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i
A Step-by-Step Guide to
Qualitative Data Coding
A Step-by-Step Guide to Qualitative Data Coding is a comprehensive

qualitative data analysis guide. It is designed to help readers to system-
atically analyze qualitative data in a transparent and consistent manner,
thus promoting the credibility of their findings.
The book examines the art of coding data, categorizing codes, and
synthesizing categories and themes. Using real data for demonstrations,
it provides step-by-step instructions and illustrations for analyzing quali-
tative data. Some of the demonstrations include conducting manual
coding using Microsoft Word and how to use qualitative data analysis
software such as Dedoose, NVivo and QDA Miner Lite to analyze data.
It also contains creative ways of presenting qualitative findings and
provides practical examples.
After reading this book, readers will be able to:
•• Analyze qualitative data and present their findings

•• Select an appropriate qualitative analysis tool
•• Decide on the right qualitative coding and categorization strategies
for their analysis
•• Develop relationships among categories/themes
•• Choose a suitable format for the presentation of the findings
It is a great resource for qualitative research instructors and under-

graduate and graduate students who want to gain skills in analyzing
qualitative data or who plan to conduct a qualitative study. It is also
useful for researchers and practitioners in the social and health sciences
fields.
ii
Philip Adu is a Methodology Expert at The Chicago School of

Professional Psychology (TCSPP). He has spent over six years at TCSPP
providing methodology support to doctoral students. He has designed
and taught numerous research method courses. He is skilled in demys-
tifying the qualitative analysis process, including how to use qualitative
data analysis software (QDAS).
iii
A Step-by-Step Guide to
Qualitative Data Coding
Philip Adu
iv
First published 2019

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 Philip Adu
The right of Philip Adu to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Adu, Philip, author.
Title: A step-by-step guide to qualitative data coding / Philip Adu.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2019.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018057100 | ISBN 9781138486850 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138486874 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781351044516 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology–Qualitative research.
Classification: LCC BF76.5 .A228 2019 | DDC 150.72–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018057100
ISBN: 978-1-138-48685-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-48687-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-04451-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Frutiger Light
by Newgen Publishing UK
Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9781138486874
v
I dedicate this book to my lovely wife Monique and three wonderful

children Miriam, Olivia and Evan.
vi
vii
Brief contents
List of exhibits xv
List of figures xxii
List of tables xxv
List of boxes xxvii
Acknowledgment xxviii
1 Introduction to qualitative data analysis 1
2 Review of qualitative approaches and their data

analysis methods 9
3 Understanding the art of coding qualitative data 23
4 Preparing data to code 59
5 Reflecting on, acknowledging and bracketing your

perspectives and preconceptions 69
6 Documenting personal reflections and the analytical

process 84
7 Manually assigning codes to data 89
8 Developing categories and themes 121
9 Connecting themes, and developing tables and

diagrams 158
10 Using QDA Miner Lite to analyze qualitative data 183
11 Using NVivo 12 to analyze qualitative data 221
12 Using Dedoose to analyze qualitative data 278
vii
viii
Brief contents
13 Presenting qualitative findings 329
14 Ensuring the credibility of the analysis process and

findings 368
Appendix A 377
Appendix B 386
Index 409
viii
ix
Detailed contents
List of exhibits xv
List of figures xxii
List of tables xxv
List of boxes xxvii
Acknowledgment xxviii
1 Introduction to qualitative data analysis 1

Emergence of qualitative research as an acceptable research
inquiry 1
What is your paradigm? 3
Assumptions associated with the interpretative paradigms 5
Conclusion 7
References 8
2 Review of qualitative approaches and their data

analysis methods 9
Qualitative approaches and their respective data analysis process 9
Phenomenological approach 9
When to use the phenomenological approach 10
Giorgi’s (1975) approach towards analyzing phenomenological
data 10
Hermeneutic phenomenological approach 10
When to use the hermeneutic phenomenological approach 11
Conducting hermeneutic phenomenological analysis 11
Interpretative phenomenological analysis 11
When to use interpretative phenomenological analysis 12
Conducting interpretative phenomenological analysis at the
data analysis stage 12
Transcendental phenomenological approach 12
When to use the transcendental phenomenological approach 13
Conducting transcendental phenomenological analysis 13
Ethnography 15
When to use ethnography 15
Conducting analysis of ethnographic data 16
Narrative approach 16
ix
x
Detailed contents
When to use the narrative approach 17

Conducting narrative analysis 17
Case study approach 18
When to use the case study approach 18
Conducting case study analysis 18
Grounded theory approach 19
When to use the grounded theory approach 21
Conducting grounded theory analysis 21
Conclusion 21
References 21
3 Understanding the art of coding qualitative data 23

What is qualitative coding? 23
What comprises the art of coding? 24
Systematic process 24
Maintaining consistency 24
Promoting repeatability 25
Ensuring believability 25
Data reduction 25
Subjectivity 26
Transparency 26
Orientation to the art of qualitative coding 27
Qualitative coding strategies 27
Description-focused coding strategy 28
Characteristics of description-focused coding 28
When to use description-focused coding 29
Demonstration 3.1 29
Interpretation-focused coding strategy 32
Characteristics of interpretation-focused coding 32
When to use interpretation-focused coding 33
Presumption-focused coding strategy 44
Characteristics of presumption-focused coding 45
When to use presumption-focused coding 46
Conclusion 55
References 58
4 Preparing data to code 59

What kind of data can be qualitatively analyzed? 59
Transcribing audio files 59
Using existing data for qualitative analysis demonstrations 60
Using qualitative analysis tools 61
Using manual qualitative analysis tools 62
x
xi
Detailed contents
Using qualitative data analysis software (QDAS) 64

Conclusion 66
References 67
5 Reflecting on, acknowledging and bracketing your

perspectives and preconceptions 69
Knowing the ‘self’ 69
Knowing your perspectives 70
Knowing your preconceptions 71
Knowing your lens 71
Bracketing your perspectives and preconceptions 72
Importance of bracketing at the data analysis stage 73
Steps in engaging in Epoché (bracketing) at the data
analysis stage 73
Disclosing your perspectives, preconceptions, lens and
expectations 78
Conclusion 81
References 82
6 Documenting personal reflections and the analytical

process 84
Memo writing 84
Importance of memo writing 85
Types of memos 86
Conclusion 87
References 87
7 Manually assigning codes to data 89

Overview 89
Deciding on an appropriate coding strategy 90
Assigning labels to the research questions 97
Creating codes using the interpretation-focused coding strategy 97
Compiling codes and tallying code frequencies 109
Q&A about qualitative coding 116
Conclusion 119
References 120
8 Developing categories and themes 121

Transforming codes into categories and themes 121
xi
xii
Detailed contents
Code transformation or categorization strategies 122

Presumption-focused coding strategy 122
Individual-based sorting strategy 127
Group-based sorting strategy 136
Conclusion 156
References 156
9 Connecting themes, and developing tables and diagrams 158

When to examine the relationships among categories/themes 158
How relationships among categories/themes are built 159
Using tables and diagrams 167
Tools for designing tables and diagrams 171
Conclusion 182
References 182
10 Using QDA Miner Lite to analyze qualitative data 183

QDA Miner Lite overview 183
Preparing qualitative data 183
Importing the interview transcripts 184
Creating demographic variables and attributes 190
Exploring data 193
Coding empirical indicators 196
Developing categories/themes 207
Generating tables and diagrams 212
Conclusion 220
References 220
11 Using NVivo 12 to analyze qualitative data 221

NVivo 12 software overview 221
xii
xiii
Detailed contents
Exploring data 232

Coding empirical indicators 237
Visualizing outcomes 259
Exporting outcomes 267
Conclusion 276
References 276
12 Using Dedoose to analyze qualitative data 278

Dedoose software overview 278
Functions of Dedoose across qualitative analysis stages 281
Coding excerpts (empirical indicators) 289
Rating excerpts (empirical indicators) 299
Retrieving and exporting outcomes 318
Conclusion 327
References 328
13 Presenting qualitative findings 329

Introduction 329
Elements of a qualitative findings report 330
Overview 331
Example 13.1 331
Context of the data and findings 332
Example 13.2 332
Disclosure of preconceptions, perspectives, lens and
expectations 333
Example 13.3 334
Data analysis process 335
Example 13.4 336
Coding data 337
Developing themes 340
Presenting the main findings 346
Findings presentation structures 346
Example 13.5a (individualized theme-driven format) 349
xiii
xiv
Detailed contents
Example 13.5b (synthesized theme-driven format) 360

