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 A HISTORY OF THE WORLD’S

Religions
A History of the World’s Religions bridges the interval between the founding of religions and their present state,
and gives students an accurate look at the religions of the world by including descriptive and interpretive details
from original source materials. Refined by over forty years of dialogue and correspondence with religious
experts and practitioners around the world, A History of the World’s Religions is widely regarded as the hallmark
of scholarship, fairness, and accuracy in its field. It is also the most thorough yet manageable history of world
religion available in a single volume. A History of the World’s Religions examines the following topics:

• Some Primal and Bygone Religions

• The Religions of South Asia
• The Religions of East Asia
• The Religions of the Middle East

This fourteenth edition is fully updated throughout with new images and inset text boxes to help guide students
and instructors. Complete with figures, timelines and maps, this is an ideal resource for anyone wanting an
accessible and comprehensive introduction to the world’s religions.

David S. Noss taught in the Religion and Philosophy Department of Heidelberg College from 1950 until his
retirement in 1989, although he continued teaching students and advising faculty until his passing in 2010.

Blake R. Grangaard is currently a Professor of Religion at Heidelberg University, USA.

 FOURTEENTH EDITION

A HISTORY OF THE WORLD’S

Religions
David S. Noss

Blake R. Grangaard
Fourteenth edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 Taylor & Francis

The right of David S. Noss and Blake R. Grangaard to be identified as authors of this work has bee
asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Macmillan 1949

Thirteenth edition published by Pearson Education 201

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Noss, David S., author. | Grangaard, Blake R., 1953– author.
Title: A history of the world’s religions / David S. Noss, Blake R. Grangaard.
Description: 14th edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017024926 | ISBN 9781138211681 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138211698 (pbk.) |
ISBN 9781315097886 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Religions—History—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC BL80.3 .N59 2018 | DDC 200.9—dc2
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017024926

ISBN: 978-1-138-21168-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-21169-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-09788-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Minion Pro

by Apex CoVantage, LLC
In Memory of David S. Noss
B RIEF C ONTENTS
PART 1 Some Primal and Bygone Religions 1

1 Religion in Prehistoric and Primal Cultures 2

2 Bygone Religions That Have Left Their Mark on the West 38

PART 2 The Religions of South Asia 81

3 Early Hinduism: The Passage from Ritual Sacrifice to Mystical Union 82

4 Later Hinduism: Religion as the Determinant of Social Behavior 109
5 Jainism: A Study in Asceticism 153
6 Buddhism in Its First Phase: Moderation in World Renunciation 166
7 The Religious Development of Buddhism: Diversity in Paths to Nirvana 189
8 Sikhism: A Study in Syncretism 243

PART 3 The Religions of East Asia 255

9 Native Chinese Religion and Daoism 256

10 Confucius and Confucianism: A Study in Optimistic Humanism 293
11 Shinto: The Native Contribution to Japanese Religion 337

PART 4 The Religions of the Middle East 365

12 Zoroastrianism: A Religion Based on Ethical Dualism 366

13 Judaism in Its Early Phases: From Hebrew Origins to the Exile 388
14 The Religious Development of Judaism 426
15 Christianity in Its Opening Phase: The Words and Work
of Jesus in Apostolic Perspective 462
16 The Religious Development of Christianity 494
17 Islam: The Religion of Submission to God: Beginnings 555
18 The Shı-‘ah Alternative and Regional Developments 595

ix
C ONTENTS
Map ii
Preface xvii
Timeline xviii

PART 1 Some Primal and Bygone Religions 1

1 Religion in Prehistoric and Primal Cultures 2

I. Beginnings: Religion in Prehistoric Cultures 2
II. Basic Terminology: Characteristics of Religion in Primal Cultures 8
III. Case Study: The Dieri of Southeast Australia 18
IV. Case Study: The BaVenda of South Africa 24
V. Case Study: The Cherokees of the Southeastern Woodlands 26
Glossary 35

2 Bygone Religions That Have Left Their Mark

on the West 38
I. Mesopotamia 38
II. Greece 46
III. Rome 58
IV. Europe Beyond the Alps 65
V. Mesoamerica: The Maya 71
Glossary 77

xi
xii CONTENTS

PART 2 The Religions of South Asia 81

3 Early Hinduism: The Passage from Ritual

Sacrifice to Mystical Union 82
I. The Religion of the Vedic Age 83
II. Brahmanism, Caste, and Ceremonial Life 93
Glossary 106

4 Later Hinduism: Religion as the Determinant

of Social Behavior 109
I. Changes in Brahmanism: The Four Goals and the Three Ways 110
II. The Three Ways of Salvation 112
III. The Devotional Life 137
IV. Issues and Problems of the Present 141
Glossary 150

5 Jainism: A Study in Asceticism 153

I. Mahavira’s Manner of Life 155
II. Philosophy and Ethics of Jainism 158
III. Mahavira’s Followers 162
Glossary 164

6 Buddhism in Its First Phase: Moderation

in World Renunciation 166
I. Life of the Founder 167
II. The Teachings of the Buddha 176
Glossary 186

7 The Religious Development of Buddhism:

Diversity in Paths to Nirvana 189
I. The Spread of Buddhism in India and Southeast Asia 191
II. The Rise of the Mahayana in India 199
III. The Spread of Buddhism in Northern Lands 200
IV. The Help-of-Others Message of the Mahayana 205
V. The Mahayana Philosophies of Religion 208
 CONTENTS xiii

VI. Mahayana Schools of Thought in China and Japan 214

VII. Buddhism in Tibet 225
VIII. Buddhism Today 232
Glossary 238

8 Sikhism: A Study in Syncretism 243

I. The Life and Work of Nanak 244
II. Nanak’s Teaching 247
III. The Political History of Sikhism 249
Glossary 253

PART 3 The Religions of East Asia 255

9 Native Chinese Religion and Daoism 256

I. The Basic Elements of Chinese Religion 256
II. Daoism as a Philosophy (Dao-Jia) 268
III. Daoism as Magic and Religion (Dao-Jiao) 279
Glossary 290

10 Confucius and Confucianism: A Study

in Optimistic Humanism 293
I. The Man Confucius 294
II. The Teachings of Confucius 296
III. The Confucian School: Its Rivals and Champions 309
IV. Neo-Confucianism 323
V. The State Cult of Confucius 327
VI. Religion in China in the Modern Period 329
Glossary 332

11 Shinto: The Native Contribution to

Japanese Religion 337
I. The Background of Shinto 338
II. The Shinto Myth 340
III. Shinto in Medieval and More Recent Times 343
IV. State Shinto to 1945 348
xiv CONTENTS

V. Shinto and the Warrior 353

VI. Shrine Shinto Today 357
VII. Domestic and Sectarian Shinto 359
Glossary 362

PART 4 The Religions of the Middle East 365

12 Zoroastrianism: A Religion Based

on Ethical Dualism 366
I. Iranian Religion before Zoroaster 367
II. The Life and Teachings of Zoroaster 369
III. The Religion of the Later Avesta 375
IV. The Zoroastrians of the Present Day 381
Glossary 386

