PDF Adhesives For Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials First Edition Kumar Ebook Full Chapter

Adhesives for wood and lignocellulosic
materials First Edition Kumar

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/adhesives-for-wood-and-lignocellulosic-materials-first
-edition-kumar/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Adhesives for Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials

Adhesion and Adhesives Fundamental and Appllied Aspects
1st Edition R. N. Kumar
https://textbookfull.com/product/adhesives-for-wood-and-
lignocellulosic-materials-adhesion-and-adhesives-fundamental-and-
appllied-aspects-1st-edition-r-n-kumar/
Wood Adhesives Chemistry and Technology Volume 2 First

Edition Pizzi
https://textbookfull.com/product/wood-adhesives-chemistry-and-
technology-volume-2-first-edition-pizzi/
Bio-based Wood Adhesives : Preparation,

Characterization, and Testing 1st Edition He
https://textbookfull.com/product/bio-based-wood-adhesives-
preparation-characterization-and-testing-1st-edition-he/
Flame Retardants for Textile Materials 1st Edition Asim

Kumar Roy Choudhury
https://textbookfull.com/product/flame-retardants-for-textile-
materials-1st-edition-asim-kumar-roy-choudhury/
Water Hyacinth A Potential Lignocellulosic Biomass for
Bioethanol Anuja Sharma
https://textbookfull.com/product/water-hyacinth-a-potential-
lignocellulosic-biomass-for-bioethanol-anuja-sharma/
Chemo biological systems for CO2 utilization First

Edition Kumar
https://textbookfull.com/product/chemo-biological-systems-for-
co2-utilization-first-edition-kumar/
Materials Selection for Hydrocarbon and Chemical Plants

First Edition Hansen
https://textbookfull.com/product/materials-selection-for-
hydrocarbon-and-chemical-plants-first-edition-hansen/
Willa of the Wood First Edition Robert Beatty
https://textbookfull.com/product/willa-of-the-wood-first-edition-
robert-beatty/
Materials and processes for CO2 capture, conversion,

and sequestration First Edition Cook
https://textbookfull.com/product/materials-and-processes-for-
co2-capture-conversion-and-sequestration-first-edition-cook/
Adhesives for Wood
and Lignocellulosic Materials
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Adhesion and Adhesives: Fundamental and Applied Aspects
of adhesion; modeling of adhesion phenomena; mechanisms of adhesion; surface

and interfacial analysis and characterization; unraveling of events at interfaces;
aspects in reinforced composites; formation, characterization and durability of

adhesive joints; surface preparation methods; polymer surface
biological adhesion; particle adhesion; adhesion of metallized plastics; adhesion of
adhesion;
superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity. With regards to adhesives, the Series
will include, but not limited to, green adhesives; novel and high-performance
adhesives; and medical adhesive applications.
Series Editor: Dr. K.L. Mittal

P.O. Box 1280, Hopewell Junction, NY 12533, USA
Email: usharmittal@gmail.com
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Adhesives for Wood
and Lignocellulosic Materials
R. N. Kumar and A Pizzi

This edition first published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2019 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other-
wise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title
is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Wiley Global Headquarters

111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley prod-
ucts visit us at www.wiley.com.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no rep-
resentations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and
specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-
ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representa-
tives, written sales materials, or promotional statements for this work. The fact that an organization,
website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further informa-
tion does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organiza-
tion, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make. This work is sold with the
understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. The advice and
strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a specialist
where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other
commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared
between when this work was written and when it is read.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-60543-0
Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated to my (Dr. R. N. Kumar) son,
the late Dr. Gopal Kumar who evinced keen interest in my
endeavor to write the book.
Contents
Preface xxi
Part A: Substrates, Adhesives, and Adhesion
1 Wood as a Unique Adherend 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Wood, An Adherend with Hierarchical Structure 3
1.3 Details of Structural Hierarchy in Wood 4
1.3.1 Physical Structure 4
1.3.1.1 Growth Rings and Ring-Porous
and Diffuse-Porous Wood 5
1.3.1.2 Wood Cells 6
1.3.1.3 Organization of Cell Walls in Wood 8
1.4 Chemical Composition 10
1.4.1 Cellulose 11
1.4.2 Hemicelluloses 12
1.4.3 Lignin 12
1.4.3.1 Lignin Isolation 14
1.4.3.2 Functional Groups in Lignin 15
1.4.3.3 Evidences for the Phenylpropane Units
as Building Blocks of Lignin 15
1.4.3.4 Dehydrogenation Polymer (DHP) 17
1.5 Influence of Hierarchical Structure of Wood
on Wood–Adhesive Interaction 18
1.5.1 Penetration 20
1.5.1.1 Penetration in Different Size Scales 20
1.5.2 Other Wood-Related and Process-Related Factors 22
1.6 Effect of Hierarchical Structure of Wood on Adhesive
Penetration 22
1.7 Wood Factors Affecting Penetration 24
1.8 Influence of Resin Type and Formulation on Penetration 25
vii
viii Contents
1.9 Effect of Processing Parameters on Penetration 26