Summary 364
Example 13.6 364
Conclusion 365
References 365
14 Ensuring the credibility of the analysis process

and findings 368
The concept of credibility 368
Ensuring consistency 368
Being systematic 369
Promoting transparency 369
Auxiliary credibility strategies 369
Implementing member checking 369
Utilizing theoretical sampling 373
Actively involving participants 374
Having a data analysis team 375
Conclusion 375
References 375
Appendices 377
Appendix A 377
Table A.1. Analytical memo displaying the five main steps
of developing codes when using interpretation-focused
coding 378
Appendix B 386
Table B.1. Memos with their cases and codes retrieved from
QDA Miner Lite 387
Table B.2. Empirical indicators and their respective codes and
cases retrieved from QDA Miner Lite 390
Index 409
xiv
xv
Exhibits
3.1 Participant ‘P1’ transcript with codes generated using

description-focused coding 31
3.6 Mary’s transcript with codes generated using
interpretation-focused coding 40
3.7 Mike’s transcript with codes generated using
3.8 Emily’s transcript with codes generated using
3.9 Stephen’s transcript with codes generated using
3.10 John’s transcript with codes generated using
3.11 Participant ‘A1’ transcript with codes generated using
presumption-focused coding 49
4.1 Participant ‘S13’ transcript excerpt showing elements of a
verbatim transcript 63
7.1 Participant ‘S9’ transcript excerpt showing potential
empirical indicators for research question 1 94
xv
xvi
Exhibits

7.4 Initial memo 100
7.5 Analytical memo 100
7.6 Codebook 101
7.7 Selecting empirical indicators 102
7.8 Creating a code in the analytical memo 103
7.9 Excerpt from Participant ‘NS1’ transcript showing how an
empirical indicator is selected and coded 104
7.10 Excerpt from Participant ‘S9’ coded transcript 104
7.12 Excerpt from Participant ‘NS5’ coded transcript 105
7.13 Copying information from the analytical memo to the
codebook 106
7.14 Copying information from the transcript to the codebook 107
7.15 Creating an initial memo 107
7.16 First excerpt of an initial memo table 108
7.17 Second excerpt of an initial memo table with comments 108
7.18 Illustration of how to copy codes 110
7.19 Illustration of how to paste codes 111
7.20 Alphabetically assigning the codes under a case 112
7.21 Tallying the codes under a case 112
7.22 How overall counts and cases are computed 113
7.25 Excerpt from Participant ‘NS2’ coded transcript 117
8.1 Analytical memo depicting how claims are created and
supported 124
8.2 Analytical memo showing claims and their respective
evidence 126
8.3 Analytical memo showing how claims (presumption-
focused codes) are copied 127
8.4 Analytical memo showing how claims (presumption-
focused codes) are grouped 128
8.5 Transforming claims to themes 128
8.6 Displaying the dominant code under ‘GM communication
strategies (RQ3)’ 130
8.7 Displaying the transfer of the dominant code to the
‘Cluster 1’ column 130
8.8 SPSS data of participants’ responses to sorting statements 139
8.9 Selecting the Multidimensional Scaling command 140
8.10 Selecting sorting statements for the analysis 141
xvi
xvi
Exhibits
8.11 SPSS output showing stress, R square value and XY

coordinates 142
8.12 Preparing the two-dimensional table for Hierarchical
Cluster Analysis 143
8.13 Drawing lines in-between the columns of the table with
XY coordinates 144
8.14 Transferring the two-dimensional table to SPSS 145
8.15 Naming the statements and dimensions 146
8.16 Selecting the Hierarchical Cluster Analysis command 147
8.17 Selecting the cluster solution range 147
8.18 Selecting Ward’s cluster method 148
8.19 Cluster Tree 148
8.20 Selecting the ‘Graphs’ command to create a Scatter Plot 150
8.21 Path to creating a Scatter Plot 151
8.22 Labeling data points on the Scatter Plot 151
8.23 Scatter Plot with labeled data points 152
8.24 Cluster Tree with potential cluster solutions 153
8.25 Interpreting the Cluster Membership table 154
8.26 Creating clusters on the Scatter Plot 154
8.27 Cluster Map 155
9.1 Diagram showing concurrent relationship between
concepts 168
9.2 Diagram showing chronological relationship between
concepts 169
9.3 Diagram showing overlapping relationship between
concepts 169
9.4 Diagram showing embedded relationship between
concepts 170
9.5 Diagram showing explanatory relationship between
concepts 170
9.6 Diagram showing causal relationship between concepts 171
9.7 Steps for setting up a table for the development
of the chart 172
9.8 Steps for customizing the table and entering the themes
and frequencies 173
9.9 Completed table and its chart 174
9.10 Steps for making the ‘Developer’ tab visible on the
toolbar 175
9.11 Steps for launching the ‘Pro Word Cloud’ app 176
9.12 Steps for creating a Word Cloud using the ‘Pro Word
Cloud’ app 177
9.13 Steps for setting up a work area for the development of
a map 179
9.14 Steps for creating shapes for the themes 179
9.15 Steps for connecting the themes 180
xvii
xvi
Exhibits
9.16 Initial concept map depicting the relationship among the

themes 180
9.17 Concept map depicting the relationship among
the themes 181
10.1 The first three steps for importing the transcripts 185
10.2 Steps on locating and selecting the transcripts 186
10.3 Steps on saving the data analysis project and finalizing
the importing of files 187
10.4 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying the main
functions 189
10.5 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how the GENDER
variable is created 191
10.6 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how the
OCCUPATION variable is created 192
10.7 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how demographic
attributes are assigned to participants 192
10.8 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying a spreadsheet with
participants’ demographics 193
10.9 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying the text
retrieval process 194
10.10 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying the text retrieval
outcome 195
10.11 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying the generation of a
new code 197
10.12 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying the process of
linking a new code to an existing category 198
10.13 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how an empirical
indicator is linked to an existing code 199
10.14 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how a comment
(memo) is created 200
theme 210
duplicate code 211
10.17 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how empirical
indicators are coded to the duplicate code 211
10.18 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how codes are
merged into themes 213
10.19 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying the outcome of the
merging process 214
10.20 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how to create a
table with themes and their counts and cases 215
10.21 QDA Miner Lite interface displaying how to create a
chart with themes and their counts and cases 217
11.1 Display of the interview transcript files 226
xviii
xix
Exhibits
11.2 Display of the interview transcript files and Excel

spreadsheet with demographic information 226
11.3 Opening NVivo 12 and creating a new project 227
11.4 Locating and importing transcript files 228
11.5 Importing transcript files 228
11.6 Creating cases for each transcript file 229
11.7 Display of cases created 230
11.8 Locating and selecting the Excel file containing
demographic information 231
11.9 Indicating the location of the cases 231
11.10 Display of the imported demographics 232
11.11 Running a word frequency search 233
11.12 Excerpt of a word frequency table 234
11.13 Display of a Word Cloud 234
11.14 Running a text search 236
11.15 The process of creating a node for each anchor code 238
11.16 Setting up for the development of nodes 239
11.17 Actions taken to create a node 240
11.18 Dropping an empirical indicator into an existing node 241
11.19 Setting up a memo 241
11.20 Writing a memo 242
11.21 Codes and their respective cases (files) and counts
(frequencies) under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ 243
(frequencies) under ‘GM communication challenges
(RQ2)’ 244
(frequencies) under ‘GM communication strategies
(RQ3)’ 244
(frequencies) under ‘Other issues’ 245
11.25 Setting up a memo document to generate themes under
‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ 247
11.26 Creating a table in the analytical memo 248
11.27 Transferring nodes to the table 249
11.28 Connecting claims to nodes (evidence) 250
11.29 Transitioning from a list of claims to themes and
sub-themes 252
11.30 Creating a node under the anchor code for a theme 252
11.31 Dropping the codes into their respective themes and
sub-themes 253
11.32 Themes and sub-themes and their codes for ‘GM
concerns factors (RQ1)’ 254
11.33 Setting up a memo document to generate themes under
‘GM communication strategies (RQ3)’ 255
xix
xx
Exhibits
11.34 Creating a cluster table in the analytical memo 255