13 Judaism in Its Early Phases: From

Hebrew Origins to the Exile 388
I. The Religion of the Pre-Mosaic Hebrews 389
II. Moses and the Covenant with Yahweh (about 1250 BCE) 392
III. Entering Canaan and Confronting the Baals 398
IV. Prophetic Protest and Reform 402
V. The Babylonian Exile 416
Glossary 423

14 The Religious Development of Judaism 426

I. The Rise of Judaism in the Restoration Period 426
II. New Trends of Thought in the Greek and Maccabean
Periods 432
III. The Roman Period to 70 CE 437
IV. The Great Dispersion 439
V. The Making of the Talmud 442
VI. The Jews in the Middle Ages 445
VII. Judaism in the Modern World 452
Glossary 460
 CONTENTS xv

15 Christianity in Its Opening Phase: The Words and

Work of Jesus in Apostolic Perspective 462
I. The World into Which Jesus Came 464
II. The Life of Jesus: The First Phase 466
III. The Themes of Jesus’s Teaching 470
IV. The Climactic Events 476
V. The Apostolic Age 480
VI. The Early Church (50–150 CE) 486
Glossary 492

16 The Religious Development of Christianity 494

I. The Ancient Catholic Church (150–1054 CE) 494
II. The Eastern Orthodox Churches 507
III. The Roman Catholic Church in the Middle Ages 510
IV. The Protestant Reformation 521
V. The Catholic Reformation 530
VI. Crosscurrents in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 532
VII. Eastern Orthodoxy in the Modern World 536
VIII. Catholicism in the Modern World 537
IX. Protestantism in the Modern World 541
X. Recent Theological Trends 548
Glossary 552

17 Islam: The Religion of Submission

to God: Beginnings 555
I. Arabian Beliefs and Practices Before Muh.ammad 556
II. The Prophet Muh.ammad 560
III. The Faith and Practice of Islam 567
IV. The Spread of Islam 576
V. The First Five Centuries of Muslim Thought 580
Glossary 591

18 The Shı-‘ah Alternative and Regional Developments 595

I. The Party (Shı-‘ah) of ‘Alı- 595
II. Further Developments 601
xvi CONTENTS

III. Islam and Culture 604

IV. Issues in the Modern Period 607
V. Regional Developments 610
VI. Movements toward Innovation and Syncretism 621
Glossary 624

Index 627
P REFACE
Now and then some wag might greet a new discov-
ery with, “They’re gonna have to rewrite the history
books!” It isn’t time to “rewrite” this book, but it is
time to update it and to take note of some suggested
changes to the story. In several places, the reader will
find text boxes labelled “An Alternate View.” Their
purpose is to acknowledge that history is always
being written and rewritten, learned and relearned,
in light of new evidence and new interpretations of
old evidence. These “Alternates” are not compre-
hensive presentations but rather teasers to point the
interested students toward an area of their own pos-
sible investigation.
WHAT’S NEW TO THIS EDITION
• updated statistics throughout are based on
the Pew Research Center study, The Changing
Global Religious Landscape, released in 2017
• maps have been updated to correct borders and
population percentages
• text boxes introduce “An Alternate View” of a
religion’s origins
• material that interrupts the flow of the historical
narrative now appears in shaded sidebars
What is not new to this edition is a change of
focus. The book remains a one-volume history of
religions, directed to teachers and students. Two spe-
cial needs identified by John B. Noss in the first edi-
tion continue to guide this composition: to include
“descriptive and interpretative details from the orig-
inal source materials” and “to bridge the interval
between the founding of religions and their present
state.”
I encourage readers to contact me with sug-
gestions or corrections. Special thanks to Heidel-
berg University colleagues Omar Malik and Marc
O’Reilly for many profitable conversations and val-
uable input. Thank you also to Eve Mayer, Rebecca
Shillabeer, Sarah Gore and their associates at Rout-
ledge, Taylor and Francis group for their attention
to this project.
xvii
 PART

1
Some Primal and
Bygone Religions
CHAPTER
1
Religion in Prehistoric and
Primal Cultures
Facts in Brief
WORLDWIDE POPULATION IN PRIMAL CULTURES:
ca. 94 million
SACRED TRADITION: Oral, pictorial, or
transmitted through artifacts
CASE STUDIES: Primal cultures of the recent past:
The Dieri of Australia
Date of study, ca. 1865
Population, ca. 10,000
N
one of us can hope to see the world through
the eyes of our prehistoric ancestors. We
pore over their cave paintings, their imple-
ments, the disposition of bodies and artifacts in their
burial sites, and we make conjectures. We do, how-
ever, have a clearer view of primal religions in our
own time. (The term primal is here used to refer to
religions in an original state, that is, confined to a rel-
atively small cultural setting, isolated, not branching
from other religions, and “not exported.”) Although
there is no clear warrant for interpreting the probable
intentions of prehistoric people by analogy to those
of more recent primal cultures, we find ourselves
taking note of parallels simply because there are no
alternative models to inform our suppositions. We
should view the analogies with caution.
Conjectures about prehistoric cultures and
observations of isolated primal cultures in the recent
past converge on one vital function of religion: the
linking of the visible, everyday world with powerful
unseen forces and spirits. In this regard, the lives of
ancient peoples were far more intimately interwoven
The BaVenda of South Africa
Date of study, ca. 1920
Population, ca. 150,000
The Cherokees of Southeastern United
States
Date of study, ca. 1825
Population, ca. 18,000
with the forces of nature than moderns can readily
conceptualize. It is our habit to objectify: the sudden
storm is a product of colliding air masses; an eclipse
is a product of planetary orbits; the deceased grand-
father in a dream is a product of brain function. In
ancient or primal cultures, the storm, the eclipse,
and the dream appear not as objects but as “others”
in a subject-to-subject mode. In a profound sense,
this meant an enlargement of the scope of religious
encounter. To understand such a worldview puts
special demands upon our powers of empathy.
I. BEGINNINGS: RELIGION IN
PREHISTORIC CULTURES
O ancient cousin,
O Neanderthaler!
What shapes beguiled, what shadows
fled across
Your early mind?
 CHAPTER 1 Religion in Prehistoric and Primal Cultures
Here are your bones,
And hollow crumbled skull,
And here your shapen flints—the last
inert
Mute witnesses to so long vanished
strength.
What loves had you,
What words to speak,
What worships,
Cousin?
—J. B. Noss
If we could find answers to these questions, they might
help us determine when and how religion began. If
the attribution “religious” requires evidence of regu-
larized practices apparently aimed at making sense of
the world and controlling nonhuman forces, then the
Neanderthals may have been the first to be identifiabl
religious. Perhaps they were not, but their immediate
Prehistoric and Primal Sites.
3
predecessors (Homo habilis, erectus, and heidelber-
gensis)—though they left us shaped stone tools, weap-
ons, fire pits, and collections of human skulls—did
not leave us a comparable amount of evidence.
The Old Stone Age
NEANDERTHALS
TheNeanderthal people, who flourished from 230,000
down to 30,000 years ago over an area stretching from
southern Spain across Europe to Hungary and Israel,
are regarded today as probably a separate species,
replaced by Homo sapiens rather than blending into
it. Nevertheless, their graves furnish the earliest clear
evidence of religious practice in the Old Stone Age.
Some of the dead were given careful burial. Along-
side the bodies, which were usually in a crouching
position, there were food offerings (of which broken
bones remain) and flint implements—hand axes, awls,
4 PART 1 Some Primal and Bygone Religions