References 27
2 Fundamentals of Adhesion 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Definitions 32
2.2.1 Adhesion 32
2.2.2 Cohesion 32
2.2.3 Adhesive 33
2.2.4 Adherend 33
2.2.5 Bonding 33
2.2.6 Adhesive, Assembly 33
2.3 Mechanism of Adhesion 33
2.3.1 Specific Adhesion 34
2.3.1.1 London Dispersion Force 35
2.3.1.2 Dipole–Dipole Interaction 36
2.3.1.3 Dipole–Induced-Dipole Interaction 36
2.3.1.4 Ion–Dipole Interaction 36
2.3.1.5 Hydrogen Bonds 38
2.3.1.6 Ionic Bonds 38
2.3.1.7 Chemical Bonds 38
2.4 Theories of Adhesion 38
2.4.1 Mechanical Theory 39
2.4.1.1 lllustration of Mechanical Adhesion
for Wood 40
2.5 Electronic Theory 41
2.6 Diffusion Theory 41
2.7 Adsorption/Covalent Bond Theory 42
2.8 Adhesion Interactions as a Function of Length Scale 43
2.9 Wetting of the Substrate by the Adhesive 43
2.10 Equilibrium Contact Angle 44
2.11 Thermodynamic Work of Adhesion 45
2.12 Spreading Coefficient 49
2.13 Zisman’s Rectilinear Relationship—Zisman’s Plots
and Critical Surface Tension of a Solid 50
2.14 Effect of Surface Roughness on Contact Angle 50
2.15 Weak Boundary Layer Theory 51
2.16 Measurement of the Wetting Parameters
for Wood Substrate 52
2.16.1 Some Results on Surface Energy of Wood 53
Contents ix
2.17 Covalent Bond Formation 56

References 56
3 Urea–Formaldehyde Resins 61
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Historical Review of UF Resins (Plastic Historical Society) 62
3.3 Reaction between Urea and Formaldehyde 62
3.4 Reaction Sequence 63
3.5 Manufacture of UF Resin 64
3.6 Chemistry of Reaction—Conventional Process
(Alkaline–Acid Process/Three-Step Process) 65
3.6.1 First Stage—Reaction under Alkaline Conditions 65
3.6.1.1 Reaction Mechanism 66
3.6.2 Second-Stage Condensation Reaction under Acid
Conditions: Chain Extension 66
3.6.2.1 Reaction Chemistry 67
3.6.2.2 Reaction Mechanism 67
3.6.3 Third Stage—Neutralization and Addition
of Second Urea 69
3.6.3.1 Reactions Involving Migration
of Hydroxymethyl Groups 69
3.7 Composition of the Commercial UF Resins 70
3.7.1 Monomeric Species 70
3.7.2 Oligomeric Species 70
3.7.3 General Structure of Commercial UF Resins 70
3.7.4 Urons 72
3.8 Reactions of UF during Storage 73
3.9 Reaction Parameters in the Production of Amino Resins
(General) 74
3.10 Four-Step Process for Low Formaldehyde Emission 74
3.11 Curing of UF Resins 75
3.11.1 Ammonium Salts 75
3.12 Cross-Linked Structure 76
3.13 Triazinone for Curing the UF Resin 77
3.14 Distinguishing Feature of UF from other Synthetic Resin
Adhesives such as MUF and PF 78
3.15 Other Curing Agents 78
3.16 Protic Ionic Liquids as a New Hardener-Modifier System 79
3.17 Improvement of Water Resistance and Adhesive
Performance of UF Resin 81
x Contents
3.18 Characterization of UF Resin 82

3.18.1 13C NMR Data 82
3.18.2 Free Formaldehyde Content in the Resin 83
3.18.3 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight
Distribution 83
3.18.4 Size Exclusion Chromatography 84
3.18.5 MALDI-TOF MS Method 84
3.18.6 Cure Time 85
3.18.7 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 86
3.19 UF Resin Cure Kinetics 87
3.20 UF Resins with Low Formaldehyde Emission 87
3.21 Modification by Polyamines 88
3.22 Cyclic Urea Prepolymer 89
3.22.1 Preparation of Cyclic Urea Prepolymer 89
3.22.2 Cyclic Urea Prepolymer as a Modifying Resin
for other Adhesives 89
3.23 Improvement of UF and MUF Resins by Addition
of Hyperbranched Dendrimers 89
3.23.1 Urea and Melamine Resins without Formaldehyde 90
References 92
4 Melamine–Formaldehyde Resin 101
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 Chemistry 101
4.2.1 Formation of Methylolmelamine 102
4.2.2 Condensation of Methylolmelamines 103
4.2.3 Cross-Linking 104
4.3 Melamine–Urea–Formaldehyde (MUF) Resin 105
4.3.1 Liquid MUF Resin Preparation 106
4.3.2 Phenol–MUF (PMUF) Resins 107
4.3.3 Melamine–Formaldehyde Resin Modification
by Acetoguanamine for Post-Formable
High-Pressure Laminate 108
4.3.4 MUF Adhesive Resins of Upgraded Performance 110
4.3.5 Cold-Setting MUF Adhesives 111
References 111
5 Phenol–Formaldehyde Resins 115
5.2 Historical 115
5.3 Definitions and Types of Phenolic Resins 116
Contents xi
5.4 Basic Chemistry 116

5.4.1 Resols 116
5.4.2 Novolacs 116
5.4.3 Difference between the Acid and Base Catalysis 116
5.4.4 Reaction between Phenol and Formaldehyde
(Sodium Hydroxide Catalyzed) 117
5.4.4.1 Electron Delocalization in Phenol
and Phenoxide Anion 117
5.4.4.2 Hydroxymethylation of Phenol and Further
Condensation (under Alkaline Conditions) 118
5.4.5 Formation of Chelate Ring 123
5.4.6 Reaction between Phenol and Formaldehyde
(Ammonia and Amine Catalysis) 123
5.4.7 Manufacture of Phenolic Resins 124
5.4.7.1 Principles of Manufacture 124
5.5 Effect of Process Variables 129
5.5.1 Catalyst Types and pH of Resin 129
5.5.2 Effect of Viscosity 131
5.5.3 MW and Its Distribution of PF Resin 132
5.6 Commercial Phenolic Resin for Wood Products 132
5.6.1 Spray Drying of Phenolic Resin 133
5.6.1.1 The Spray Drying Process 133
5.6.2 Phenolic Dry Resin Film 133
5.6.2.1 Types and Grades of Dry Glue Film 134
5.6.2.2 Process of Making the Dry Adhesive Film 134
5.7 Curing of Phenolic Resin 134
5.7.1 PF Cure Acceleration 135
5.7.2 PF Cure Acceleration by Additives 136
5.7.3 Mechanism 137
References 141
6 Resorcinol–Formaldehyde Resins and Hydroxymethyl
Resorcinol (HMR and n-HMR) 147
6.2 Reaction between Resorcinol and Formaldehyde 148
6.3 Comparison between Resorcinol and Phenol 149
6.4 Reactive Positions and Types of Linkages Comparison
between Resorcinol and Phenol 151
6.5 Hydroxymethyl Resorcinol 151
6.5.1 Introduction 151
6.5.2 Normal HMR 153
xii Contents
6.5.3 Formulation of HMR 154