11.35 Sorting codes by transferring them to the cluster table 256
11.36 Sorted codes under six clusters 257
11.37 Labeled clusters 258
11.38 Creating a node under the anchor code for a theme 258
11.39 Dropping nodes/codes into their themes 259
11.40 Excerpt of the themes and their codes for ‘GM
communication strategies (RQ3)’ 262
11.41 Setting up framework matrix properties related to cases
and attributes of interest 263
11.42 Setting up framework matrix properties related to
themes of interest 263
11.43 Populating the framework matrix cells with empirical
indicators 264
11.44 Creating a case–theme matrix 265
11.45 Creating an attribute–theme crosstab 266
11.46 Running ‘Word Frequency’ search based on empirical
indicators under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ 267
11.47 Setting up the development of a Project Map 269
11.48 Retrieving items associated with a theme 269
11.49 Connecting cases to the themes and values to the cases 270
11.50 Retrieving and exporting participants’ demographic
information 272
11.51 Setting up the codebook 272
11.52 Selecting the content of the codebook 273
11.53 Determining how the content will be organized 273
11.54 Naming the codebook 274
11.55 Exporting the codebook 275
12.1 Dedoose interface displaying the main functions 279
12.2 Creating a project in Dedoose 284
12.3 Importing media into Dedoose 285
12.4 Editing the ‘default’ descriptor set 285
12.5 Creating a ‘Participant ID’ field 286
12.6 Creating a ‘Gender’ field 286
12.7 Creating participants’ descriptors 288
12.8 Linking descriptors to the media 289
12.9 Participants’ descriptors with linked media 289
12.10 Creating an anchor code 291
12.11 Opening and setting up the data file 291
12.12 Extracting an excerpt 292
12.13 Creating a new code 293
12.14 Assigning a code to an excerpt 293
12.15 Assigning an existing code to an excerpt 294
12.16 Creating a memo 295
xx
xxi
Exhibits
12.17 Home page of Dedoose displaying a summary of the

coding outcomes 295
12.18 A table displaying the connection between media
and codes 296
12.19 Selecting an anchor code and its associated codes 306
12.20 Reviewing excerpts and their assigned codes to decide
on the rating scale 306
12.21 Weighting excerpts 307
12.22 Descriptive statistical results of ratings for codes 308
12.23 Creating a copy of the original project 312
12.24 Creating themes 313
12.25 Creating a duplicate of a code 314
12.26 Opening excerpts linked to the original code 315
12.27 Connecting a duplicate code to an excerpt 315
12.28 Dropping a code into the theme it belongs to 316
12.29 Extract of the themes and their codes 317
12.30 Merging a code into the theme it belongs to 318
12.31 Outcome of merging codes into their themes 319
12.32 Exporting project and its outcomes 320
12.33 ‘Code Count x Media’ chart 322
12.34 ‘Packed Code Cloud’ (an outcome based on using the
dropping strategy) 323
12.35 Extract of ‘Descriptor x Code Count Table’ (an outcome
based on using the dropping strategy) 323
12.36 Extract of ‘Descriptor x Code Case Count Table’
(an outcome based on using the dropping strategy) 324
12.37 Extract of ‘Code Applications’ table (an outcome based
on using the dropping strategy) 324
12.38 ‘Packed Code Cloud’ (an outcome based on using the
merging strategy) 325
12.39 ‘Descriptor x Code Count Table’ (an outcome based on
using the merging strategy) 325
12.40 ‘Descriptor x Code Case Count Table’ (an outcome
based on using the merging strategy) 326
12.41 ‘Code Applications’ table (an outcome based on using
the merging strategy) 327
13.1 Participant ‘S6’ transcript excerpt showing some
elements of a verbatim transcript 337
13.2 Excerpt of an analytical memo table displaying the steps
of developing codes 338
13.3 Excerpts from Participant ‘S5’ coded transcript 339
xxi
xxi
Figures
1.1 Four roles within a paradigm 4

1.2 How interpretative paradigms inform the qualitative
research process 7
3.1 Qualitative data reduction process 26
3.2 The three coding strategies under the DIP coding method 28
3.3 Connection between harvesting apples and using
description-focused and interpretation-focused coding 38
7.1 Five steps of code generation using the interpretation-
focused coding strategy 98
7.2 Manual qualitative coding process 109
8.1 The process of clustering codes using the individual-
based sorting strategy 129
8.2 The process of clustering codes using the group-based
sorting strategy 143
9.1 Simplifying the data analysis process 159
9.2 Chart showing themes and frequencies under ‘GM
9.3 Word Cloud based on the empirical indicators under
10.1 Functions of QDA Miner Lite 184
10.2 Bar chart showing the themes and frequency under ‘GM
10.3 Bar chart showing the themes and number of cases
under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ 218
10.4 Bar chart showing the themes and frequency under ‘GM
10.5 Bar chart showing the themes and number of cases
under ‘GM communication strategies (RQ3)’ 219
11.1 Functions of NVivo across the six stages of data analysis 223
11.2 A Word Tree displaying the context in which
‘communicate’ was used 236
11.3 Bar chart (in 3D) showing shared counts between cases
and themes 265
11.4 Bar chart (in 3D) showing shared counts between
participants’ attributes and themes 266
xxii
xxi
Figures
11.5 Word Cloud based on empirical indicators under ‘GM

11.6 Word Tree of ‘communication’ based on empirical
indicators under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ 268
11.7 Project Map showing the theme ‘Giving the public some
time’ and associated cases with their demographic
features 271
12.1 Functions of Dedoose across the four stages of
data analysis 282
13.1 Formats used in presenting characteristics of
participants 332
13.2 Data analysis steps 336
13.3 Codes under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ and their
cases and counts 341
13.4 Codes under ‘GM communication challenges (RQ2)’ and
their cases and counts 342
13.5 Codes under ‘GM communication strategies (RQ3)’ and
their cases and counts 343
13.6 Codes under ‘Other issues’ and their cases and counts 344
13.7 The theme ‘Unfavorable depiction of GM technology’
and its supporting codes 344
13.8 The theme ‘Limited knowledge about GM research’ and
its supporting codes 344
13.9 The theme ‘GM risks uncertainties’ and its
supporting codes 345
13.10 The theme ‘Mistrust towards GM stakeholders’ and its
supporting codes 345
13.11 The theme ‘Lack of effective communication’ and its
sub-theme and supporting codes 345
13.12 The theme ‘Misunderstanding of GM risks’ and its
sub-theme and supporting codes 345
13.13 Theme-driven format 347
13.14 Case-driven format 347
13.15 Different kinds of presentation structures for
qualitative findings 348
13.16 Word Cloud for empirical indicators under the
‘Unfavorable depiction of GM technology’ theme 352
13.17 Project Map displaying participants connected to the
‘Unfavorable depiction of GM technology’ theme 353
13.18 Word Cloud for empirical indicators under the ‘Limited
knowledge about GM research’ theme 354
13.19 Word Tree for empirical indicators under the ‘Limited
knowledge about GM research’ theme 354
13.20 Diagram portraying the kind of questions the public
may have asked GM stakeholders 356
xxiii
xxvi
Figures
13.21 Codes under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ and their

cases and counts 358
13.22 GM communication strategies and the connections
between them 361
xxiv
xxv
Tables
2.1 Qualitative research methods and their respective purpose

and data analysis goal 20
3.1 Demographics of participants (mental health providers) 30
3.2 Demographics of participants (African American physicians) 37
3.3 First part of participants’ demographics (domestic
violence victims) 47
3.4 Second part of participants’ demographics (domestic
violence victims) 47
3.5 Prefix, letters and symbol used in presumption-focused
coding 47
3.6 Strengths and weaknesses of the coding strategies 56
3.7 Qualitative research methods and their respective
purpose, data analysis goal and potential coding strategy 57
4.1 Demographics of participants (GM scientists and
university staff) 62
7.1 Demographics of participants (GM scientists and
university staff) 90
7.2 Factors to be considered when choosing an appropriate
coding strategy 91
7.3 Coding strategy decision made based on the research
method, purpose, question, and data to be analyzed 93
7.4 Codes and their respective counts and cases under
‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ 114
‘GM communication challenges (RQ2)’ 114
‘Other issues’ 115
8.1 Initial version of the cluster table 133
8.2 Revised version of the cluster table 134
8.3 Final version of the cluster table with cluster labels 135
8.4 Cluster membership table 149
9.1 Themes under ‘Communication strategies (RQ3)’ and
their descriptions, codes, frequencies and example
empirical indicators 162
xxv
xxvi
Tables
10.1 Codes and their respective description, count and cases

under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ 201
under ‘GM communication challenges (RQ2)’ 203
under ‘GM communication strategies (RQ3)’ 204
under ‘Other issues’ 206
10.5 Analytical tools for generating categories/themes 208
10.6 Themes for the ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ with their
count and cases 215
10.7 Themes for the ‘GM communication strategies (RQ3)’
with their description, count and cases 216
11.1 NVivo terms and their meanings 224
11.2 Analytical tools for generating categories/themes 246
11.3 List of codes and their respective claims 251
12.1 Dedoose terms and their meanings 280
12.2 Codes and their characteristics under ‘GM concerns
factors (RQ1)’ 297
12.3 Codes and their characteristics including ratings under
‘GM communication challenges (RQ2)’ 300
12.4 Codes and their characteristics under ‘GM
12.5 Codes and their characteristics under ‘Other issues’ 305
12.6 Level of difficulty rating criteria 307
12.7 Dedoose illustrations and how to access them 321
13.1 Participants’ demographics and their percentages
(in parentheses) 334
13.2 Characteristics related to gender and occupation of each
participant 334
13.3 Themes and their features under ‘GM concerns
factors (RQ1)’ 350
13.4 Sub-theme and codes with their associated characteristics
under the ‘Lack of effective communication’ theme 357
13.5 Confirmed relationship and their types and empirical
indicators under ‘GM communication strategies (RQ3)’ 362
14.1 Qualitative research methods and their respective
purpose, data analysis goal, coding strategy,
categorization strategy and presentation structure 370
xxvi
xxvi
Boxes
4.1 Data preparation steps 66

