that he could not
bring himself after all to look upon Shakspeare as any thing more
than a beardless stripling, and that if he had ever arrived at man’s
estate, he would not have been a man but a monster of intellect.
Being told that Mrs. Wolstonecraft exerted a very great ascendancy
over the mind of her husband, he said—‘It was always the case:
people of imagination naturally took the lead of people of mere
understanding and acquirement.’ This was scarcely doing justice to
the author of Caleb Williams.
He spoke of Mackintosh as deficient in original resources: he was
neither the great merchant nor manufacturer of intellectual riches;
but the ready warehouseman, who had a large assortment of goods,
not properly his own, and who knew where to lay his hand on
whatever he wanted. An argument which he had sustained for three
hours together with another erudite person on some grand question
of philosophy, being boasted of in Coleridge’s hearing as a mighty
achievement, the latter bluntly answered—‘Had there been a man of
genius among you, he would have settled the point in five minutes.’
Having been introduced to a well-known wit and professed jester,
and his own silence being complained of, he said he should no more
think of speaking where Mr. —— was present, than of interrupting an
actor on the stage.
Mr. Coleridge preferred Salvator Rosa to Claude, therein erring.
He however spoke eloquently and feelingly of pictures, where the
subject-matter was poetical, and where ‘more was meant than met
the eye.’ Thus he described the allegorical picture by Giotto in the
cemetery at Pisa, the Triumph of Death, where the rich, the young,
and the prosperous, are shrinking in horror and dismay from the
grim monster; and the wretched, the cripple, and the beggar, are
invoking his friendly aid, both in words and tones worthy of the
subject. Mr. Coleridge’s was the only conversation we ever heard in
which the ideas seemed set to music—it had the materials of
philosophy and the sound of music; or if the thoughts were
sometimes poor and worthless, the accompaniment was always fine.
He stated of Henderson, the actor, or some person of whom a very
indifferent jest was repeated, that it was the strongest proof of his
ability, and of the good things he must have said to make his bad
ones pass current.
He characterised the Prometheus Bound of Æschylus, as being less
a drama than an Ode to Justice.
He said that formerly men concealed their vices; but now, in the
change of manners and the laxity of theories, they boasted of those
they had not.
He sometimes told a story well, though but rarely. He used to
speak with some drollery and unction of his meeting in his tour in
Germany with a Lutheran clergyman, who expressed a great curiosity
about the fate of Dr. Dodd in a Latin gibberish which he could not at
first understand. ‘Doctorem Tott, Doctorem Tott! Infelix homo, collo
suspensus!‘—he called out in an agony of suspense, fitting the action
to the word, and the idea of the reverend divine just then occurring
to Mr. Coleridge’s imagination. The Germans have a strange
superstition that Dr. Dodd is still wandering in disguise in the Hartz
forest in Germany; and his Prison Thoughts are a favourite book
with the initiated.
If these remarkable sayings are fewer than the reader might
expect, they are all we remember; and we might avail ourselves of the
answer which Quevedo puts into the mouth of the door-keeper of
Hell, when the poet is surprised to find so few kings in his custody
—‘There are all that ever existed!’
 PETER PINDAR

The Atlas.]
[April 5, 1829.

This celebrated wit and character lived to a great age, and retained
his spirit and faculties to the last. In person he did not at all answer
to Mr. Cobbett’s description of authors, as a lean, starveling, puny
race—‘men made after supper of a cheese-paring’—he was large,
robust, portly, and florid; or in Chaucer’s phrase,
‘A manly man to ben an abbot able.’