and chipped scrapers. It is generally assumed that such hazardous the existence of the Neanderthal people
objects were left to serve the dead in an afterlife. Other whom they replaced. In the warmer months, like the
grave offerings were less utilitarian and more purely Neanderthals before them, they lived a more or less
expressive: a body in the Shanidar cave in Iraq was nomadic life following their game; during the colder
covered with at least eight species of flowers! Ther seasons, they used caves and shelters or lean-tos
also are signs of other forms of ritualized veneration. under cliffs. They lived by gathering roots and wild
TheNeanderthals apparently treated the cave bear fruits and by hunting, their larger prey being bison,
with special reverence. They hunted it at great peril to aurochs, an occasional mammoth, and especially
themselves and seem to have respected its spirit even the reindeer and the wild horse. Evidence of their
after it was dead. They appear to have set aside cer- hunting prowess has been found at their open-air
tain cave bear skulls, without removing the brains—a camp, discovered at Solutré in south central France,
great delicacy—and also certain long (or marrow) where archaeologists have unearthed the bones of
bones, and to have placed them with special care in 100,000 horses, along with reindeer, mammoths, and
their caves on elevated slabs of stone, on shelves, or bison—the remains of centuries of feasting. The Cro-
in niches, probably in order to make them the center Magnons never tamed and domesticated the horse,
of some kind of ritual. Whether their bear cult, if it but they found it good eating. The horse, bearded and
was such, was a propitiation of the bear spirit during a small, moved in large herds, was highly vulnerable to
ritual feast, a form of hunting magic to ensure the suc- attack, and was not dangerous.
cess of the next hunt, or a sacrifice or votive offering to
some divinity having to do with the interrelations of
human and bear is a matter of conjecture.
Another subject of debate is the Neanderthal
treatment of human skulls. Some of the skulls are
found, singly or in series, without the accompaniment
of the other bones of the body, each decapitated and
opened at the base in such a way as to suggest that
the brains were extracted and eaten. The evidence
is inconclusive about whether the emptied skulls
were placed in a ritual position for memorial rites or
whether the Neanderthal people were headhunters
who ate the brains in some sacramental way of sacrifi
cial victims, the newly dead, or enemies to acquire the
soul force in them. The fact that not all bodies were
buried intact and that large bones of the human body
were often split open to the marrow suggests that
human cadavers were a source of food, whether or not
they were sometimes consumed in a ritual fashion.
When we come to the later and higher culture
levels of the Old Stone Age, beginning 30,000 years
ago—to the period of the so-called Cro-Magnon peo-
ple of Europe and their African and Asian peers—we
are left in less doubt about the precise nature of Old
Stone Age religious conviction and practice.
The Shaman of Les Trois Frères This Cro-Magnon
THE CRO-MAGNONS
shaman wears a costume made out of reindeer
The Cro-Magnons were members of the species antlers, the ears of a stag, eyes of an owl, beard
Homo sapiens, more fully developed in the direc- of a man, paws of a bear, tail of a horse, and a
tion of the species today and even somewhat taller patchwork of animal skins. The feet are human.
and more rugged than the modern norm. They came He is perhaps engaged in a hunting dance. (The
into a milder climate than that which had made so Print Collector/Alamy)
 CHAPTER 1 Religion in Prehistoric and Primal Cultures 5

In a somewhat similar fashion as the Neander- as well—attempts to control events. That there were
thals, the Cro-Magnons buried their dead, choos- specialists among them who were magicians (or
ing the same types of burial sites, not unnaturally, even priests) seems beyond doubt. A vivid mural in
at the mouths of their grottos or near their shelters; the cavern of Les Trois Frères shows a masked man,
they surrounded the body, which was usually placed with a long beard and human feet, who is arrayed
under a protective stone slab, with ornaments such as in reindeer antlers, the ears of a stag, the paws of a
shell bracelets and hair circlets, and with stone tools, bear, and the tail of a horse, and probably represents
weapons, and food. Because some of the bones found
at the grave sites were charred, it is possible—but it is
conjecture—that the survivors returned to the grave
to feast with the dead during a supportive communal
meal. Of great interest is the fact that they practiced
the custom of painting or pouring red coloring mat-
ter (red ochre) on the body at burial, or at a later time
on the bones during a second burial.