5.1 Epoché (bracketing) steps 81
6.1 Memoing steps 87
7.1 Qualitative coding steps 119
9.1 Theme synthetization and visualization steps 181
10.1 Qualitative analysis steps using QDA Miner Lite 217
11.1 Qualitative analysis steps using NVivo 12 276
12.1 Qualitative analysis steps using Dedoose 327
13.1 Findings reporting steps 364
xxvii
newgenprepdf
xxvi
Acknowledgment
I want to thank my wife Monique Adu, DO, FAAP, for her valuable
support in putting this book together. I would not have been able to
successfully complete the book without her continuous encouragement,
critique and feedback.
xxviii
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no related content on Scribd:
market-gardening.[751] His example was soon extensively followed,
and before 1760 the root was very generally reared in fields, as it is at
present.
A frost, which began on the 26th of the 1740. Jan.

previous month, lasted during the whole of
this, and was long remembered for its severity, and the many
remarkable circumstances attending it. We nowhere get a scientific
statement of the temperature at any period of its duration; but the
facts related are sufficient to prove that this was far below any point
ordinarily attained in this country. The principal rivers of Scotland
were frozen over, and there was such a general stoppage of water-
mills, that the knocking-stones usually employed in those simple
days for husking grain in small quantities, and of which there was
one at nearly every cottage-door, were used on this occasion as
means of grinding it. Such mills as had a flow of water, were worked
on Sundays as well as ordinary days. In 1740.
some harbours, the ships were frozen up.
Food rose to famine prices, and large contributions were required
from the rich to keep the poor alive.
The frost was severe all over the northern portion of Europe. The
Thames at London being thickly frozen over, a fair was held upon it,
with a multitude of shows and popular amusements. At Newcastle,
men digging coal in the pits were obliged to have fires kindled to
keep them warm; and one mine was through this cause ignited
permanently. In the metropolis, coal became so scarce as to reach
70s. per chaldron; and there also much misery resulted among the
poor. People perished of cold in the fields, and even in the streets,
and there was a prodigious mortality amongst birds and other wild
animals.
In consequence of the failure of the crop Oct.

of this year, Scotland was now undergoing
the distresses attendant upon the scarcity and high price of
provisions. The populace of Edinburgh attacked the mills, certain
granaries in Leith, and sundry meal-shops, and possessed
themselves of several hundred bolls of grain, the military forces
being too limited in number to prevent them. Several of the rioters
being captured, a mob attempted their rescue, and thus led to a
fusillade from the soldiery, by which three persons were wounded,
one of them mortally. Great efforts were made by the magistracy to
obtain corn at moderate prices for the people, by putting in force the
laws against reservation of grain from market, and the dealing in it
with a view to profit; also by the more rational method of
subscriptions among the rich for the sale of meal at comparatively
low rates to the poor. The magistrates of Edinburgh also invited
importations of foreign grain (December 19), proclaiming that, in
case of any being seized by mobs, the community should make good
the loss.[752]
George Whitfield, whose preachings had 1741. July.

been stirring up a great commotion in
England for some years past, came to Scotland, and for a time held
forth at various places in the open air, particularly on the spot where
the Edinburgh Theatre afterwards stood. ‘This gentleman,’ says a
contemporary chronicler, ‘recommends the essentials of religion, and
decries the distinguishing punctilios of parties; exclaims against the
moral preachers of the age; preaches the doctrine of free grace
according to the predestinarian scheme; 1741.
mentions often the circumstance of his own
regeneration, and what success he has had in his ministerial
labours.’[753] Having heard of the late secession from the Church of
Scotland by a set of clergymen reputed to be unusually
sanctimonious, he was eager to fraternise with them, and lost no
time in preaching to the congregation of Mr Ralph Erskine at
Dunfermline. But here he met unexpected difficulties. The Scottish
seceders could not hold out the right hand of fellowship to one who
did not unite with them in their testimony against defective
churches. He was a man of too broad sympathies to suit them; so
they parted; and Whitfield from that time fraternised solely with the
established clergy.
About this time began a series of religious 1742. Feb.
demonstrations, chiefly centering at
Cambuslang on the Clyde, and long after recognised accordingly as
the Camb’slang Wark. Mr Whitfield, in his visit of some months last
year, had stirred up a new zeal in the Established Church. Mr
M‘Culloch, minister of Cambuslang, was particularly inflamed by his
eloquence, and he had all winter been addressing his flock in an
unusually exciting manner. The local fervour waxing stronger and
stronger, a shoemaker and a weaver at length lent their assistance to
it, and now it was breaking out in those transports of terror of hell-
fire, prostrate penitence, and rejoicing re-assurance, which mark
what is called a revival. The meetings chiefly took place in a natural
amphitheatre or holm, on the river’s side, and were externally very
picturesque. There seldom was wanting a row of patients in front of
the minister, with their heads tied up, and pitchers of water ready to
recover those who fainted. Early in the summer, Mr Whitfield
returned to Scotland, and immediately came to lend his assistance to
the work, both at Cambuslang, and in the Barony parish of Glasgow.
‘From that time the multitudes who assembled were more numerous
than they had ever been, or perhaps than any congregation which
had ever before been collected in Scotland; the religious impressions
made on the people were apparently much greater and more general;
and the visible convulsive agitations which accompanied them,
exceeded everything of the kind which had yet been observed.’[754]
The clergy of the establishment were pleased with what was going
on, as it served to shew that their lamp was not gone out, thereby
enabling them to hold up their heads against the taunts of the
Secession as to growing lukewarmness and 1742.
defection. And they pointed with pathetic
earnestness to the many sinners converted from evil ways, as a proof
that real good was done. On the other hand, the seceders loudly
deplored ‘the present awful symptom of the Lord’s anger with the
church and land, in sending them strong delusion, that they should
believe a lie,’ and ordained a day to be observed as a fast, in order to
avert the evils they apprehended in consequence.[755] A fierce
controversy raged for some time between the two bodies, as to
whether the Camb’slang Wark was of God or of the Devil, each
person being generally swayed in his decision by his love for, or
aversion to, the Established Church. A modern divine just quoted
(Erskine), disclaims for them a miraculous character, but asserts, as
matter of historic verity, that fully four hundred persons at
Cambuslang underwent a permanent religious change, independent
of those who were converted in like manner at Kilsyth. It is
understood that the proceedings of the Associate Synod on the
occasion have since been much deplored by their successors.
Public attention was strongly roused by Oct. 10.

an accident of an uncommon kind which
happened in the lowlands of Ross-shire. The church of Fearn parish
was an old Gothic structure covered with a heavy roof of flagstone.
This day, being Sunday, while the parishioners were assembled at
worship, the roof and part of the side-wall gave way, under the
pressure of a load of prematurely fallen snow; and the bulk of the
people present were buried under the ruins. The fortunate
arrangement of the seats of the gentry in the side recesses saved
most of that class from injury; and the minister, Mr Donald Ross,
was protected by the sounding-board of his pulpit. There chanced to
be present Mr James Robertson, the minister of Lochbroom, a man
of uncommon personal strength and great dexterity and courage. He,
planting his shoulder under a falling lintel, sustained it till a number
of the people escaped. Forty poor people were dug out dead, and in
such a state of mutilation that it was found necessary to huddle them
all into one grave.[756]
The period of the extinction of wild and 1743.

dangerous animals in a country is of some
importance, as an indication of its advance 1743.
in civilisation, and of the appropriation of
its soil for purely economic purposes. One learns with a start how
lately the wolf inhabited the Highlands of Scotland. It is usually said
that the species was extirpated about 1680 by the famous Sir Ewen
Cameron of Locheil; but the tradition to that effect appears to be
only true of Sir Ewen’s own district of Western Inverness-shire, and
there is reason to believe that the year at which this chronicle has
arrived is the date of the death of the last wolf in the entire kingdom.
The slayer of the animal is represented as being a notable Highland
deer-stalker of great stature and strength, named Macqueen of Pall-
a’-chrocain, and the Forest of Tarnaway in Morayland is assigned as
the scene of the incident. The popular Highland narration on the
subject is as follows:
‘One winter’s day, about the year before mentioned, Macqueen
received a message from the Laird of Macintosh that a large “black
beast,” supposed to be a wolf, had appeared in the glens, and the day
before killed two children, who, with their mother, were crossing the
hills from Calder; in consequence of which a “Tainchel,” or gathering
to drive the country, was called to meet at a tryst above Fi-Giuthas,
where Macqueen was invited to attend with his dogs. Pall-a’-chrocain
informed himself of the place where the children had been killed, the
last tracks of the wolf, and the conjectures of his haunts, and
promised his assistance.
‘In the morning the “Tainchel” had long assembled, and Macintosh
waited with impatience, but Macqueen did not arrive; his dogs and
himself were, however, auxiliaries too important to be left behind,
and they continued to wait until the best of a hunter’s morning was
gone, when at last he appeared, and Macintosh received him with an
irritable expression of disappointment.
‘“Ciod e a’ chabhag?—“What was the hurry?” said Pall-a’-chrocain.
‘Macintosh gave an indignant retort, and all present made some
impatient reply.
‘Macqueen lifted his plaid, and drew the black bloody head of the
wolf from under his arm—“Sin e dhùibh”—“There it is for you!” said
he, and tossed it on the grass in the midst of the surprised circle.
‘Macintosh expressed great joy and admiration, and gave him the
land called Sean-achan for meat to his dogs.’[757]
Owing to a severe spring, a malady called 1743. May.
‘fever and cold’ prevailed in Edinburgh, and
was spreading all over the country. On Sunday, the 8th May, fifty
sick people were prayed for in the city churches, and in the preceding
week there had been seventy burials in the Greyfriars, being three
times the usual number.
For a number of years, the six July.