6.5.3.1 Mixing Procedure 154
6.5.3.2 Limitations to the Use of HMR 155
6.6 Novolak-Based HMR 155
6.6.1 Preparation of n-HMR 156
6.7 Bonding Mechanism using HMR 156
6.7.1 Mechanism Based on the Material Properties of HMR 156
6.7.2 Mechanism Based on Surface Chemistry 157
6.8 Applications of HMR and n-HMR 157
6.8.1 Bonding to Preservative-Treated Wood 157
6.8.2 Epoxy–Wood Adhesion 158
6.8.3 Bonding of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer–Glulam Panels 158
6.8.4 Priming Agent for Bondability of Wax-Treated Wood 159
6.9 Special Adhesives of Reduced Resorcinol Content 159
6.9.1 Fast-Setting Adhesive for Fingerjointing and Glulam 159
6.9.2 Branched PRF Adhesives 161
6.9.3 Cold-Setting PF Adhesives Containing No Resorcinol 163
References 164
7 Polyurethane Adhesives 169
7.2 Historical 170
7.3 Reactions of Isocyanates 171
7.4 Raw Materials 172
7.4.1 Isocyanates 172
7.4.1.1 Aliphatic Isocyanates 172
7.4.1.2 Aromatic Diisocyanates 173
7.5 Catalysts 176
7.6 Blocked Isocyanates 177
7.7 Advantages of pMDI 177
7.8 PU Adhesive–Wood Interaction 178
7.9 PU–UF Hybrid Adhesives 182
7.10 PU–PF Hybrid Adhesives 182
7.11 EMDI-Based Adhesives 183
7.11.1 Comparison between EMDI and pMDI 184
7.12 Emulsion Polymer Isocyanate (EPI) Adhesive 184
7.13 Non-Isocyanate Polyurethanes and Biobased PU Adhesives 185
References 192
8 Wood Surface Inactivation (Thermal) 201
8.2 Causes and Sources of Inactivation 202
Contents xiii
8.3 Mechanisms of Inactivation 203

8.4 Factors Affecting Wood Surface Inactivation 203
8.4.1 Effect of Wood Species 203
8.4.2 Inactivation Due to High-Temperature Drying 204
8.4.2.1 Effect of Drying Technique 205
8.5 Physical Mechanisms of Inactivation 206
8.5.1 Effect of Extractives on Wettability and Adhesion 206
8.5.2 Molecular Reorientation at Surfaces 206
8.5.3 Micropore Closure 207
8.6 Chemical Mechanisms of Inactivation 207
8.6.1 Elimination of Surface Hydroxyl Bonding Sites 207
8.6.2 Oxidation and/or Pyrolysis of Surface Bonding Sites 208
8.6.3 Chemical Interference with Resin Cure or Bonding 208
References 208
9 Wood Surface Inactivation Due to Extractives 211
9.2 Migration of Extractives to the Wood Surface 211
9.3 Influence of Extractives on Bonding Properties of Wood 212
9.4 Effect of pH of Wood on the Adhesion 217
9.5 Effect of Extractive Migrations during Kiln Seasoning
on Adhesion 218
9.6 Methods to Reduce the Influence of Extractives on Wood
Adhesion 218
9.6.1 Mechanical Method 218
9.6.2 Chemical Method 219
References 220
10 Surface Modification of Wood 223
10.2 Surface Modification Methods 224
10.2.1 Plasma and Corona Treatments 224
10.2.2 Corona Treatment 227
10.2.3 Plasma Applications for Wood Surface Plasma
Treatments 228
10.3 Enzymatic Modification for Hydrophobicity 230
10.4 Modification of Wood Surface by Chemical Treatment—
Functionalization of Wood 231
10.5 Sol–Gel Method 233
References 234
xiv Contents
11 The Chemistry of Condensed Tannins 239

11.2 Reactions of Condensed Flavonoid Tannins 244
11.2.1 Hydrolysis and Acid and Alkaline Condensation 244
11.2.2 Sulphitation 247
11.2.3 Catechinic Acid Rearrangement 248
11.2.4 Catalytic Tannin Autocondensation 248
11.2.5 Tannin Complexation of Metals 250
11.2.6 Tridimensional Structure 250
11.2.7 Reactivity and Orientation of Electrophilic
Substitutions of Flavonoids 251
11.2.8 Influence of Tannin Colloidal Behavior on Reactions 252
11.2.9 New and Unusual Tannin Reactions 253
11.2.10 Modern Instrumental Methods of Analysis 255
11.3 Conclusions 257
References 259
12 Thermosetting Adhesives Based on Bio-Resources
for Lignocellulosic Composites 267
12.2 Tannin Adhesives 268
12.2.1 New Technologies for Industrial Tannin Adhesives 269
12.2.2 Tannin–Hexamethylenetetramine (Hexamine)
Adhesives 270
12.2.3 Hardening by Tannin Autocondensation 272
12.3 Lignin Adhesives 275
12.4 Protein Adhesives 277
12.5 Carbohydrate Adhesives 278
12.6 Unsaturated Oil Adhesives 279
12.7 Wood Welding without Adhesives 283
12.8 Conclusions 286
References 286
13 Environmental Aspects of Adhesives—Emission
of Formaldehyde 293
13.2 Scientific Analysis of the Problem 294
13.3 Factors Affecting the Amount of Formaldehyde Emission 296
13.4 Exposure 297
13.5 Safe Level of Formaldehyde Exposure 297
Contents xv
13.6 Evolution of Formaldehyde Emission Standards 298