CAVE PAINTING: MAGIC FOR THE HUNT

Constantly surrounded as we are by casually pro-
duced pictures of every sort, it is difficul for us to
comprehend the power that created images must
have had for our prehistoric ancestors. Those paint-
ings and engravings that survive were not casually
produced. They required an investment of effort that
could only have come from a strong sense of purpose.
Caves in the Franco Cantabrian region preserve
marvels of Cro-Magnon art (40,000–10,000 bce ).
Paintings, clay figurines, and engravings on bone depict
human figures, fertility symbols, and especially animals
of the hunt: bison, reindeer, bears, and mammoths.
Many of the engravings and paintings were exe-
cuted on the walls of gloomy caves by the light from
torches or shallow soapstone lamps fed with fat. So
far from the cave’s mouth and in such nearly inacces-
sible places did the artists usually do their work that
they could hardly have intended an everyday display
of their murals. What then did they have in mind?
The answer that seems the most consistent with
all the facts is that the practices of the Cro-Magnons
included, to begin with, a religio-aesthetic impulse,
the celebration of a sense of kinship and interaction
between animal and human spirits, which Rachel The “Venus” of Willendorf The conventional
Levy calls “a participation in the splendour of the “Venus” ascription is inappropriate. This Upper
beasts which was of the nature of religion itself.”A* But Paleolithic limestone figure is not a goddess of
there seem to have been magico-religious purposes love in a pantheon of deities, and she is not a
model of seductive beauty. The ovoid abdo-
men and thighs and the thin arms pressing
* In this book, the sources of all quotations are designated by a small capital down as though in breast-feeding signify abun-
letter, followed by a number if a book is quoted from more than once. Books dant procreative and nurturing capacity. This
quoted from are listed in the section “References” and are designated by
capital letters. This device is adopted for the convenience of readers and to is the fecund goddess as lifegiver. (World History
save space. Archive/Alamy)
6 PART 1 Some Primal and Bygone Religions
a well-known figure in primal communities, the sha-
man, a person who is especially attuned to the spirit
world and called upon to deal with it on behalf of
others. Whether or not the shamans were the actual
artists, they probably led in ceremonies that made
magical use of the paintings and clay figures. Just as
in primal cultures of today it is believed that an image
or a picture can be a magical substitute for the object
of which it is the representation, so the Cro-Magnons
may have felt that creating an image of an animal
subjected it to the image maker’s power. The magical
use made of the realistic murals and plastic works of
the Paleolithic era is suggested in several clear exam-
ples. In the cavern of Montespan there is a clay figure
of a bear whose body is covered with representations
of dart thrusts. Similarly, in the cavern of Niaux, an
engraved and painted bison is marked with rudely
painted outlines of spears and darts, mutely indicat-
ing the climax of some primeval hunt; evidently the
excited Cro-Magnon hunters (gathering before the
hunt? ) ceremonially anticipated and ensured their
success by having their leaders (shamans or priests?)
paint representations of their hunting weapons upon
the body of their intended quarry, so vividly pictured
on the cave’s wall.
THE FECUND GODDESS-MOTHER
Another motif quite different from magic for the
hunt appears in Upper Paleolithic paintings and
carvings. Tiny sculpted figures of the human female,
usually four to six inches high, emphasized fecundity:
hips, buttocks, breasts, thighs, and vulva are sculpted
into an oviform fullness. In classifying goddess sym-
bols, Marija Gimbutas has called this creviced dou-
ble “the power of two”: intensified fertility. Cave
paintings also deal with fertility magic. One mural
shows mares in foal, and another, in the rock shel-
ter of Cogul, Spain, depicts nine women surrounding
a naked male, who seems to be either the subject of
a tribal initiation at puberty or the leader in a ritual
connected with fertility magic.
It thus appears that Paleolithic cultures employed
both fertility and hunting magic, with evident faith in
their value as methods of control.
BURIAL CUSTOMS
The beliefs implicit in the burial customs of the
Cro-Magnons and related peoples of the Upper
Paleolithic period have direct religious significance
Because the dead, or their bones, were covered with
red paint (symbolizing, no doubt, the redness of the
lifeblood), the belief cannot have been less than that
the dead survived in some real sense, although there
may have been no conception of the survival of a
nonphysical spiritual entity; whatever survived had
a ghostly corporality and actual bodily needs and
desires.
The Upper Paleolithic peoples also had a bear
cult, not unlike that of the Neanderthals; they may
have wished to propitiate a bear god, or to keep it
in a favorable frame of mind. If so, however, they
also applied coercive measures (magic); as shown
by their murals and clay figures of bears, the clay
images sometimes punctured with wounds and the
painted figures spouting blood from mouth, nostrils,
and body wounds, apparently in the death agony.
Clearly, whatever religion they had was inextricably
combined with procedures designed to ensure hunt-
ing success.
The Middle Stone Age
This brings us to the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
(beginning about 10,000 bce ), the transitional age
that saw the vanishing of the ice sheet and a gradual
Shrine from Çatal Hüyük, Central Anatolia In
this reconstruction of a structure from the seventh
millennium BCE, bulls’ heads stack up beneath
a “birthgiving goddess” (unseen). A symbol of
fertility, the bulls may have served to assert or
strengthen the birth-giver’s powers. (Neolithic/
Museum of Anatolian Civilisations, Ankara, Turkey/De
Agostini Picture Library/G. Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Images)
 CHAPTER 1 Religion in Prehistoric and Primal Cultures 7

shift from nomadic to village life. The nomadic
hunters, who stalked animals through the forests
springing up behind the retreating ice caps and
continued to use Old Stone Age spears and cutting
tools to kill and dismember their prey, were gradu-
ally outnumbered and displaced by stationary tribes.
These tribes were able to supplement the meat sup-
plied by hunters and the berries, grain, fruits, and
edible plants gathered by women and children with
fish caught by bone hooks and fiber nets, all of this
in more or less fixed locations. The hunters, skill-
ful in their use of bows and arrows, were now aided
by domesticated dogs that joined them in the hunt.
Fishermen, too, could now use dugout canoes to
increase their catch.
W. H. McNeill aptly suggests the new directions
taken by religion at this time.
A critical turn must have come when
collectors of wild-growing grain came
to understand that allowing a portion
of the seed to fall to the ground at har-
vest time assured an increased crop in
the following year. Perhaps this idea was
connected with concepts of the spirit of
the grain, propitiation of that spirit, and
the reward that befitted a pious har-
vester who left part of the precious seed
behind.B
It may have been that the mother goddess idea
was extended to include her stimulation of the seed
springing from the soil in the form of edible plants,
for the earth was early conceived to be a fertile and
productive mother.
The relics of this age suggest an awe of nature—
numerous round symbols of the sun and moon;
stones and pillars, which were probably venerated;
and suggestions of star and
tree worship. The mingling of
been preserved, covered with crude symbols prob-
ably having magical significance, although this may
not afford a correct explanation of their use, because
no one can at this distance be sure what they really
meant.
The Neolithic Age
The Neolithic age (7,000–3,000 bce ) is distinguished
by several revolutionary developments: early forms
of agriculture, with active tilling of the soil; domesti-
cation of animals and their gathering into flocks and
herds; advances in the arts of pottery, plaiting, weav-
ing, and sewing; establishment of settled communi-
ties, accompanied by great growth in the population;
the building of permanent housing; the invention of
wheeled carts; and the first surgery.
Further developments occurred in religion. The
mythic mother goddess or great goddess of earlier
hunting cultures had been generally associated with
creation and regeneration. Now agriculture directed
its attention more closely to the miraculous earth.
Female divine power went beyond the animal models
of birthing and nurturing to watering, tending, and
protecting the whole world of vegetation: there were
mistresses of waters and a vegetation goddess of the
pregnant earth. Studies of Old Europe (centered in
the Balkans), conducted by Marija Gimbutas, reveal
a pantheon of mostly female deities subsequently
obscured, but not fully displaced, by later Indo-
European patriarchal and gender-polarized views.
In Old Europe the world of myth was not
polarized into female and male as it was
among the Indo-European and many
other nomadic and pastoral peoples of
the steppes. Both principles were mani-
fest side by side . . . The male god, the
primeval Dionysus, is

old fears with a certain sophis-
tication rising from the power
obtained through the use of
new inventions is shown in
the fact that axes and spears
were seemingly venerated
as fetishes. That magic had
grown into a complex sys-
“
The main theme of
Goddess symbolism is the
mystery of birth and death
and the renewal of life, not
only human but all life on
earth and indeed in the whole
saturated with a mean-
ing closely related to
that of the Great God-
dess in her aspect of
the Virgin Nature God-
dess and Vegetation
Goddess. All are gods
of Nature’s life cycle,