independent companies of armed
Highlanders, commonly called the Reicudan Dhu, or Black Watch,
had been effective in keeping down that system of cattle-lifting which
ancient prejudice had taught the Highlanders generally to regard as
only a kind of clan warfare. But in 1739, the government was induced
to form these companies into a regular regiment for service in the
foreign war then entered upon; and in March of this year, they were
actually sent into England, leaving the Highlands without adequate
protection. The consequence was an immediate revival of old
practices.
In July of this year, it was reported to the Edinburgh newspapers
that the highlands of Nairnshire were absolutely infested with
depredators, who came by day as well as night, and drove off the
cattle, not scrupling to kill the inhabitants when they were resisted.
The proprietors were trying to form a watch or guard for the country;
but these people often fell into complicity with the spoilers, or
entered on a similar career themselves. The greatest confusion and
difficulty prevailed, and other districts were soon after involved in
the same calamitous grievance.
One day in October, a party of nine cearnochs or caterans, well
armed, came from Rannoch into Badenoch, and laid a large part of
the district under contribution, ‘forcing the people to capitulate for
their lives at the expense of all they possessed,’ and carrying off a
great quantity of sheep. The gentlemen of the district hastily
assembled with some of their people, but felt greatly at a loss on
account of their want of arms. Nevertheless, with a few old weapons,
they resolved to attack the depredators. A smoke seen on a distant
hillside led them to the place where the robbers were halting. Their
firearms were by this time useless with wet; yet they fell on with
great courage, and obtained a victory, at the expense of a wound to
one of their party. Four of the offenders were secured, and carried to
the prison at Ruthven.[758] It was hoped that the fate of this party
would deter others; but the hope was not realised.
In March 1744, a general meeting of the 1743.
gentlemen of the district of Badenoch took
into consideration the sad state of their country. It was represented
that, owing to the frequent thefts committed, the tenants were on the
brink of utter ruin: some who paid not above fifteen pounds of rent,
had suffered losses to the extent of a hundred. Evan Macpherson of
Cluny, the leading man of the district, and a person of activity and
intelligence, had been repeatedly entreated to undertake the
formation and management of an armed watch, to be supported
from such small contributions as could be raised; but he regarded the
country as too poor to support such an establishment as would be
necessary. Yet he now told them that, unless the king could protect
them, he could suggest no other course than the putting of their own
and the neighbouring districts under persons who could guard the
country by their own armed retainers, and guarantee the restitution
of lost goods to all such as would contribute to the necessary funds.
On the entreaty of his neighbours, Cluny, in May, did muster a
number of his people, of honest character, whom he planted at the
several passes through which predatory incursions were made,
‘giving them most strict orders that these passes should be
punctually travelled and watched night and day, for keeping off,
intercepting, seizing, and imprisoning the villains, as occasion
offered, and as strictly forbidding and discharging them to act less or
more in the ordinary way of other undertakers [leviers of black-
mail], who, instead of suppressing theft, do greatly support it, by
currying the favour of the thieves, and gratifying them for their
diverting of the weight of theft from such parts of the countries as
pay the undertaker for their protection, to such parts as do not pay
them.’
Cluny is allowed to have tolerably well effected his purpose. The
thieves, being hemmed in by him, and reduced to great straits,
offered to keep his own lands skaithless if he would cease to guard
those of his neighbours, a proposal to which, as might be expected,
he gave no heed. They tried to evade his vigilance by taking a spreath
of cattle from Strathnairn by boats across Loch Ness, instead of by
the ordinary route; but he then set guards on the ferries of Loch
Ness, albeit at a great additional expense. The lands of gentlemen
who declined to contribute were as safe as those in the opposite
circumstances. He was even able to restore some cattle taken from
distant places, as Banffshire, Strathallan, and the Colquhoun’s
grounds near Dumbarton.[759]
The Rev. Mr Lapslie, writing in 1795 the 1743.
statistical account of his parish of Campsie,
remarks with a feeling of wonder the fact that, so recently as 1744,
his father ‘paid black-mail to Macgregor of Glengyle, in order to
prevent depredations being made upon his property; Macgregor
engaging, upon his part, to secure him from suffering any hardship
[hership, that is, despoliation], as it was termed; and he faithfully
fulfilled the contract; engaging to pay for all sheep which were
carried away, if above the number of seven, which he styled a lifting;
if below seven, he only considered it a piking; and for the honour of
this warden of the Highland march, Mr John Lapslie having got
fifteen sheep lifted in the commencement of the year 1745, Mr
Macgregor actually had taken measures to have their value restored,
when the rebellion broke out, and put an end to any further payment
of black-mail, and likewise to Mr Macgregor’s self-created
wardenship of the Highland borders.’[760]
We have seen that an abortive attempt Oct.

was made in 1678 to set up a stage-coach
between Edinburgh and Glasgow.[761] Nothing more is heard of such
a scheme till the present date, when John Walker, merchant in
Edinburgh, proposed to the town council of Glasgow the setting up of
a stage-coach between the two towns, for six persons, twice a week,
for twenty weeks in summer, and once a week during the rest of the
year, receiving ten shillings per passenger, provided that he should
have the sale of two hundred tickets per annum guaranteed.[762] This
effort was likewise abortive.
It was not till 1758, when the population of Glasgow had risen to
about thirty-five thousand, that a regular conveyance for passengers
was established between the two cities. It was drawn by four horses,
and the journey of forty-two miles was performed in twelve hours,
the passengers stopping to dine on the way. Such was the only stage-
coach on that important road for thirty years, nor during that time
did any acceleration take place. A young lady of Glasgow, of
distinguished beauty, having to travel to Edinburgh about 1780, a
lover towards whom she was not very favourably disposed, took all
the remaining tickets, was of course her sole companion on the
journey, entertained her at dinner, and otherwise found such means
of pressing his suit, that she soon after became his wife. This was, so
far as it goes, a very pretty piece of stage- 1743.
coach romance; but, unluckily, the lover
was unworthy of his good-fortune, and the lady, in a state of worse
than widowhood, was, a few years after, the subject of the celebrated
Clarinda correspondence of Burns.
Mr Palmer, the manager of the Bath Theatre, having succeeded in
introducing his smart stage-coaches, one was established, in July
1788, between London and Glasgow, performing the distance (405
miles) in sixty-five hours. This seems to have led to an improvement
in the conveyances between Edinburgh and the western city. Colin
M‘Farlane, of the Buck’s Head Inn of Glasgow, announced, in the
ensuing October, his having commenced a four-seated coach
between the two cities every lawful day at eleven o’clock, thus
permitting mercantile men to transact business at the banks and
public offices before starting. ‘In most of the coaches running at
present,’ says he, ‘six are admitted, and three into a chaise, which
proves very disagreeable for passengers to be so situated for a whole
day. The inconvenience is entirely removed by the above plan....
Owing to the lightness of the carriage, and frequent change of horses,
she arrives at Glasgow and Edinburgh as soon as the carriages that
set off early in the morning.’ ‘Price of the tickets from both towns, 9s.
6d.’[763] Notwithstanding this provocative to emulation, ‘the
Diligence’ for Edinburgh was announced in 1789 as starting from the
Saracen’s Head each morning at nine, ‘or at any other hour the two
first passengers might agree on.’[764] It was not till 1799 that the time
occupied by a stage-coach journey between these two cities was
reduced so low as even six hours, being still an hour and a half
beyond the time ultimately attained before the opening of the railway
in 1842.
For some years the use of tea had been 1744.

creeping in amongst nearly all ranks of the
people. It was thought by many reflecting persons, amongst whom
was the enlightened Lord President Forbes, to be in many respects
an improper diet, expensive, wasteful of time, and calculated to
render the population weakly and effeminate. During the course of
this year, there was a vigorous movement all over Scotland for
getting the use of tea abated. Towns, parishes, and counties passed
resolutions condemnatory of the Chinese leaf, and pointing strongly
to the manlier attractions of beer. The tenants of William Fullarton
of Fullarton, in Ayrshire, in a bond they 1744.
entered into on the occasion, thus delivered
themselves: ‘We, being all farmers by profession, think it needless to
restrain ourselves formally from indulging in that foreign and
consumptive luxury called tea; for when we consider the slender
constitutions of many of higher rank, amongst whom it is used, we
conclude that it would be but an improper diet to qualify us for the
more robust and manly parts of our business; and therefore we shall
only give our testimony against it, and leave the enjoyment of it
altogether to those who can afford to be weak, indolent, and useless.’
Lord Lovat, writing to the Lord President 1745. Oct.