In his latter years he was blind, and had his head close shaved; and
as he sat bare-headed, presented the appearance of a fine old monk—
a Luther or a Friar John, with the gravity of the one and the wit and
fiery turbulence of the other. Peter had something clerical in his
aspect: he looked like a venerable father of poetry, or an unworthy
son of the church, equally fitted to indict a homily and preach a
crusade, or to point an epigram, and was evidently one of those
children of Momus in whom the good things of the body had laid the
foundation of and given birth to the good things of the mind. He was
one of the few authors who did not disappoint the expectations
raised of them on a nearer acquaintance; and the reason probably
was what has been above hinted at, namely, that he did not take to
this calling from nervous despondency and constitutional poverty of
spirit, but from the fulness and exuberance of his intellectual
resources and animal spirits. Our satirist was not a mere wit, but a
man of strong sense and observation, critical, argumentative, a good
declaimer, and with a number of acquirements of various kinds. His
poetry, instead of having absorbed all the little wit he had (which is
so often the case), was but ‘the sweepings of his mind.’ He said just
as good things every hour in the day. He was the life and soul of the
company where he was—told a story admirably, gave his opinion
freely, spoke equally well, and with thorough knowledge of poetry,
painting, or music, could ‘haloo an anthem’ with stentorian lungs in
imitation of the whole chorus of children at St. Paul’s, or bring the
black population of the West Indies before you like a swarm of flies
in a sugar-basin, by his manner of describing their antics and odd
noises. Dr. Wolcot’s conversation was rich and powerful (not to say
overpowering)—there was an extreme unction about it, but a certain
tincture of grossness. His criticism was his best. We remember in
particular his making an excellent analysis of Dryden’s Alexander’s
Feast in a controversy on its merits with Mr. Curran; and as a
specimen of his parallelisms between the sister-arts, he used to say
of Viotti (the celebrated violin-player), that ‘he was the Michael
Angelo of the fiddle.’ He had a heresy in painting, which was, that
Claude Lorraine was inferior to Wilson; but the orthodox believers
were obliged to be silent before him. A short time before his death he
had a private lodging at Somers’ Town, where he received a few
friends. He sat and talked familiarly and cheerfully, asking you
whether you thought his head would not make a fine bust? He had a
decanter of rum placed on the table before him, from which he
poured out a glass-full as he wanted it and drank it pure, taking no
other beverage, but not exceeding in this. His infirmities had made
no alteration in his conversation, except perhaps a little more
timidity and hesitation; for blindness is the lameness of the mind. He
could not see the effect of what he said lighting up the countenances
of others; and in this case, the tongue may run on the faster, but
hardly so well. After coffee, which he accompanied with the due
quantity of merum sal, he would ask to be led down into a little
parlour below, which was hung round with some early efforts of his
own in landscape-painting, and with some of Wilson’s unfinished
sketches. Though he could see them no longer, otherwise than in his
mind’s eye, he was evidently pleased to be in the room with them, as
they brought back former associations. Youth and age seem glad to
meet as it were on the last hill-top of life, to shake hands once more
and part for ever! He spoke slightingly of his own performances
(though they were by no means contemptible), but launched out with
great fervour in praise of his favourite Wilson, and in disparagement
of Claude, enlarging on the fine broad manner and bold effects of the
one, and on the finical littleness of the other, and ‘making the worse
appear the better reason.’ It was here we last parted with this fine old
man, and it is with mixed pleasure and regret we turn to the subject.
Peter Pindar, besides his vein of comic humour, excelled when he
chose in the serious and pathetic; and his ‘Lines to a Fly drowned in
Treacle,’ and ‘To an Expiring Taper,’ are among his best pieces.
 LOGIC

The Atlas.]
[April 12, 1829.