”
concerned with the
tem is suggested by the many Cosmos. —Marija Gimbutas C problem of death and
painted pebbles that have regeneration, and all
8 PART 1 Some Primal and Bygone Religions
are worshipped as symbols of exuber-
ant life.
The pantheon reflects a society
dominated by the mother. The role
of woman was not subject to that of
a man, and much that was created
between the inception of the Neolithic
and the blossoming of the Minoan civ-
ilization was a result of that structure in
which all resources of human nature,
feminine and masculine, were utilized to
the full as a creative force.D
We shall pick up the story of the Minoan civili-
zation in the next chapter. But to prepare for further
study of the early development of religions we need to
clarify some of the terms commonly in use. (It will be
readily apparent that the same terms are also applica-
ble to aspects of contemporary developed religions.)
II. BASIC TERMINOLOGY:
CHARACTERISTICS OF
RELIGION IN PRIMAL
CULTURES
The following descriptions of the individual charac-
teristics of ancient and primal religions are peculiarly
modern and “rational.” The subdivisions represent
the manner in which we understand things, but would
never have occurred to the people they describe.
1. AWE BEFORE THE SACRED
Human beings regard anything sacred or holy with
ambivalent feelings: fear struggles with attraction.
Like a child before a huge bonfire the believer trembles
with mingled dread and fascination. Rudolph Otto
used this image in his famous study The Idea of the
Holy, distinguishing “the holy” from moral perfection
or intellectual respect, calling it “the numinous.” He
characterized it as a mysterium
“
tremendum et fascinans.
In most tribal communi- [The numinous is] a
ties, the sacred possesses such special term to stand for
significance that no one deals
‘the holy’ minus its moral
with it carelessly or casually. It
is defined, not by the kind of factor . . . and minus its ‘rational’
”
causation behind it (in mod- aspect. —Rudolph OttoE
ern terms “natural” or “super-
natural”), but by potency: thus,
a sneeze may be perceived as expelling a “spirit,” but
it may be a commonplace spirit, not one potent with
sacred significance.
Sacred potency may be either enlivening or
deadly, a power for quick good or bad, and it may be
one’s attitude toward it that will determine whether
good or bad will ensue. Theproper approach therefore
is with a sense of holy mystery, awe, and reverence.
. . . and today . . .
No one thinks of a sneeze as an awesome
encounter with the spirit world. Yet the
demon-repelling “God bless you” response
harks back to a view that, in ousting an irritat-
ing spirit, the soul might momentarily leave the
body unguarded (as the loss of consciousness
might suggest) and in its moment of absence
allow another evil spirit to get in.
2. EXPRESSION OF ANXIETY
OF RITUAL
A certain anxiety exists in the presence of the sacred.
Will the holy power be stirred to action? Will this
action be favorable? As soon as this anxiety arises,
there is a need to act and speak in ways that may
promise a favorable outcome. This is one of the fun-
damental bases of all religious ritual. Malinowski, the
famous anthropologist, has put this point well as far
as magical rituals are concerned.
In a maritime community depending on
the products of the sea there is never
magic connected with the collect-
ing of shellfish or with fishing by poison,
weirs, and fish traps, so long as these are
completely reliable. On the other hand,
any dangerous, hazardous, and uncer-
tain type of fishing is
surrounded by ritual. In
hunting, the simple and
reliable ways of trap-
ping or killing are con-
trolled by knowledge
and skill alone; but
let there be any dan-
ger or any uncertainty
connected with an
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 COMPÔTE OF BARBERRIES FOR DESSERT.

When this fruit is first ripe it requires, from its excessive acidity,
nearly its weight of sugar to render it palatable; but after hanging
some time upon the trees it becomes much mellowed in flavour, and
may be sufficiently sweetened with a smaller proportion. According
to the state of the fruit then, take for each pound (leaving it in
bunches) from twelve to sixteen ounces of sugar, and boil it with
three-quarters of a pint of water until it forms a syrup. Throw in the
bunches of fruit, and simmer them for five or six minutes. If their
weight of sugar be used, they will become in that time perfectly
transparent. As all vessels of tin affect the colour of the barberries,
they should be boiled in a copper stewpan, or in a German
enamelled one, which would be far better.
Barberries, 1 lb.; sugar, 12 to 16 oz.; water, 3/4 pint; fruit simmered
in syrup, 5 to 6 minutes.
 BLACK CAPS PAR EXCELLENCE.

(For the Second-course, or for Dessert.)

Cut a dozen fine Norfolk biffins in two without paring them, scoop
out the cores, and fill the cavities with thin strips of fresh lemon-rind
and with candied orange-peel. Cover the bottom of a flat shallow tin
with a thick layer of fine pale brown sugar, press the two halves of
each apple together, and place them closely in the tin; pour half a
bottle of raisin or of any other sweet wine over them, and be careful
to moisten the tops of all; sift white sugar thickly on them, and set the
tin into a very hot oven at first, that the outsides of the apples may
catch or become black; then draw them to the mouth of the oven,
and bake them gently until they are soft quite through. The Norfolk
biffin answers for this dish far better than any other kind of apple, but
the winter queening, and some few firm sorts beside, can be used
for it with fair success. These for variety may be cored without being
divided, and filled with orange marmalade. The black caps served
hot, as a second-course dish, are excellent.
Norfolk biffins, 12; rinds fresh lemons, 1 to 2; candied orange-rind,
2 to 3 oz.; pale brown sugar, 3/4 lb.; raisin or other wine, 1/2 bottle;
little sifted sugar: 3/4 to 1 hour, or more.
Obs.—The apples dressed as above resemble a rich confection,
and will remain good for ten days or a fortnight; sometimes much
longer even. The receipt is an admirable one.
 GATEAU DE POMMES.

Boil together for fifteen minutes a pound of well-refined sugar and

half a pint of water; then add a couple of pounds of nonsuches, or of
any other finely-flavoured apples which can be boiled easily to a
smooth pulp, and the juice of a couple of small, or of one very large
lemon. Stew these gently until the mixture is perfectly free from
lumps, then boil it quickly, keeping it stirred, without quitting it, until it
forms a very thick and dry marmalade. A few minutes before it is
done add the finely grated rinds of a couple of lemons; when it
leaves the bottom of the preserving-pan visible and dry, press it into
moulds of tasteful form; and either store it for winter use, or if wanted
for table, serve it plain for rice-crust, or ornament it with spikes of
blanched almonds, and pour a custard round it for a second-course
dish (entremets).
Sugar, 1 lb.; water, 1/2 pint: 15 minutes. Nonsuches or other
apples, 2 lbs.; juice, 1 large or 2 small lemons: 2 hours or more.
 GATEAU OF MIXED FRUITS. (GOOD.)