Forbes on the 20th of this month, adverts to
the effect of the civil broils in giving encouragement to men of prey
in the Highlands. He says: ‘This last fortnight, my cousin William
[Fraser], Struie’s uncle, that is married to Kilbockie’s daughter, and
who is a very honest man, and she a good woman, had twenty fine
cows stolen from him. The country [that is, the country people] went
upon the track, and went into Lochaber and to Rannoch, and came
up with the thieves in my Lord Breadalbane’s forest of Glenurchy.
The thieves, upon seeing the party that pursued them, abandoned
the cattle, and ran off; and William brought home his cattle, but had
almost died, and all that was with him, of fatigue, cold, and hunger;
but, indeed, it is the best-followed track that ever I heard of in any
country. You see how loose the whole country is, when four villains
durst come a hundred miles, and take up the best cattle they could
find in this country; for they think there is no law, and that makes
them so insolent.’[765]
The practice of stealing cattle in the Highlands has already been
several times alluded to, as well as the system of compromise called
black-mail, by which honest people were enabled in some degree to
secure themselves against such losses. Down to 1745, there does not
appear to have been any very sensible abatement of this state of
things, notwithstanding the keeping up of the armed companies,
professedly for the maintenance of law and order. Perhaps the black-
mail caused there being less robbery than would otherwise have been
the case, and also the occasional restoration of property which had
been taken away; but it was of course necessary for the exactors of
the mail to allow at least as much despoliation as kept up the
occasion for the tax. Mr Graham of 1745.
Gartmore, writing on this subject
immediately after the close of the rebellion, enters into a calculation
of the entire losses to the Highlands through robbery and its
consequences.
‘It may be safely affirmed,’ he says, ‘that the horses, cows, sheep,
and goats yearly stolen in that country are in value equal to £5000,
and that the expenses lost in the fruitless endeavours to recover
them, will not be less than £2000; that the extraordinary expenses of
keeping [neat-]herds and servants to look more narrowly after cattle
on account of stealing, otherwise not necessary, is £10,000. There is
paid in black-mail or watch-money, openly or privately, £5000; and
there is a yearly loss, by understocking the grounds, by reason of
thefts, of at least £15,000; which is altogether a loss to landlords and
farmers in the Highlands of £37,000 a year.
‘... The person chosen to command this watch, as it is called, is
commonly one deeply concerned in the thefts himself, or at least that
hath been in correspondence with the thieves, and frequently who
hath occasioned thefts in order to make this watch, by which he gains
considerably, necessary. The people employed travel through the
country armed, night and day, under pretence of inquiring after
stolen cattle, and by this means know the situation and
circumstances of the whole country. And as the people thus
employed are the very rogues that do these mischiefs, so one half of
them are continued in their former businesses of stealing, that the
business of the other half may be necessary in recovering.... Whoever
considers the shameful way these watches were managed,
particularly by Barrisdale and the Macgregors, in the west ends of
Perth and Stirling shires, will easily see into the spirit, nature, and
consequences of them.’[766]
Pennant informs us that many of the lifters of black-mail ‘were
wont to insert an article by which they were to be released from their
agreement, in case of any civil commotion; thus, at the breaking out
of the last rebellion, a Macgregor (who assumed the name of
Graham), who had with the strictest honour till that event preserved
his friends’ cattle, immediately sent them word that from that time
they were out of his protection, and must now take care of
themselves.’
The same author justly remarks the peculiar code of morality
which circumstances, partly political, had brought into existence in
the Highlands, whereby cattle-stealing 1745.
came to be considered rather as a gallant
military enterprise than as theft. He says the young men regarded a
proficiency in it as a recommendation to their mistresses. Here,
however, it must be admitted, we only find the disastrous results of a
general civil disorder arising from political disaffection and
antagonisms.
Both Gartmore and Mr Pennant speak of ‘Barrisdale’ as a person
who at this time stood in great notoriety as a levier of black-mail, or,
as Barrisdale himself might have called it, a protector of the country.
Descended from a branch of the Glengarry family, his father had
obtained from the contemporary Glengarry, on wadset, permission
to occupy a considerable tract of ground named Barrisdale, on the
south side of Loch Hourn, and from this he had hereditarily derived
the appellative by which he was most generally known, while his real
name was Coll MacDonell, and his actual residence was at Inverie,
on Loch Nevis. Although the government had kept up a barrack and
garrison at Glenelg since 1723, Barrisdale carried on his practice as a
cattle-protector undisturbed for a course of years, drawing a revenue
of about five hundred a year from a large district, in which there were
many persons that might have been expected to give him opposition.
According to Pennant, ‘he behaved with genuine honour in restoring,
on proper consideration, the stolen cattle of his friends.... He was
indefatigable in bringing to justice any rogues that interfered with
his own. He was a man of a polished behaviour, fine address, and
fine person. He considered himself in a very high light, as a
benefactor to the public, and preserver of general tranquillity, for on
the silver plates, the ornaments of his baldric, he thus addresses his
broadsword:
“Hæ tibi sunt artes, pacis componere mores;
Parcere subjectis et debellare superbos.”[767]
At the breaking out of the rebellion, Barrisdale and his son acted as
partisans of the Stuart cause, the latter in an open manner, the
consequence of which was his being named in the act of attainder.
During the frightful time of vengeance that followed upon Culloden,
the father made some sort of submission to the government troops,
which raised a rumour that he had undertaken to assist in securing
and delivering up the fugitive prince. What 1745.
truth or falsehood there might be in the
allegation, no one could now undertake to certify; but certain it is,
that, when a party of the Camerons were preparing, in September
1746, to leave the country with Prince Charles in a French vessel,
they seized the Barrisdales, father and son, as culprits, and carried
them to France, where they underwent imprisonment, first at St
Malo, and afterwards at Saumur, for about a year. It was at the same
time reported to London that the troops had found, in Barrisdale’s
house, ‘a hellish engine for extorting confession, and punishing such
thieves as were not in his service. It is all made of iron, and stands
upright; the criminal’s neck, hands, and feet are put into it, by which
he’s in a sloping posture, and can neither sit, lie, nor stand.’[768] This
report must also remain in some degree a matter of doubt.
The younger Barrisdale, making his escape from the French
prison, returned to the wilds of Inverness-shire, and was there
allowed for a time to remain in peace. The father, liberated when
Prince Charles was expelled from France, also returned to Scotland;
but he had not been more than two days at his house in Knoydart,
when a party from Glenelg apprehended him. Being placed as a
prisoner in Edinburgh Castle, he died there in June 1750, after a
confinement of fourteen months. The son was in like manner seized
in July 1753, in a wood on Loch-Hourn-side, along with four or five
other gentlemen in the same circumstances, and imprisoned in
Edinburgh Castle. He was condemned upon the act of attainder to
die in the Grassmarket on the 22d of May 1754, and while he lay
under sentence, his wife, who attended him, brought a daughter into
the world.[769] He was, however, reprieved from time to time, and
ultimately, after nine years’ confinement, received a pardon in March
1762, took the oath of allegiance to George III., and was made a
captain in Colonel Graeme’s regiment, being the same which was
afterwards so noted under the name of the Forty-second. When Mr
John Knox made his tour of the West Highlands in 1786, to
propagate the faith in herring-curing and other modern arts of peace,
he found ‘Barrisdale’—that name so associated with an ancient and
ruder state of things—residing at the place from which he was
named. ‘He lives,’ says the traveller, ‘in silent retirement upon a
slender income, and seems by his appearance, conversation, and
deportment, to have merited a better fate. He is about six feet high,
proportionally made, and was reckoned one 1745.
of the handsomest men of the age. He is still
a prisoner, in a more enlarged sense, and has no society excepting his
own family, and that of Mr Macleod of Arnisdale. Living on opposite
sides of the loch, their communications are not frequent.’[770]
It seems not inappropriate that this record of the old life of