13.6.1 US HUD Manufactured Housing Standard 298
13.6.2 California Air Resources Board (CARB) Air Toxic
Control Measure for Composite Wood Products 298
13.7 CARB Green Adhesive Formaldehyde Emission Standards 299
13.8 Japanese JIS/JAS Formaldehyde Adhesive Emission Standards 299
13.9 European Formaldehyde Emission Standards 301
13.10 Standardization and Test Methods 301
13.10.1 Reference Methods 301
13.10.2 Certification Methods 302
13.10.3 Quality Control Methods 302
13.11 Different Standards and Test Methods 302
13.11.1 Reference Method 303
13.11.1.1 Chamber Methods 303
13.11.1.2 ASTM E 1333 303
13.11.1.3 ASTM D6007-02(2008) Standard Test
Method for Determining Formaldehyde
Concentration in Air from Wood
Products Using a Small-Scale Chamber 304
13.11.1.4 ISO 12460-1 and Part 2: 2007 305
13.11.1.5 Japanese Small Chamber Method JIS
A1901 305
13.11.2 Derived Methods 305
13.11.2.1 Gas Analysis according to EN 717-2 305
13.11.2.2 Flask Method 306
13.11.2.3 Desiccator Method 308
13.11.2.4 Criteria of Acceptance for Different
Grades are Given in the following Table 310
13.11.2.5 The Perforator Method (EN 120) 310
References 312
14 Rheology and Viscoelasticity of Adhesives 317
14.1 Rheology of Adhesives 317
14.2 Viscosity—Theory 317
14.3 Capillary Viscometry 318
14.4 Rotational Viscometers 320
14.4.1 Spring Type 321
14.4.2 Servo Systems 321
14.5 Cone-and-Plate Viscometer 321
14.6 Parallel Plate Viscometer 322
14.7 Concentric Cylinder Viscometer 322
xvi Contents
14.8 Ford Cup Viscosity 322

14.9 Gardner–Holt Tubes 323
14.10 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids 324
14.10.1 Types of Non-Newtonian Fluid Behavior 324
14.11 Viscoelasticity of Adhesives 325
14.11.1 Phenomenological Models for Viscoelastic Materials 326
14.11.1.1 Maxwell Element (Elastic Deformation +
Flow) 326
14.11.1.2 Voigt Element (Spring and Dashpot
in Parallel) 327
14.11.1.3 Maxwell–Voigt Mixed Model 327
14.12 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 328
14.13 TTT and CHT Diagrams 332
14.14 Experimental Results 338
References 342
15 Hot Melt Adhesives 347
15.2 Polymers Commonly Used for Hot Melt Adhesives 347
15.2.1 Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Copolymers 347
15.2.2 Styrenic Block Copolymers 350
15.3 Polyureathane Reactive Hot Melt Adhesives 351
15.4 Silane Reactive Hot Melt Adhesives 352
15.5 Polyamide Hot Melt Adhesives 352
15.6 Amorphous Polyolefin (APO/APAO) Hot Melt Adhesives 355
15.7 Tackifiers 356
15.7.1 Aromatic Hydrocarbon Resins 356
15.7.2 Aliphatic Hydrocarbon Resins 356
15.7.3 Mixed Aliphatic and Aromatic Resins 357
15.7.4 Terpene Resins 358
15.7.5 Terpene–Phenol Resins 359
15.7.6 Rosin and Rosin Derivatives 359
15.8 Antioxidants 361
15.8.1 Oxidation-Sensitive Components in Hot Melts 362
15.8.2 Antioxidants Used in Hot Melts 362
15.9 Plasticizers 363
15.10 Mineral Oil and Wax 364
References 364
Contents xvii
Part B: Polymer Matrix Materials For Biofiber Composites

16 Modification of Natural Fibers and Polymeric Matrices 369
16.2 Strategies to Treat the Biofibers for Compatibility 370
16.2.1 Physical Methods 370
16.2.2 Steam Explosion Treatment 371
16.3 Chemical Methods 371
16.3.1 Mercerization 372
16.3.2 Acetylation of Natural Fibers 373
16.3.3 Silane Coupling Agents 373
16.3.4 Benzoylation Treatment 374
16.3.5 Acrylation of Natural Fibers 374
16.3.6 Treatment with Isocyanates 375
16.3.7 Peroxide Treatment 376
16.3.8 Permanganate Treatment 377
16.3.9 MAH Treatment 377
16.3.10 Treatment with Chlorotriazines 377
16.3.11 Additives 378
16.4 Functionalization of Matrices for Compatibility 378
16.5 MAH Grafted Polyolefins as Matrix Additives 382
16.6 Reactive Extrusion System 383
References 383
17 Polymer Matrix: Unsaturated Polyester 389
17.2 Raw Materials 389
17.2.1 Diols 389
17.2.2 Cyclopentadiene-Based Resin 390
17.2.3 Isophthalic-Acid-Based Resin 391
17.2.4 Bisphenol A Fumarate Resins 391
17.2.5 Vinyl Ester 391
17.3 Polyesterification Reaction 392
17.4 Cross-Linking Reaction 393
17.4.1 Curing at Elevated Temperatures 393
17.4.2 Curing at Room Temperatures 394
17.5 Sheet Molding Compounds Based on UP Resins 395
17.6 UV Curable Compositions Based on UP/Vinyl Ester Resins 396
17.7 Biocomposites Based on UP Matrix 397
References 400
xviii Contents
18 Polymer Matrix: Epoxy Resins 403