Extract the juice from some fresh red currants by simmering them
very gently for a few minutes over a slow fire: strain it through a
folded muslin, and to one pound of it add a pound and a half of
nonsuches or of freshly gathered codlings, pared, and rather deeply
cored, that the fibrous part of the apple may be avoided. Boil these
quite slowly until the mixture is perfectly smooth, then, to evaporate
part of the moisture, let the boiling be quickened. In from twenty-five
to thirty minutes draw the pan from the fire, and throw in gradually a
pound and a quarter of sugar in fine powder: mix it well with the fruit,
and when it is dissolved continue the boiling rapidly for twenty
minutes longer, keeping the mixture constantly stirred; put it into a
mould, and store it, when cold, for winter use, or serve it for rice-
crust, or for the second course: in the latter case decorate it with
spikes of blanched almonds, or pistachio-nuts, and heap solid
whipped cream round it, or pour a custard into the dish. For rice-
crust it may be garnished with dice of the palest apple-jelly.
Juice of red currants, 1 lb.; nonsuches, or codlings (pared and
cored), 1-1/2 lb.: 25 to 30 minutes. Sugar, 1-1/2 lb.: 20 minutes.
Obs.—A portion of raspberries, if still in season, may be mixed
with the currants for this gâteau, should the flavour be liked.
For other and excellent varieties of gâteaux of fruit, see Newton
solid, and damson solid, Chapter XXIV. Ripe peaches and
nonsuches will likewise do well for it. Codlings answer perfectly for
the preceding receipt, and the preparation is of fine colour and very
pleasant flavour: it ought to cut in clear firm slices. Other varieties of
fruit can be mingled in the same manner.
 JELLIES.

CALF’S FEET JELLY. (ENTREMETS.)

We hear inexperienced
housekeepers frequently
complain of the difficulty of
rendering this jelly perfectly
transparent; but by mixing with
the other ingredients, while quite
cold, the whites, and the
crushed shells of a sufficient
number of eggs, and allowing
the head of scum which gathers
on the jelly to remain Modern Jelly Mould.
undisturbed after it once forms,
they will scarcely fail to obtain it
clear. It should be strained through a thick flannel, or beaver-skin,
bag of a conical form (placed before the fire, should the weather be
at all cold, or the mixture will jelly before it has run through), and if
not perfectly clear it must be strained, again and again, until it
becomes so; though we generally find that once suffices. Mix
thoroughly in a large stewpan five half-pints of strong calf’s feet stock
(see page 453), a full pint of sherry, half a pound of sugar roughly
powdered, the juice of two fine lemons, the rind of one and a half cut
very thin, the whites and shells of four large eggs, and half an ounce
of isinglass. Let these remain a few minutes off the fire, that the
sugar may dissolve more easily; then let the jelly be brought to boil
gradually, and do not stir it after it begins to heat. When it has boiled
gently for sixteen minutes, draw it from the fire, and let it stand a
short time before it is poured into a jelly-bag, under which a bowl
should be placed to receive it. When clear and cool, put it into
moulds which have been laid for some hours in water: these should
always be of earthenware in preference to metal. If to be served in
glasses, or roughed, the jelly will be sufficiently firm without the
isinglass, of which, however, we recommend a small quantity to be
thrown in always when the jelly begins to boil, as it facilitates the
clearing.
Calf’s feet stock, 2-1/2 pints; sugar, 1/2 lb.; sherry, 1 pint; juice of
lemons, 2 large; rind of 1-1/2; whites and shells of eggs, 4 large, or 5
small: 16 minutes.
Obs. 1.—After the jelly has dropped through the bag, an
exceedingly agreeable beverage may be obtained by pouring in
some boiling water; from one to three half pints, according to the
quantity of jelly which has been made. The same plan should be
pursued in making orange or lemon jelly for an invalid.
Obs. 2.—As it is essential to the transparency of calf’s feet jelly of
all kinds that the whole of the ingredients should be quite cold when
they are mixed, and as the stock can only be measured in a liquid
state, to which it must be reduced by heating, the better plan is, to
measure it when it is first strained from the feet, and to put apart the
exact quantity required for a receipt; but when this has not been
done, and it is necessary to liquefy it, it must be left until quite cold
again before it is used. For the manner of preparing and clarifying it,
see the beginning of this chapter.
 ANOTHER RECEIPT FOR CALF’S FEET JELLY.

To four calf’s feet well cleaned and divided, pour a gallon of water
and let them stew until it is reduced to rather less than two quarts; or
if, after the flesh has quite fallen from the bones, the liquor on being
strained off should exceed that quantity, reduce it by rapid boiling in
a clean uncovered pan over a very clear fire. When it is perfectly firm
and cold, take it clear of fat and sediment, and add to it a bottle of
sherry, which should be of good quality (for poor, thin wines are not
well adapted to the purpose), three-quarters of a pound of sugar
broken small, the juice of five large or of six moderate-sized lemons,
and the whites, with the shells finely crushed, of seven eggs, or of
more should they be very small. The rinds of three lemons, pared
exceedingly thin, may be thrown into the jelly a few minutes before it
is taken from the fire; or they may be put into the jelly-bag previously
to its being poured through, when they will impart to it a slight and
delicate flavour, without deepening its colour much. If it is to be
moulded, something more than half an ounce of isinglass should be
dropped lightly in where the liquid becomes visible through the head
of scum, when the mixture begins to boil; for if not sufficiently firm, it
will break when it is dished. It may be roughed, or served in glasses
without this addition; and in a liquid state will be found an admirable
ingredient for Oxford, or other punch.
Calf’s feet, 4; water, 1 gallon: to be reduced more than half.
Sherry, 1 bottle; sugar, 3/4 lb. (more to taste); juice of 5 large
lemons, or of six moderate-sized; whites and shells of 7 eggs, or
more if small; rinds of lemons, 3 (for moulding, nearly 3/4 oz. of
isinglass): 15 to 20 minutes.
Obs.—An excellent and wholesome jelly for young people may be
made with good orange or raisin wine, instead of sherry; to either of
these the juice of three or four oranges, with a small portion of the
rind, may be added instead of part of the lemons.
 MODERN VARIETIES OF CALF’S FEET JELLY.

In modern cookery a number of excellent jellies are made with the

stock of calves’ feet, variously flavoured. Many of them are
compounded entirely without wine, a small quantity of some fine
liqueur being used as a substitute; and sometimes cinnamon, or
vanilla, or Seville orange-rind with a slight portion of acid, takes
place of this. For aristocratic tables, indeed, it is the present fashion
to serve them very lightly and delicately flavoured. Their cost is thus
materially diminished. Fresh strawberries dropped into clear calf’s
feet jelly just before it sets, impart a delicious fragrance to it, when
they are of a choice kind; and other fruit is mingled with it often; but
none has so good an effect, though many sorts when tastefully
employed give an excellent appearance to it. The Belgrave mould, of
which the description will be found at page 470, is well adapted for
highly ornamental jellies; and we recommend its adoption for this
class of dishes.
 APPLE CALF’S FEET JELLY.