Scotland should end with an article in which we find the associations
of the lawless times of the Highlands inosculating with the industrial
proceedings of a happier age. A further extension of our domestic
annals would shew how the good movements of the last fifteen years
were now accelerated, and how our northern soil became, in the
course of little more than a lifetime, one of the fairest scenes of
European civilisation. Fully to describe this period—its magnificent
industries, its rapid growth of intelligence, of taste, of luxury, the
glories it achieved in literature, science, and art—would form a noble
task; but it is one which would need to be worked out on a plan
different from the present work, and which I should gladly see
undertaken by some son of Caledonia who may have more power
than I to do her story justice, though he cannot love or respect her
more.
APPENDIX.
Having been favoured by the publishers of the Courant and

Mercury with an inspection of such early volumes of their venerable
journals as they respectively possess, I have caused a few curious but
comparatively trivial paragraphs to be copied for insertion in this
place. To these are added a few notices of a characteristic nature
from other sources:
‘Edinburgh, September 19.—Upon the 17th 1720. Sep.
instant, the Right Honourable the Earl of Wemyss
was married to the only child of Colonel Charteris, a fortune of five hundred
thousand pounds sterling, English money, which probably in a short time may be
double that sum. But that is nothing at all in comparison of the young lady herself,
who is truly, for goodness, wit, beauty, and fine shapes, inferior to no lady of Great
Britain; all which the very noble earl richly deserves, being a most complete and
well-accomplished gentleman, and the lineal representative of a most noble, great,
and ancient family in Scotland of five or six hundred years’ standing,’ &c.—
Contemporary Journal.
‘Last week Sir Robert Sibbald of Kipps, M.D., 1722. Aug. 13.
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, died here
in the 83d year of his age. He was a person of great piety and learning, and author
of many learned and useful books, especially in natural history.’—C. M.
On the 11th November 1723, a number of people proceeding from Galashiels and
its neighbourhood to attend a fair at Melrose, and crossing the Tweed in a ferry-
boat at Nether Barnsford, near what afterwards became Abbotsford, were thrown
by the oversetting of the boat into the water, then in flood, and eighteen of them
drowned. A boy named Williamson, son of a tradesman in Galashiels, was
preserved in a wonderful way. Thrown at first to the bottom of the river, he caught
a man by the hair of his head, and was thus enabled to rise to the surface. There he
was kept afloat by grasping, first by a bundle of lint, and then a sackful of gray
cloth, letting go each in succession as it became saturated with water. Then a deal
from the ‘lofting’ of the boat came near him, and he grasped it firmly below his
breast. Meanwhile he was moving rapidly down the stream. There was a place
where formerly a bridge had been, and where three piers yet stood in the water. It
was with difficulty he got through one of the spaces, and over a cascade on the
lower side of the bridge. Sometimes, thrown on his back, he was under water for
thirty or forty yards, but he never let go the deal. At length, after going
considerably more than a mile in this manner, he was taken up by the West-house-
boat, the manager of which had been warned of his coming, and of his possible
preservation, by a ploughman mounted on a horse which, escaping from the
overset boat, had swum ashore, in time to admit of this rapid and dexterous
movement—C. M.
There was this day buried in the Greyfriars’ 1724. June 2.

Churchyard, the wife of Captain Burd of Ford,
‘thought to be the largest woman in Scotland.’ ‘Her coffin was a Scots ell and four
inches wide, and two feet deep.’—E. E. C.
‘We hear that a Quaker woman is encouraged by 1725. Feb. 18.
our magistrates, in her proposal of setting up a
woollen manufactory in this city, and obliging herself to employ all the strolling
beggars in work, and to give them food and raiment.’—E. E. C.
‘Died William Clerk, brother to the deceased Sir Mar. 13.
John Clerk of Pennicuik; remarkable for his frequent
peregrinations through Europe, which procured him the name of Wandering
Will.’—E. E. C.
Died Marjory Scott, an inhabitant of Dunkeld, who 1728. Feb. 26.
appears to have reached the extraordinary age of a
hundred years. An epitaph was composed for her by Alexander Pennecuik, but
never inscribed, and it has been preserved by the reverend statist of the parish, as a
whimsical statement of historical facts comprehended within the life of an
individual:
‘Stop, passenger, until my life you read,

The living may get knowledge from the dead.
Five times five years I led a virgin life,
Five times five years I was a virtuous wife;
Ten times five years I lived a widow chaste,
Now tirèd of this mortal life I rest.
Betwixt my cradle and my grave hath been
Eight mighty kings of Scotland and a queen.
Full twice five years the Commonwealth I saw,
Ten times the subjects rise against the law;
And, which is worse than any civil war,
A king arraigned before the subjects’ bar.
Swarms of sectarians, hot with hellish rage,
Cut off his royal head upon the stage.
Twice did I see old prelacy pulled down,
And twice the cloak did sink beneath the gown.
I saw the Stuart race thrust out; nay, more,
I saw our country sold for English ore;
Our numerous nobles, who have famous been,
Sunk to the lowly number of sixteen.
Such desolation in my days have been,
I have an end of all perfection seen!’[771]
‘A person, who frequents the [King’s] Park, having Oct. 29.