Much has been said and written of the importance of logic to the
advancement of truth and learning, but not altogether convincingly.
Its use is chiefly confined by some to being a guide to the mind when
first feeling its way out of the night of ignorance and barbarism, or a
curb to the wilful and restive spirit that is a rebel to reason and
common sense. But the extent of the benefit in either case may be
doubted; since the rude and uninstructed will not submit to artificial
trammels, or get up into this go-cart of the understanding, and the
perverse and obstinate will jump out of it whenever their prejudices
or passions are wound up to a height to make its restraints necessary.
The wilful man will have his way in spite of the dictates of his reason
or the evidence of his senses either. The study of logic has been
compared to the getting ready and sharpening the tools with which
the mind works out the truth; but all that is of value in it is more like
the natural use of our hands, or resembles the mould in which truth
must be cast, and which is born with us, rather than an external
instrument with which it must be fashioned; for all syllogisms reduce
themselves either to identical propositions, or to certain forms and
relations of ideas in the understanding, which are antecedent to, and
absolutely govern, our conclusions with the rules for drawing them.
The mind cannot make an instrument to make truth, as it contrives
an instrument to make a certain object; for in the latter case, the
object depends upon the act and will of the mind; but in the former,
the mind is passive to the impression of given objects upon it, and
this depends on certain laws over which it has itself no control. Logic
at best only lays down the rules and laws by which our reason
operates; but it must operate according to those rules and laws
equally whether they are adverted to or not, or they could not be laid
down as infallible. Truth is, in a word, the shape which our ideas take
in the moulds of the understanding, just as the potter’s clay derives
its figure (whether round or square) from the mould in which it is
cast. Thus, if we are told that one wine-glass is less than another, and
that the larger wine-glass is less than a third, we know that the third
wine-glass is larger than the first, without either comparing them or
having any general rule to prove it by. We can no more conceive it
otherwise, or do away that regular gradation and proportion between
the objects so defined and characterised, than we can imagine the
same thing to grow bigger and become less at the same time.
Reasoning is allowed (at least by the schoolmen and the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, though not by our wise sceptical moderns)
to be the linking of one judgment on to two others: this and that
being given, why then something else follows. Thus, suppose two
roads to take a diverging direction, you are sure, without measuring,
that the farther you go in the one, the farther you get from the other.
You know that you advance: you infer that you recede. Now the
difficulty lies here—if the premises are the same with the conclusion,
it amounts only to an identical proposition: if they are different, what
is the connection between them? But in the example just given, there
are two circumstances, or properties, stated at the outset of the
question, viz.—not merely the existence, but the direction, of the
road; and to sustain the inference, all that seems necessary is, that
both these circumstances should be borne in mind. For if the road do
not continue to diverge, the conclusion will not hold good; and if it
still continue to diverge, what is this but saying, not only that it
advances, but that it advances in a direction which, by the
supposition, carries it farther at every step from the former road?
That is, two things are affirmed of a given object; the mind sets out
with a complex proposition, and what it has to do is not to forget one
half of it by the way. It would be long enough before the abstract idea
of a road would imply its distance from another; but it would also be
hard if a diverging road—that is, a road that recedes while it
advances—did not recede. A mathematical line and its direction are
not two things, like the feet of a pair of compasses—that while the
line is moving one way, the direction may be going astray in another
—but mutually implied and inseparably connected together in nature
or the understanding—let the realists or idealists determine which
they please. Or, as the wise man said to the daughter of King
Cophetua, ‘That which is, is; for what is that but that, and is but
is?’[58] The worst of the matter is, that the most important
conclusions are not to be so easily enclosed in pews and forms of
words and definitions; and that to catch the truth as it flies, is as nice
a point as hedging the cuckoo: though they say that its wings have
been lately clipped and a pound built for it somewhere in
Westminster. Not to proceed farther in this subject, and get ‘over
shoes, over boots’ in the mire of metaphysics, we shall conclude this
article with what we meant to state at the commencement of it, to wit
—that the commonest form of the syllogism is the worst of all, being
a downright fallacy and petitio principii. It consists in including the
individual in the species, and runs thus: ‘All men are mortal; John is
a man; therefore John is mortal.’ Let any one deny this at his peril;
but what is, or can be gained by such parroting? The first branch of
the premises takes for granted and supposes that you already know
all that you want to prove in the conclusion. For before you are
entitled to assert roundly that all men are mortal, you must know
this of John in particular, who is a man, which is the point you are
labouring to establish; or, if you do not know this of every individual
man, and of John among the rest, then you have no right to make
such a sweeping general assertion, which falls to the ground of itself.
Either the premises are hasty or false, and the conclusion rotten that
way; or if they be sound, and proved as matter-of-fact to the extent
which is pretended, then you have anticipated your conclusion, and
your syllogism is pedantic and superfluous. In fact, this form of the
syllogism is an unmeaning play upon words, or resolves itself into
the merely probable or analogical argument, that because all other
men have died, John, who is one of of them, will die also. The
inference relating to historical truth, and founded on the customary
connection between cause and effect, is very different from logical
proof, or the impossibility of conceiving of certain things otherwise
than as inseparable. Suppose I see a row of pillars before me, and
that I chuse to affirm—‘Those hundred pillars are all of white marble;
the pillar directly facing me is one of the hundred; therefore that
pillar is also of white marble’—would not this be arrant trifling both
with my own understanding and with that of any one who had
patience to hear me? But if I were to see a number of pillars
resembling each other in outward appearance, and on examining all
of them but one, found them of white marble and concluded that that
one was of white marble too, there would be some common sense in
this, but no logic. The mind, however, has a natural bias to wrap up
its conclusions (of whatever kind or degree) in regular forms of
words, and to deposit them in an imposing framework of
demonstration; it prefers the shadow of certainty to the substance of
truth and candour; and will not, if it can help it, leave a single loop-
hole for doubt to creep in at. Hence the tribe of logicians, dogmatists,
and verbal pretenders of all sorts.
 THE LATE MR. CURRAN

The Atlas.]
[April 26, 1829.