Pour a quart of prepared apple-juice (see page 456), on a pound

of fresh apples pared and cored, and simmer them until they are well
broken; strain the juice, and let it stand until cold; then measure, and
put a pint and a half of it into a stewpan with a quart of calf’s feet
stock (see page 453), nine ounces of sugar broken small, or roughly
pounded, the juice of two fine lemons, and the thin rinds of one and
a half, with the whites and shells of eight eggs. Let it boil gently for
ten minutes, then strain it through a flannel-bag, and when cool put it
into moulds. It will be very clear, and firm, and of pleasant flavour.
Apples of good quality should be used for it, and the quantity of
sugar must be regulated by the time of year, as the fruit will have lost
much of its acidity during the latter part of the season. This receipt,
which is the result of our own experiment, and which we have found
very successful, was first tried just after Christmas, with pearmains
and Ripstone pippins. A little syrup of preserved ginger, or a small
glass of fine white brandy, would, perhaps, to some tastes, improve
the jelly; but we give it simply as we have had it proved ourselves.
Prepared apple juice, 1 quart; fresh apples, 1 lb.: 1/2 to 3/4 hour.
Strained juice, 1-1/2 pint; calf’s feet stock, 1 quart; sugar, 9 oz.; juice
of lemons, 2; rind of 1-1/2; whites and shells of eggs, 8: 10 minutes.
Obs.—We would recommend the substitution of quinces for
apples in this receipt as likely to afford a very agreeable variety of
the jelly: or equal portions of the two fruits might answer well. Unless
the stock be very stiff, add isinglass to this, as to the calf’s feet jelly,
when it is to be moulded.
 ORANGE CALF’S FEET JELLY.

(Author’s Receipt.)
To a pint and a half of firm calf’s feet stock, put a pint of strained
China-orange juice mixed with that of one or two lemons; add to
these six ounces of sugar, broken small, the very thin rinds of three
oranges and one lemon, and the whites of six eggs with half the
shells crushed small. Stir these gently over a clear fire until the head
of scum begins to form, but not at all afterwards. Simmer the jelly for
ten minutes from the first full boil; take it from the fire, let it stand a
little, then pour it through a jelly-bag until perfectly clear. This is an
original, and entirely new receipt, which we can recommend to the
reader, the jelly being very pale, beautifully transparent, and delicate
in flavour: it would, we think, be peculiarly acceptable to such
invalids as are forbidden to take wine in any form.
The proportions both of sugar and of lemon-juice must be
somewhat varied according to the season in which the oranges are
used.
Strong calf’s feet stock, 1-1/2 pint; strained orange-juice, mixed
with a small portion of lemon-juice, 1 pint; sugar, 6 oz.; rinds of
oranges, 3; of lemon, 1: 10 minutes.
Obs.—A small pinch of isinglass thrown into the jelly when it
begins to boil will much assist to clear it. When the flavour of Seville
oranges is liked, two or three can be used with the sweet ones.
 ORANGE ISINGLASS JELLY.

To render this perfectly transparent the juice of the fruit must be

filtered, and the isinglass clarified; but it is not usual to take so much
trouble for it. Strain as clear as possible, first through a sieve or
muslin, then through a thick cloth or jelly bag, one quart of China
orange-juice, mixed with as much lemon-juice as will give it an
agreeable degree of acidity, or with a small proportion of Seville
orange-juice. Dissolve two ounces and a half of isinglass in a pint of
water, skim it well, throw in half a pound of sugar, and a few strips of
the orange-rind, pour in the orange-juice, stir the whole well together,
skim it clean without allowing it to boil, strain it through a cloth or
through a muslin, many times folded, and when nearly cold put it into
the moulds.[159] This jelly is sometimes made without any water, by
dissolving the isinglass and sugar in the juice of the fruit.
159. In France, orange-jelly is very commonly served in the halved rinds of the
fruit, or in little baskets made as we shall hereafter direct, page 466.

Orange-juice, 1 quart; water, 1 pint; isinglass, 2-1/2 oz.; sugar, 1/2

lb.
 VERY FINE ORANGE JELLY.

(Sussex Place Receipt.)

On two ounces and a half of the finest isinglass, pour a full but an
exact pint of spring water; press down the isinglass and turn it over
until the whole is well moistened; then place it over a gentle fire and
let it dissolve gradually; remove the scum after it has simmered for
two or three minutes, then pour it out, and set it aside to cool. In
another pint of spring water boil a pound of highly refined sugar for
five or six minutes; turn this syrup into a bowl, and when it is only just
warm, throw into it the very thinly pared rinds of two fine lemons, of
two Seville oranges, and of two China oranges, with the juice of five
China, and of two Seville oranges, and of three lemons. When this
mixture is cold, but not beginning to thicken, mix it well with the liquid
isinglass, and strain it through a fine lawn sieve, or through a square
of muslin folded in four; pour it into moulds which have been laid in
cold water, and when wanted for the table, loosen it from them by
wrapping about them, closely, a cloth which has been dipped into
boiling water, and by passing a knife round the edges.
Nothing can be more refined and delicate in flavour than the
above; but the appearance of the jelly may be improved by clarifying
the isinglass, and its colour by boiling the fruit-rinds in the syrup for
three or four minutes, and by leaving them in it until it is strained.
The oranges and lemons, if good, will yield from two-thirds to three-
quarters of a pint of juice, and the quantity of jelly will be sufficient to
fill one large high mould, or two smaller ones which contain about a
pint and a quarter each.
When the isinglass is clarified, allow half an ounce more of it; take
about a teaspoonful of the white of a fresh egg, beat it a little, add
the pint of cold water to it, whisk them together for a minute or two,
and then pour them on the isinglass; stir it occasionally as it is
heating, but not after the head of scum is formed: boil it gently for
two or three minutes, skim, and strain it. The oranges and lemons
should be dipped into fresh water and wiped dry before they are
pared; and should a muslin strainer (that is to say, a large square of
common clean muslin) be used for the jelly, it should be laid after
being washed in the usual manner into plenty of hot water, and then
into cold, and be well rinsed in, and wrung from each.
 ORANGES FILLED WITH JELLY.

This is one of the fanciful

dishes which make a pretty
appearance on a supper table,
and are acceptable when much
variety is desired. Take some
very fine China oranges, and
with the point of a small knife cut
out from the top of each a round
about the size of a shilling; then
with the small end of a tea or an
egg spoon, empty them entirely,
taking great care not to break
the rinds. Throw these into cold
water, and make jelly of the juice, which must be well pressed from
the pulp, and strained as clear as possible. Colour one half a fine
rose colour with prepared cochineal, and leave the other very pale;
when it is nearly cold, drain and wipe the orange rinds, and fill them
with alternate stripes of the two jellies; when they are perfectly cold
cut them into quarters, and dispose them tastefully in a dish with a
few light branches of myrtle between them. Calf’s feet or any other
variety of jelly, or different blancmanges, may be used at choice to fill
the rinds; the colours, however, should contrast as much as possible.
 TO MAKE ORANGE BASKETS FOR JELLY.