18.2 Resin Preparation 403
18.3 Characteristics of Epoxy Resins 404
18.3.1 Epoxy Equivalent 404
18.3.2 Enhancement of Properties 405
18.3.3 Types of Epoxy Resins 405
18.3.4 Bisphenol A Glycidyl Ethers 405
18.4 Preparation of DGEBA Epoxy Resin 406
18.4.1 Curing Agents 406
18.4.1.1 Tertiary Amines 408
18.4.1.2 Polyfunctional Amines 408
18.4.1.3 Calculations of the Proportion
of Amines for Curing Epoxy Resins 411
18.4.1.4 Special Amines 411
18.4.1.5 Acid Anhydrides 412
18.4.1.6 Anhydride Curing Mechanism 412
18.5 Other Types of Epoxy Resins 414
18.5.1 Epoxidized Novolac 414
18.5.2 Tetrabromo Bisphenol A Epoxy Resins 415
18.5.3 Epoxidized Vegetable Oils 416
18.5.4 Epoxidized Natural Rubber 417
18.6 Green or Sustainable Epoxy Matrix 417
18.7 Epoxy-Matrix-Based Biofiber Composites 419
References 420
19 Polymer Matrix: Polyethylene 425
19.2 High-Pressure Process 426
19.3 Low-Pressure Processes—Catalysts for Polymerization 426
19.3.1 Ziegler–Natta Catalysts 427
19.4 Production of PE 428
19.4.1 Solution Process 428
19.4.2 Slurry Process 428
19.4.3 Gas Phase Fluidized Bed Reactor 429
19.5 Compatibilizers 429
19.6 Relevant Property of PE 430
19.6.1 Melt Flow Index 430
19.7 Treatment and Functionalizing of Biofibers and Matrix
Materials 430
Contents xix
19.8 Biocomposites Based on PE 430

19.8.1 Kenaf-Based biocomposites 430
19.8.2 Sisal-Fiber-Based Biocomposites 432
19.8.3 Flax-Fiber-Based Biocomposites 434
19.8.4 Hemp-Fiber-Based Biocomposites 435
19.8.5 Miscellaneous 436
References 437
20 Polymer Matrix: Polypropylene 441
20.2 PP Manufacture 441
20.2.1 Catalysts 442
20.2.2 α- and β-Forms of PP 442
20.2.3 Polymerization Methods 443
20.2.3.1 Solvent Polymerization Process 443
20.2.3.2 Bulk Polymerization Process 444
20.2.3.3 Gas Phase Polymerization Process 444
20.3 Biofiber Composites Based on PP 445
20.3.1 Kenaf-Based Composites 445
20.3.2 Oil-Palm-Fiber-Based Composites 448
20.3.3 Flax-Fiber-Based Composites 454
20.3.4 Sisal-Based PP Composites 455
20.3.5 Hemp-Based PP Composites 456
References 460
21 Biodegradable Polymers as Matrix for Biocomposites 467
21.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 467
21.2.1 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) PHB 469
21.2.2 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) 470
21.3 Polylactic Acid 470
21.3.1 Synthesis of PLA 471
21.3.2 Direct Polymerization 472
21.3.2.1 Solution Polycondensation 472
21.3.2.2 Melt Polycondensation 472
21.3.2.3 Ring-Opening Polymerization 473
21.4 Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate 474
21.5 All Green Composites 474
References 477
Index 483
Preface
The dramatic increase in the production of reconstituted wood products

over the past 100 years has been made possible through the systematic
development of new adhesives devised to meet the growing challenges of
the times. Originally, large-diameter trees were available, but as their avail-
ability decreased, followed by a corresponding increase in price, the wood
industry had to meet the challenge by attempting to use small-diameter
trees and comminuted wood particles, fibers and pulp mill waste. This
resulted in the development of reconstituted wood produced from the
comminuted particles bound together with adhesives. This development
had a significant impact on meeting challenges. The development of new
types of adhesives—both synthetic petroleum-based adhesives as well as
adhesives of natural origin—occurred during this period.
This trend of moving away from solid wood towards the utilization of
elements of regularly reduced dimensions was recognized by Marra [1],
who illustrated his concept with the “nonperiodic table of wood elements”
shown in Figure 1 [2].
This concept established the future trends in the wood-based industry,
namely, (1) use of smaller trees, (2) use of waste from other wood pro-
cessing, (3) removal of defects, (4) use of rare and hitherto unused wood
species, natural lignocellulosic fibers, (5) creation of more uniform com-
ponents, (6) development of composites stronger than the original solid
wood, (7) ability to make composites of different shapes and (8) glulams,
OSB, LVL, etc., (9) development of natural-fiber polymer-matrix compos-
ites, (9) development of more sophisticated engineered wood products and
structural elements, such as wooden I-Joist box beams, aided by the avail-
ability of new or improved wood adhesives, (10) development of sandwich
composites of wood and non-wood materials such as metal- and plastic-
faced wood panels, paper and metal honeycomb sandwiches, etc.
It is interesting to note that an answer is slowly emerging to the question
mark in Figure 1. Exciting new opportunities are emerging in the field of
biorefining to produce chemical feedstocks, syngas, and nanocrystalline
xxi
xxii Preface
Figure 1 Basic wood elements from largest to smallest (i.e., breakdown of solid wood into
finer elementary components [1].
cellulose. In the near future, nanocrystalline cellulose, produced as a high-

value by-product from the biorefining process, could likely compete with
carbon fiber for use in innovative high-strength biocomposites.
The above developments markedly increased the percentage of adhesives
used for the production of glued wood products. It should be mentioned
in this context that a high percentage, maybe 80% or more, of all wood
products produced today are glued, and that about 70% (by volume) of all
the adhesives produced in the world today are used for application to wood
[3]. These developments have led to an increase in the functional efficiency
of wood products as well as an efficient utilization of wood resources, thus
constituting an essential tool to directly or indirectly affect the sustainabil-
ity of forestry and wood-based industries.
Although a number of books have appeared on the subject of adhesives
in general and wood in particular, this book is unique because of the vast
academic teaching and research experience and hands-on industrial expe-
rience of the authors. Their skills have been brought to bear on identifying
very important and unique combinations of current topics constituting the
essential contents of the book. Furthermore, this book, besides the adhe-
sives for wood detailed in Part A, also deals with the polymeric matrix
Preface xxiii
materials for natural-fiber-based composites in Part B. The decision to