This celebrated wit and orator in his latter days was a little in the
back-ground. He had lodgings at Brompton; and riding into town
one day, and hearing two gentlemen in the Park disputing about
Mathews’s Curran, he said—‘In faith, it’s the only Mr. Curran, that is
ever talked of now-a-days.’ He had some qualms about certain
peccadillos of his past life, and wanted to make confessors of his
friends. Certainly, a monastery is no unfit retreat for those who have
been led away by the thoughtless vivacity of youth, and wish to keep
up the excitement by turning the tables on themselves in age. The
crime and the remorse are merely the alternations of the same
passionate temperament. Mr. Curran had a flash of the eye, a
musical intonation of voice, such as we have never known excelled.
Mr. Mathews’s imitation of him, though it had been much admired,
does not come up to the original. Some of his bursts of forensic
eloquence deserve to be immortal, such as that appalling expression
applied to a hired spy and informer, that he ‘had been buried as a
man, and was dug up a witness.’ A person like this might find
language to describe the late shots at Edinburgh. Mr. Curran did not
shine so much in Parliament; but he sometimes succeeded admirably
in turning the laugh against his opponents. He compared the
situation of government after they had brought over a member of
Opposition to their side, and found the renegado of no use to them,
to the story of the country-gentleman who bought Punch and
complained of his turning out dull company. Some of Mr. Curran’s
bon-mots and sallies of humour were first-rate. He sometimes
indulged in poetry, in which he did not excel. His taste in it was but
indifferent. He neither liked Paradise Lost nor Romeo and Juliet. He
had an ear for music, and both played and sung his native ballads
delightfully. He contended that the English had no national music.
He was an enthusiastic admirer of Mrs. Siddons. He said of John
Kemble, that, ‘he had an eye rather to look at than to look with.’ His
great passion was a love of English literature and the society of
literary men. He occasionally found his account in it. Being one day
in a group of philosophers, and the invention of fire being spoken of,
one of the party suggested that it was from seeing a horse’s shoe
strike fire; ‘and I suppose,’ said Curran triumphantly, ‘the horse-shoe
was afterwards made with that fire.’
 THE COURT JOURNAL—A DIALOGUE

The Atlas.]
[June 7, 1829.

M.—Have you seen the Court Journal?