The oranges for these should be large. First, mark the handle of
the basket evenly across the stalk end of the fruit with the back of a
small knife, or with a silver one, and let it be quite half an inch wide;
then trace a line across from one end of the handle to the other
exactly in the middle of the orange, and when the other side is
marked in the same way, cut just through the rind with the point of a
penknife, being careful not to pierce the fruit itself; next, with a tea or
dessertspoon, take of the quartered rind on either side of the handle;
pass a penknife under the handle itself; work the point of a spoon
gently between the orange and the basket, until they are separated
in every part; then take the fruit between the thumb and fingers, and
press it carefully out through one of the spaces on either side of the
handle.
Baskets thus made may be filled with any of the jellies of which the
receipts are given here: but they should be nearly cold before they
are poured in; and they ought also to be very clear. Some of the
baskets may be filled with ratifias, and dished alternately with those
which contain the jelly.
 LEMON CALF’S FEET JELLY.

Break up a quart of strong calf’s feet stock, which should have

been measured while in a liquid state; let it be quite clear of fat and
sediment, for which a small additional quantity should be allowed;
add to it a not very full half-pint of strained lemon-juice, and ten
ounces of sugar, broken small (rather more or less according to the
state of the fruit), the rind of one lemon pared as thin as possible, or
of from two to three when a full flavour of it is liked, and the whites
with part of the shells crushed small, of five large or of six small
eggs. Proceed as for the preceding jellies, and when the mixture has
boiled five minutes throw in a small pinch of isinglass; continue the
boiling for five or six minutes longer, draw the pan from the fire, let it
stand to settle; then turn it into the jelly-bag. We have found it always
perfectly clear with once passing through; but should it not be so,
pour it in a second time.
Strong calf’s feet stock, 1 quart; strained lemon-juice, short 1/2
pint; sugar, 10 oz. (more or less according to state of fruit); rind of
from 1 to 3 large lemons; whites and part of shells of 5 large or 6
small eggs: 5 minutes. Pinch of isinglass: 5 minutes longer.
Obs.—About seven large lemons will produce the half pint of juice.
This quantity is for one mould only. The jelly will be found almost
colourless unless much of the rinds be used, and as perfectly
transparent as clear spring water: it is also very agreeable in flavour.
For variety, part of the juice of the fruit might be omitted, and its
place supplied by maraschino, or any other rich white liqueur of
appropriate flavour; and to render it safer eating, some syrup of
preserved ginger would be an excellent addition.
 CONSTANTIA JELLY.

Infuse in a pint of water for five minutes the rind of half a Seville
orange, pared extremely thin; add an ounce of isinglass; and when
this is dissolved throw in four ounces of good sugar in lumps; stir
well, and simmer the whole for a few minutes, then mix with it four
large wineglassesful of Constantia, and strain the jelly through a fine
cloth of close texture; let it settle and cool, then pour it gently from
any sediment there may be, into a mould which has been laid for an
hour or two into water. We had this jelly made in the first instance for
an invalid who was forbidden to take acids, and it proved so
agreeable in flavour that we can recommend it for the table. The
isinglass, with an additional quarter of an ounce, might be clarified,
and the sugar and orange-rind boiled with it afterwards.
Water, 1 pint; rind, 1/2 Seville orange: 5 minutes. Isinglass, 1 oz.;
sugar, 4 oz.: 5 to 7 minutes. Constantia, 4 large wineglassesful.
 RHUBARB ISINGLASS JELLY.

(Author’s Original Receipt. Good.)

A jelly of beautiful tint, and excellent flavour, may be made with
fresh young rhubarb-stems, either of the giant or dwarf kind, if they
be of a bright pink colour. Wash, and drain or wipe them; slice
without paring them, taking them quite free from any coarse or
discoloured parts. Put two pounds and a half, and a quart of water
into an enamelled stewpan, which is more suitable to the purpose
than any other; throw in two ounces of sugar in lumps, and boil the
rhubarb very gently for twenty minutes, or until it is thoroughly
stewed, but not sufficiently so to thicken the juice. Strain it through a
muslin folded in four; measure a pint and a half of it; heat it afresh in
a clean pan; add an ounce and a half of the finest isinglass, and six
ounces or more of the best sugar in large lumps; stir it often until the
isinglass is entirely dissolved, then let it boil quickly for a few minutes
to throw up the scum; clear this off carefully, and strain the jelly twice
through a muslin strainer,[160] folded as the first; let it cool, and
mould it as usual.
160. These muslin strainers should be large, as it is necessary to fold them in
general to a quarter of their original size, to render them sufficiently thick for
clearing juice or jelly.
 STRAWBERRY ISINGLASS JELLY.

A great variety of equally elegant and excellent jellies for the table
may be made with clarified isinglass, clear syrup, and the juice of
almost any kind of fresh fruit; but as the process of making them is
nearly the same for all, we shall limit our receipts to one or two,
which will serve to direct the makers for the rest. Boil together
quickly for fifteen minutes one pint of water and three-quarters of a
pound of very good sugar; measure a quart of ripe richly-flavoured
strawberries without their stalks; the scarlet answer best, from the
colour which they give: on these pour the boiling syrup, and let them
stand all night. The next day clarify two ounces and a half of
isinglass in a pint of water, as directed at the beginning of this
chapter; drain the syrup from the strawberries very closely, add to it
two or three tablespoonsful of red currant juice, and the clear juice of
one large or two small lemons; and when the isinglass is nearly cold
mix the whole, and put it into moulds. The French, who excel in
these fruit-jellies, always mix the separate ingredients when they are
almost cold; and they also place them over ice for an hour or so after
they are moulded, which is a great advantage, as they then require
less isinglass, and are in consequence much more delicate. When
the fruit abounds, instead of throwing it into the syrup, bruise lightly
from three to four pints, throw two tablespoonsful of sugar over it,
and let the juice flow from it for an hour or two; then pour a little
water over, and use the juice without boiling, which will give a jelly of
finer flavour than the other.
Water, 1 pint; sugar, 3/4 lb.: 15 minutes. Strawberries, 1 quart;
isinglass, 2-1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint (white of egg, 1 to 2 teaspoonsful);
juice, 1 large or 2 small lemons.
 FANCY JELLIES.

Description of
Belgrave Mould.
Figure No. 1,
represents the
mould in its
entireness. No. 2,
shows the interior
of it (inverted). A is
a thin metal plate
which when turned
downwards forms
the bottom of the
No. 1. mould, and which No. 2.
is perforated in six
places to permit
the fluted columns B to pass through it. There is also a larger
aperture in the middle to admit the centre cylinder. The plate is fixed,
and the whole is held in its place by the part which folds over the
larger scallop D at either end. There is also a cover which fits to the
mould, and which is pressed on it before it is dipped into water, to
prevent its getting into the cylinders.
Transparent jelly is shown to much
advantage, and is particularly brilliant in
appearance, when moulded in shapes
resembling that of the engraving here,
which are now very commonly used for the
purpose.
The centre spaces can be filled, after the
jelly is dished, with very light whipped
cream, coloured and flavoured so as to eat
agreeably with it, and to please the eye as well: this may be
tastefully garnished with preserved, or with fresh fruit; but one of