long noticed a man to come from a cleft towards the
north-west of Salisbury Rocks, had the curiosity some days ago to climb the
precipice, if possibly he might discover something that could invite him there. He
found a shallow pit, which delivered him into a little snug room or vault hung with
dressed leather, lighted from the roof, the window covered with a bladder. It is
thought to have been the cave of a hermit in ancient times, though now the hiding-
place of a gang of thieves.’—E. E. C.
‘Yesterday, one Margaret Gibson, for the crime of Nov. 7.
theft, was drummed through the city in a very
disgraceful manner. Over her neck was fixed a board with spring and bells, which
rung as she walked. At some inches distant from her face was fixed a false-face,
over which was hung a fox’s tail. In short, she was a very odd spectacle.’—E. E. C.
‘A gentleman travelling to the south was attacked Dec. 10.
on Soutra Hill by two fellows armed with bayonets,
who desired him to surrender his purse. The gentleman putting his hand beneath
his jockey-coat, presented a pistol, and asked them whether that or his money were
fittest for them. They earnestly begged he would 1728.
spare their lives, for necessity had forced them to it,
and they had never robbed any save one countryman an hour before of 6s. 8d. The
gentleman put them to this dilemma, either to receive his bullets or cut an ear out
of each other’s heads; the last of which with sorrowful hearts they performed.’—E.
E. C.
The prospectus was issued of a weekly paper Dec.
under the name of The Echo, to contain, besides
news, literary matter for the instruction and amusement of society. The
undertakers expressed themselves confident of assistance from ‘persons of taste,
wit, and humour, with which they know our nation abounds.’ The price to be 2s.
6d. a quarter.—E. E. C.
‘A fire broke out in the house of William Gib in Dec. 24.
Kittlenaked, and burnt four cows to death; but how
the fire happened is not known.’—E. E. C.
1729. Jan. 14.
‘We hear that the Lady Cherrytrees died some days ago in the 104th year of her
age.’—E. E. C.
‘Yesternight, two women were committed to the Jan. 28.
Guard for walking the streets in men’s apparel.’—E.
E. C.
‘Yesternight, a company of night-ramblers Jan. 30.
demolished a vast many windows in the Cowgate and
Grassmarket, broke down the seat and loosed the railing before Scott’s Land, and
played the like tricks in several other places.’—E. E. C.
‘There are just now fifty recruits in the Canongate Feb. 4.
gaol, belonging to Halket’s Regiment, ready to be
transported to Holland.’—E. E. C.
‘The Quakers are building a place of worship in Sep.
Peebles’s Wynd. Though it be roofed, there is as yet
no window in it; but some merrily observe these people have light within.’—E. E. C.
‘On Thursday was interred, in the Greyfriars’ 1730. Apr. 27.
Churchyard, the corpse of Mr Andrew Cant, one of
the ministers of this city at the Revolution, and since made a bishop of the clergy of
the Episcopal Communion. He was esteemed a learned and eloquent preacher. He
died in the 91st year of his age, and 64th of his ministry.’—E. E. C.
‘Last Thursday night, Mr Cockburn, son to my 1731. Mar. 29.
Lord Justice-clerk, was married to Miss Rutherford,
daughter to the Laird of Fernilie.’ [This lady was the authoress of the song,
beginning ‘I’ve seen the smiling of Fortune beguiling,’ to the tune of the Flowers of
the Forest.]—E. E. C.
‘There is one Mr David Burnet, officer of the Apr. 12.
Excise in Glasgow, died the 8th instant, and left £50
sterling to the poor of the parishes where he was officer in—namely, £10 to
Edinburgh, £10 to Glasgow, £10 to Ayr, £10 to Hamilton, £10 to Carnwath, as an
encouragement to these several places to deal kindly with the officers residing
among them.’—E. E. C.
‘Yesternight.... Ferrier, Esq., late Provost of July 1.
Dundee, was married to the heiress of
Coldingknows, a handsome young lady of a considerable fortune; and we hear that
he was attended by persons of distinction.’—E. E. C.
‘Last Tuesday, died Mrs Heriot, late the widow of Aug. 26.
Mr James Watson, his Majesty’s Printer, by whom
she had a very considerable estate, a great part of which comes to her present
husband.’—E. E. C.
‘They write from Glasgow that one Robert Lyon is Aug. 30.
now living there, who was in the service of King
Charles I.; aged 109 years. He has got a new set of teeth, and recovered his sight in
a wonderful manner.’—E. E. C.
‘By a letter from Stonhive, we have an account that Dec. 21.
one John Anderson died there lately who could not
be less than 108 years old, he having been about 16 at the fight of the Bridge of
Dee, which happened in the 1639.’—E. E. C.
‘William Crawford, janitor of the High School at 1731. Nov.
Edinburgh, somewhat in years, having been thrice
proclaimed in the kirk, went thither with his friends, and stood some hours
expecting his bride. At last he received a ticket from her in these terms: “William,
you must know I am pre-engaged. I am so. I never could like a burnt cuttie. I have
now by the hand my sonsie, menseful strapper, with whom I intend to pass my
youthful days. You know, old age and youth cannot agree together. I must then be
excused if I tell you I am not your humble servant.” The honest man, not taking it
much to heart, only said: “Come, let us at least keep the feast on a feast-day.
Dinner will be ready. Let us go drink, and drive care away. May never a greater
misfortune attend an honest man!” Back to dinner they went, and from the
company convened the bridegroom got a hundred merks, and all charges defrayed;
with which he was as well satisfied as he who got madam.’—C. M.
‘Died William Eadie, bellman of the Canongate, Nov. 19.
Edinburgh, aged 120. He had buried the inhabitants
of the Canongate thrice. He was 90 years a freeman, and married a second wife, a
lusty young woman, after he was 100 years old.’—C. M.
‘Died John Gray, master of the Rope and Sail 1732. Apr. 9.
Manufactory at Edinburgh; eminent for his
unparalleled skill in cutting whalebone.’—C. M.
In April, it was intimated from Kirkcaldy, that Margaret White of that place,
aged 87, has lately cut eight fresh teeth. ‘Her husband,’ moreover, ‘is in hopes she
may bring him also a new progeny, as she has recovered, with her new tusks, a
blooming and juvenile air.’
These were encouraging facts for the aged; but what were they in comparison
with the case of Jean Johnston of Old Deer, in Buchan! Being aged 80, and the
widow of three husbands, she lately married for her fourth a young man of
eighteen, who had since bound himself apprentice to a wheel-wright. ‘She seems
exceedingly well pleased with him, and remarks that, had it not been for the many
changes of husbands she had been blessed with, she must have long ago been
dead.’ She lived, too, in hopes of a fifth husband, should this one unfortunately not
live long.
‘Thursday last,’ says the paper of June 5th, ‘a certain gray-haired hair-merchant
in the Landmarket, aged between seventy and eighty, a very heavy and corpulent
man, laid half a guinea that he should make the round of Hope Park in twenty
minutes, which is reckoned about a Scots mile. He made it out in about nineteen
minutes, but was so reduced before he reached the starting-post that he arrived
there upon all-fours. On taking a dram, he reverted so well, that he offered to lay
the same wager again instantly.’
The paper for 4th May related that, lately, ‘a young man, a merchant in
Edinburgh, came to Leith to see a female friend take boat in order to cross the
water. The boat being put off and near the pier-end before he came down, and he
observing a rival in the boat with madame, was so exasperate, that in order to get
at ’em, he jumped off the pier-end into the flood, and had actually perished by this
passionate frolic, had not two of Montague’s regiment stepped down, and with
both difficulty and danger, haled him out.’—C. M.
‘Died the Duchess of Buccleuch and Monmouth, Feb. 6.
Countess of Dalkeith, &c., aged about 90. She was
relict of James Duke of Monmouth, natural son of Charles II., beheaded on Tower
Hill, July 15, 1685. She had issue by the Duke, James, late Earl of Dalkeith, and
Henry, late Earl of Deloraine. In 1688, she was again married to Charles Lord
Cornwallis, and had issue a son and two daughters. By her death, an estate of
£15,000 per annum, and the title of Duke of Buccleuch, descend to Francis, Earl of
Dalkeith, her grandson.’—C. M.
Thomas Ruddiman gave in his paper an account of Oct. 18.
an incident at Musselburgh, such as a subsequent
native, the late David M. Moir (Delta), would have delighted to paint in even
greater breadth. The magistrates, according to 1732.
ancient annual custom, had to perform the ceremony
of riding round the marches of their burghal property. On this occasion, they were
attended by their vassals and the burgesses, to the number of 700, all of them of
course mounted and in their best array. ‘The trumpets and hautboys marched in
front; then the magistrates and town council, followed by the gentlemen vassals,
with the town standard; after them the several incorporations, distinguished by
their respective shining new standards, and headed by the masters of the crafts. In
this good order they marched out to the Links, making a gay appearance. But, alas!
while they were marshalling, an unlucky difference arose between the weavers and
the tailors, which should have the pas or precedency. In order to prevent effusion
of the blood of his majesty’s good subjects, they agreed to submit the merits of the
cause to the magistrates. The tailors argued that, as the precedency had previously
fallen to them by lot, no opposition could now be offered in that respect. It was
alleged, on the other hand, that they—the weavers—were Men, and as such
preferable at all events to Tailors. This signal affront could not be digested.
Accordingly, to work they went, without waiting the decision of authority; and
while the weaver squadron were filing off to take the post of honour, with Captain
Scott at their head, Adjutant Fairley, who acted in that capacity to the tailor
squadron, directed a blow at the captain’s snout, which brought him to the ground.
Thus were the two corps fiercely engaged, and nought was to be seen but heavy
blows, hats off, broken heads, bloody noses, and empty saddles; till at last the plea
of manhood seemed to go in favour of the needlemen, who took Scott, hero of the
weavers, prisoner, disarmed him, and beat his company quite out of the field,
though far more numerous. It was with the utmost difficulty that the weavers got
their standard carried off, which they lodged in their captain’s quarters under the
discharge of three huzzas: ’tis true the conquering tailors were then off the field,

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A Step by Step Guide to Qualitative

Data Coding 1st Edition Philip Adu

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A Step-​by-​Step Guide to Qualitative Data Coding is a comprehensive

•• Analyze qualitative data and present their findings

It is a great resource for qualitative research instructors and under-

Philip Adu is a Methodology Expert at The Chicago School of

First published 2019

I dedicate this book to my lovely wife Monique and three wonderful

1 Introduction to qualitative data analysis 1

2 Review of qualitative approaches and their data

3 Understanding the art of coding qualitative data 23

4 Preparing data to code 59

5 Reflecting on, acknowledging and bracketing your

6 Documenting personal reflections and the analytical

7 Manually assigning codes to data 89

8 Developing categories and themes 121

9 Connecting themes, and developing tables and

10 Using QDA Miner Lite to analyze qualitative data 183

11 Using NVivo 12 to analyze qualitative data 221

12 Using Dedoose to analyze qualitative data 278

13 Presenting qualitative findings 329

14 Ensuring the credibility of the analysis process and

1 Introduction to qualitative data analysis 1

2 Review of qualitative approaches and their data

When to use the narrative approach 17

3 Understanding the art of coding qualitative data 23

4 Preparing data to code 59

Using qualitative data analysis software (QDAS) 64

5 Reflecting on, acknowledging and bracketing your

6 Documenting personal reflections and the analytical

7 Manually assigning codes to data 89

8 Developing categories and themes 121

Code transformation or categorization strategies 122

9 Connecting themes, and developing tables and diagrams 158

10 Using QDA Miner Lite to analyze qualitative data 183

11 Using NVivo 12 to analyze qualitative data 221

Exploring data 232

12 Using Dedoose to analyze qualitative data 278

13 Presenting qualitative findings 329

Example 13.5b (synthesized theme-​driven format) 360

14 Ensuring the credibility of the analysis process

3.1 Participant ‘P1’ transcript with codes generated using

7.2 Participant ‘S6’ transcript excerpt showing potential

8.11 SPSS output showing stress, R square value and XY

9.16 Initial concept map depicting the relationship among the

11.2 Display of the interview transcript files and Excel

11.34 Creating a cluster table in the analytical memo 255

12.17 Home page of Dedoose displaying a summary of the

1.1 Four roles within a paradigm 4

11.5 Word Cloud based on empirical indicators under ‘GM

13.21 Codes under ‘GM concerns factors (RQ1)’ and their

2.1 Qualitative research methods and their respective purpose

10.1 Codes and their respective description, count and cases

4.1 Data preparation steps 66

A frost, which began on the 26th of the 1740. Jan.

A Step-by-Step Guide to Qualitative Data Coding is a comprehensive

Example 13.5b (synthesized theme-driven format) 360