G.—No: I only read some ‘Maxims on Love,’ which I seemed to
have met with in some pre-existent work.
M.—Then you may tell C— from me it will not last three months.
People of fashion do not want to read accounts of themselves, written
by those who know nothing of the matter. This eternal babble about
high life is an affront to every one else, and an impertinence with
respect to those whom it is stupidly meant to flatter. What do those
care about tiresome descriptions of satin ottomans and ormolu
carvings, who are sick of seeing them from morning till night? No!
they would rather read an account of Donald Bean Lean’s Highland
cave, strewed with rushes, or a relation of a row in a night-cellar in
St. Giles’s. What they and all mankind want, is to vary the
monotonous round of their existence; to go out of themselves as
much as possible; and not to have their own oppressive and idle
pretensions served up to them again in a hash of mawkish
affectation. They read Cobbett—it is like an electrical shock to them,
or a plunge in a cold-bath: it braces while it jars their enervated
fibres. He is a sturdy, blunt yeoman: the other is a foppish footman,
dressed up in cast-off finery. Or if Lord L—— is delighted with a
description (not well-done) of his own house and furniture, do you
suppose that Lord H——, who is his rival in gewgaws and upholstery,
will not be equally uneasy at it? As to the vulgar, what they like is to
see fine sights and not to hear of them. They like to get inside a fine
house, to see fine things and touch them if they dare, and not to be
tantalized with a vapid inventory, which does not gratify their senses,
and mortifies their pride and sense of privation. The exaggerated
admiration only makes the exclusion more painful: it is like a staring
sign to a show which one has not money in one’s pocket to pay for
seeing. Mere furniture or private property can never be a subject to
interest the public: the possessor is entitled to the sole benefit of it. If
there were an account in the newspaper that all this finery was burnt
to ashes, then all the world would be eager to read it, saying all the
time how sorry they were, and what a shocking thing it was.
G.—Servants and country people always turn to the accidents and
offences in a newspaper.
M.—And their masters and mistresses too. Did you never read the
Newgate Calendar?
G.—Yes.
M.—Well, that is not genteel. This is what renders the Beggar’s
Opera so delightful; you despise the actors in the scene, and yet the
wit galls and brings down their betters from their airy flight with all
their borrowed plumage, so that we are put absolutely at our ease for
the time with respect to our own darling pretensions. G—— was here
the other evening; he said he thought the Beggar’s Opera came after
Shakspeare. I wonder who put that in his head; it was hardly his own
discovery.
G.—It seems neither Lord Byron nor Burke liked the Beggar’s
Opera.
M.—They were the losers by that opinion: but how do you account
for it?
G.—Lord Byron was a radical peer, Burke an upstart plebeian;
neither of them felt quite secure in the niche where they had
stationed themselves from the random-shots that were flying on the
stage. They could not say with Hamlet, ‘Our withers are unwrung.’ As
to Lord Byron, he might not relish the point of Mrs. Peachum’s
speech, ‘Married a highwayman! Why, hussey, you will be as ill-
treated and as much neglected as if you had married a lord!’ Did you
ever hear the story of Miss ——, when she was quite a girl, going to
see Mrs. Siddons in the Fatal Marriage, and being taken out fainting
into the lobby, and calling out, ‘Oh Biron, Biron!’—‘Egad!’ said the
cool narrator of the story, ‘she has had enough of Byron since!’ With
regard to Burke, there was a rotten core, a Serbonian bog in his
understanding, in which not only Gay’s masterpiece but the whole of
what modern literature, wit, and reason had done for the world, sunk
and was swallowed up in a fetid abyss for ever! But I am sorry you
think no better of the Court Journal. I was in hopes it might succeed,
as a very old friend of mine has something to do with it.
M.—Oh! but mischief must be put a stop to. This is the most
nauseous toad-eating, and it is as awkwardly done as it is ill-meant.
There is a fulsome pretence set up in one paper that rank consists in
birth and blood. It is at once to neutralise all the present race of
fashion. The civil wars of York and Lancaster put an end to almost all
the old nobility—there are none of the Plantagenets left now. Those
who go to court think themselves lucky if they can trace as far back as
the Nell Gwynns and Duchess of Clevelands in Charles the Second’s
days. Besides, all this prejudice about nobility and ancestry should be
understood and worshipped in silence and at a distance, not thrown
in the teeth of such people, as if they had nothing else to boast of.
They should be told of perfections which they have not, as you praise
a wit for her beauty and a fool for her wit. Your friend should read
Count Grammont to learn how to flatter and cajole. Does not Mr. C
—— know enough from experience of the desire of lords and ladies to
turn authors, and shine, not in a ballroom, but on his counter?
G.—He expects the K—— to write; nay, it was with difficulty he was
dissuaded from offering a round sum.
M.—How much, pray?
G.—Five thousand guineas for half a page.
M.—It would not sell a single copy. People would think it was a
hoax and would not buy it. Those who believed it would not read it.
Oh! there is a letter of Louis XVIII. in a late number, on the death of
some lady he was attached to: it is prettily done, but it is such good
English, that I suspect it can hardly be a translation or an original. If
they could procure curious documents of this kind, and had a
magazine of the secrets, anecdotes, and correspondence of people of
high rank, undoubtedly it would answer; but this would be another
edition of the Jockey Club, and very different from its present
insipidity. Even children will not be crammed with honey.
 G.—I understand there is to be no scandal. All the great are to be
supposed to be elegantly good, and to wear virtue with a grace
peculiar to people of fashion.
M.—That will at any rate be new. And then I see there are
criticisms on pictures: the writer is thrown into raptures with the
portraits of Lord and Lady Castlereagh. And this is followed by a
drawling, pitiable account of two little Corregios, as if they were
miracles and had descended from heaven—the ‘Madonna’ and
‘Mercury teaching Cupid to read.’ They are well enough, though Sir
Joshua has done the same thing better. But higher praise could not
be lavished on the ‘St. Jerome’ or the ‘Night at Dresden,’ or the
‘Ceiling at Parma,’ which is his best, though it has fallen into decay.
G.—Collectors think one Corregio just as good as another; and it is
to meet this feeling, probably, that the article is written.