include polymer matrix materials was made in consideration of growing
global interest in wood-polymer composites based on natural fibers during
the past decade.
The first chapter of the book deals with the distinctiveness of wood as
an adherend in the midst of other substrates such as metals, polymers,
inorganic adherends like glass, etc. In contrast to other substrates, wood
presents adhesives with hierarchical structural elements of different sizes
which, along with its unique chemical and physical characteristics, greatly
influence the wood-adhesive interaction.
Knowledge of the fundamentals of adhesion is extremely important
for researchers as well as technologists in the industry, both for adhesive
formulations and troubleshooting during production. The importance of
establishing an intimate contact between the adhesive and wood has been
emphasized for an effective performance and durability of the bonded
wood products in actual service. Therefore, mechanical interlocking, cou-
lombic (ionic) interaction, hydrogen bonding, and apolar interactions
are discussed in Chapter 2. In addition, electronic or electrostatic theory,
adsorption (thermodynamic) or wetting theory, diffusion theory, chemi-
cal (covalent) bonding theory, theory of weak boundary layers and inter-
phases and interfacial forces based on specific donor-acceptor (acid-base)
interactions between adhesive and substrate molecules are also discussed.
In Chapters 3 to 7, the chemistry and technology of urea-formaldehyde,
melamine formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde, resorcinol-formaldehyde,
and polyurethanes are discussed in detail. Special mention is given to
non-isocyanate polyurethanes (NIPUs) and biobased polyurethane adhe-
sives in Chapter 7.
Surface inactivation peculiar to wood is dealt with in Chapters 8 and 9.
In order to resolve this problem, surface modification by suitable treatment
is dealt with in Chapter 10. Treatment of biofibers is considered in Chapter
16. All of these chapters are very important for technologists working in
the wood industry.
In order to reduce the use of petroleum-derived phenol for the manufac-
ture of phenolic resins, a lot of research has been carried out on the partial
or whole substitution of phenol by natural polyphenols, namely tannins.
Chapter 11 is an exhaustive account of the chemistry of condensed tan-
nins. A good understanding of the chemistry of condensed tannins is very
necessary for developing new adhesives based on natural polyphenols.
Chapter 12 discusses in great detail the technology of tannin adhesives,
particularly new technologies for industrial tannin adhesives, lignin adhe-
sives, protein adhesives, carbohydrate adhesives, unsaturated oil adhesives,
xxiv Preface
and cardanol-based adhesives. The chapter also deals with wood welding
without adhesives.
The environmental aspects of adhesives, namely formaldehyde emis-
sion, are discussed in Chapter 13. Formaldehyde is of particular concern
due to its classification as a “known human carcinogen” in the August 8,
2014 publication of the 12th Report on Carcinogens (RoC). Therefore,
formaldehyde emission standards are dealt with in detail in this chap-
ter. Next, the rheology and viscoelasticity of adhesives is the subject of
Chapter 14 and Chapter 15 discusses hot melt adhesives.
Chapters 17 to 21 are included in Part B (Polymer Matrix Materials for
Biofiber Composites) of the book. Both thermoplastic and thermosetting
matrix materials are discussed in detail.
The author (RNK) thanks Dr. V.V. Srinivasan, former Director of the
Institute of Wood Science, Bangalore, for suggesting the idea of this book.
The author also expresses his sincere gratitude to Prof. Pizzi for volun-
teering to co-author the book at a time when I had abandoned the idea
of writing it. His encouragement, chapter contributions, help in editing
the chapters and adding very important factual details, and particularly
his great patience in arranging the references, is gratefully acknowledged.
The author thanks Mr. P.K. Mayan, Managing Director, Western India
Plywoods Ltd, Baliapatam, Kerala, for his encouragement. I record my
thanks to my son, Dr. Suresh Nandakumar, for his helpful suggestions. The
authors thank Mr. Martin Scrivener for his unequivocal support.
References
1. Marra, G. Overview of wood as a material, J. Educ. Modules for Mater. Sci.
Eng. 1(4), 699–710, 1979.
2. Berglund L. and Rowell R.M. Wood composites, in Handbook of Wood
Chemistry and Wood Composites, Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 2005.
3. Pizzi, A. Special section: Wood adhesives. Foreword. Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 18,
67, 1998.
Part A
SUBSTRATES, ADHESIVES,
AND ADHESION
R. N. Kumar and A Pizzi. Adhesives for Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials, (1–30) © 2019
Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
Wood as a Unique Adherend
1.1 Introduction
In order to make durable wood adhesive bonds in composite wood products,
a clear understanding of the nature and uniqueness of wood as a substrate
and of the distinctiveness of the wood–adhesive interaction is essential.
In this context, it is necessary to mention that substantial differences exist
between bonding in the case of wood on the one hand and most other mate-
rials on the other. The most obvious characteristics of wood that distinguish
wood from other substrates are (a) its porosity, (b) presence of intercon-
nected cells into which adhesive can flow, and (c) the cell walls that have the
ability to allow low-molecular-weight chemicals and resins to pass through
and in some cases even to react with them. All the above features are due to
the special identity that wood possesses in contrast to other substrates.
It is known that wood exhibits multiscale hierarchical structures. As
reported by Gao [1], structural hierarchy is a rule of nature and can be
observed in many other natural and man-made materials. In recent years,
these materials have been called multiscale materials. Hierarchical solids
contain structural elements that themselves have further finer structures
[2]. In this respect, wood as an adherend is significantly different from
other adherends such as metals and plastics.
1.2 Wood, An Adherend with Hierarchical Structure

Wood is basically a fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite with cellu-
lose as the fiber reinforcement and lignin along with polyoses functioning
as mixed polymer matrix. Wood has been found to have a hierarchical cel-
lular structure. The functional efficiency of wood, its exceptional mechan-
ical properties, and other unique characteristics are attributed to the
distinctive structure at all its levels of hierarchy. The complex hierarchical
structure of wood manifests in a wide range operating from the macro
R. N. Kumar and A Pizzi. Adhesives for Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials, (3–30) © 2019
Scrivener Publishing LLC
3
4 Adhesives for Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials
scale in the case of tree to board to growth ring (macro scale), through
multilayered cell walls, composite cellulose/hemicellulose microfibrillar
structure (micro scale), and down to the structure of the three main poly-
mer components, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin (nanoscale).
Hierarchical solids contain basically structural elements that, in turn,
have further finer structures; i.e., intricate structural features occur at dif-
ferent size scales.
For instance, the hierarchical nature of wood showing the size scale of
each structural element within wood has been illustrated by Moon et al. [3]
with typical dimensions given in parentheses:
Tree height (in meters), tree cross section (in cm), growth rings (in mm),
cellular structure (in 500 μm), cell wall structure (in 25 μm), fibril-matrix
structure (in 300 nm), fibril structure (10 nm), and cellulose (1 nm).
This structural hierarchy of wood can play a significant role in influenc-
ing the phenomenon of wood adhesion [3].
In order to maximize the strength and durability of adhesive bonds, one
should understand the complex hierarchical structural elements of wood and
their interactions with the molecules of the adhesives at various size scales.
It should be appreciated that hierarchical structural elements of wood
when exposed to the molecules of adhesives during bonding interact at
different size scales in an extremely unique manner not encountered in
the case of other adherends. Although the concept of hierarchical model
of wood has not been explicitly mentioned, the importance of practical
length scale of wood composite elements in wood adhesive bonding has
been recognized and reported [4].
1.3 Details of Structural Hierarchy in Wood

The structural hierarchy confers on wood very unique properties.
Accordingly, wood is porous, permeable, hygroscopic, and orthotropic. It is
a biological composite material of extreme chemical diversity and physical
intricacy. Further, wood properties vary between species and even within
the same species. They can vary even within a tree. Variability within a
single species could be per se significant enough to throw challenge to an
adhesive for its consistent and satisfactory performance [5].
1.3.1 Physical Structure

There are two major types of wood: softwood (from needle-bearing
trees) and hardwood (from broad-leaved trees). The terms softwood and
Wood as a Unique Adherend 5
hardwood are misnomers and have little to do with hardness or density.

Many softwoods are actually much harder than many hardwoods [5].
In both softwoods and hardwoods, the most noticeable features are the
light outer ring and the dark inner core. Thus, the wood in the trunk of the
tree is typically divided into two zones, each of which serves an important
function distinct from the other. The actively conducting portion of the
stem in which parenchyma cells (explained later) are still alive and meta-
bolically active is referred to as sapwood [6].
A looser, more broadly applied definition is that sapwood is the band
of lighter-colored wood adjacent to the bark. Heartwood is the darker-
colored wood found to the interior of the sapwood. As the tree grows
larger in diameter, cells closer to the center of the tree, which are no longer
required for these activities, die and are converted to heartwood.
In the living tree, sapwood is responsible not only for conducting sap
but also for storage and synthesis of biochemicals. An important storage
function is the long-term storage of photosynthesis products. The primary
storage products of photosynthates are starch and lipids. Living cells of the
sapwood are also the agents of heartwood formation. Biochemicals must
be actively synthesized and translocated by living cells [6]. For this reason,
living cells at the border between heartwood and sapwood are responsible
for the formation and deposition of heartwood chemicals, one important
step leading to heartwood formation [7].
These chemicals are collectively named as extractives and are known for
protecting the wood. Extractives also play a significant role in the adhesive
bonding of wood. Extractives are formed by parenchyma cells at the heart-
wood–sapwood boundary and are then exuded through pits into adjacent cells
[7]. In this way, dead cells can become occluded or infiltrated with extractives
despite the fact that these cells lack the ability to synthesize or accumulate these
compounds on their own. When these chemicals oxidize, the heartwood dark-
ens, and the border between sapwood and heartwood becomes more distinct.
Heartwood formation differs markedly between species, even within trees of
the same species. These changes, especially the chemical changes, account for
much of the difficulty and unpredictability in the bonding of heartwood [5].
1.3.1.1 Growth Rings and Ring-Porous and Diffuse-Porous Wood

Wood cells are produced by the vascular cambium, the only living part of
the tree, at the boundary between bark and sapwood, one layer of cell divi-
sions at a time. These collections of cells produced together over a discrete
time interval are known as growth increments or growth rings. Cells formed
at the beginning of the growth increment are called earlywood cells, and
Earlywood
Latewood
Figure 1.1 Earlywood and latewood [5].
cells formed in the latter portion of the growth increment are called late-
wood cells (Figure 1.1). Springwood and summerwood were terms for-
merly used to refer to earlywood and latewood, respectively, but their use
is no longer recommended [8].
The growth rings are usually prominent because of cyclical variation in
color or porosity. These variations are in turn due to the formation of dif-
ferent types of cells and wood structures during different parts of the grow-
ing season. The lighter-colored (less dense) and more porous cell tissue of
earlywood is formed early in the growing season. The porous earlywood
cells are largely responsible for the movement of liquid and nutrients
within the tree. The darker (more dense) and less porous cell tissue of the
latewood, formed later in the growing season, is largely responsible for
mechanically supporting the tree [5] (Figure 1.1).
Large differences between the earlywood and latewood porosity and
density in some species like oak and southern pine often cause difficulty
in bonding [5].
Hardwoods may be divided into ring-porous and diffuse-porous
woods. Diffuse-porous woods have vessels of roughly the same radial
diameter throughout the growing season. In the diffuse porous wood, the
pores are distributed evenly throughout the wood.
1.3.1.2 Wood Cells

A living plant cell consists of two primary domains: the protoplast and the
cell wall. The protoplast is the sum of the living contents that are bounded
by the cell membrane. The cell wall is a non-living, largely carbohydrate
matrix extruded by the protoplast to the exterior of the cell membrane. The
plant cell wall protects the protoplast from osmotic lysis and often provides
mechanical support to the plant at large [9, 10].
In wood, the ultimate function of the cell is borne solely by the cell wall.
This means that many mature wood cells not only do not require their
protoplasts, but indeed must completely remove their protoplasts prior
Wood as a Unique Adherend 7
to achieving functional maturity. For this reason, a common convention

in wood literature is to refer to a cell wall without a protoplast as a cell.
Although this is technically incorrect from a cell biological standpoint, this
convention is common in the literature [6].
In the case of a mature cell in wood in which there is no protoplast,
the open portion of the cell where the protoplast would have existed is
known as the lumen (plural: lumina). Thus, in the wood cells, there are two
domains: the cell wall and the lumen.
Wood cells are microscopic, long, thin, hollow tubes, like soda straws with
their ends pinched shut. Most longitudinal cells that are parallel to the longi-
tudinal axis or grain direction of the tree trunk are meant either for support
or for the movement of fluids in the living tree. Some special cells are orga-
nized into tissue called rays that lie perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the tree trunk and along its radii. Ray cells are responsible for the production
and storage of amorphous materials of complex chemical nature. The rays
are also the pathway for lateral movement of fluids in the tree [5].
There are two basic types of cells—prosenchyma and parenchyma.
Softwoods and hardwoods have different types of prosenchyma and paren-
chyma cells. Prosenchyma cells are generally the strong woody cells respon-
sible for mechanical support and the movement of fluids in the living tree.
Parenchyma cells are responsible for the production of chemicals and for
the movement and storage of food. The real differences between softwoods
and hardwoods are in the size, shape, and diversity of these two types of
cells [5].
The structure of softwoods is characterized by relatively few types of
prosenchyma and parenchyma cells compared to hardwoods as a result of
their lower position on the evolutionary scale. One type of prosenchyma
cell, the longitudinal tracheid, constitutes approximately 90–94% of the
volume of softwood wood. Tracheids perform both the support and fluid
movement for the tree. Earlywood tracheids are generally of large diam-
eter and thin walled. Earlywood cells are specifically adapted to moving
fluids through large openings (bordered pits) that connect adjoining cells.
Latewood tracheids, which are generally smaller in diameter, are thicker
walled, have smaller pits, and are specifically adapted for strength. The
remaining 10% of softwood consists of longitudinal parenchyma cells, ray
tracheids, and ray parenchyma cells. Generally, parenchyma cells play a
secondary strength role, but they are important for adhesive bonding as
paths for adhesive penetration. Moreover, the chemicals contained by the
cells affect adhesion and adhesive cure.
In comparison to softwoods, the structure of hardwoods is characterized
by a greater diversity of cell types and functions. One notable difference is
that one type of specialized prosenchyma cells is responsible for mechanical

support, and another type of specialized prosenchyma cells is responsible
for fluids movement. Support is provided by two types of small-diameter
thick-walled prosenchyma cells called libriform fibers and fiber tracheids.
Fluid movement is provided by medium- to large-diameter, thin-walled,
and open-ended cells called vessel elements. Normally, a number of vessel
elements link end to end along the grain to form long tube-like structures
known as vessels. The cavities are large enough to see with the naked eye.
Such large cavities obviously affect wood strength and adhesive flow when
pressure is applied during bonding. The longitudinally oriented fibers and
vessels together constitute the major volume of cells (roughly 70–90%)
in hardwoods. A number of other specialized longitudinal prosenchyma
and parenchyma cells and ray prosenchyma and parenchyma cells con-
stitute the remaining volume. As in the softwoods, some of these minor
hardwood cell types have important chemical roles and secondary, though
often minor, mechanical roles.
1.3.1.3 Organization of Cell Walls in Wood

The fiber ultrastructure is the hierarchic level ranging from the molecular
level up to the fiber cell wall layers. The structure of the actual wood cell
wall is very complex.
Under strong magnification, the visible height of various layers can be
recognized in the wood cell wall. A clear demarcation between the individ-
ual layers can be seen with an electron microscope. With the aid of an
electron microscope, the current knowledge of the structural composition
of the wood cell walls was obtained between 1950 and 1970 [11].
For a clear understanding of the cell wall structure of wood, one should
recognize the basic structural units, namely, fibrils, elementary fibrils, and
microfibrils. They are described below:
The cellulose molecules are linear and can exhibit a high degree of lateral
order, and they are therefore capable of forming strong intra- and intermo-
lecular hydrogen bonds and aggregated bundles of molecules. Thus, the
cellulose molecular chains can be organized into strands called fibrils. In
the literature, these bundles of cellulose molecules have been given many
different names, such as elementary fibrils, microfibrils, protofibrils, etc.
[12–14]. The term cellulose microfibrils will be used in this book. These
cellulose microfibrils have crystalline and amorphous regions.
Elementary fibrils are cellulosic strands of smallest possible diameter
(35 Å). An elementary fibril of this cross-sectional dimension could con-
tain about 40 cellulose chains. Aggregates of elementary fibers are classed
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
aloud. Remember that! The first one who talks or leaves his seat
without permission will be punished.”
Monday morning, true to her word, Miss Rand punished every
child who talked aloud without permission. Tuesday and Wednesday
the school was a model of quiet and order. But Thursday Miss Rand
had a headache and did not feel quite equal to having it out with
Theodore when he asked, without permission, “Is this the 22nd of
the month?” for it was a perfectly legitimate inquiry, inspired by the
exercise in letter-writing which was his language lesson.
A half hour later Margaret called Miss Rand’s attention to the fact
that the clock had stopped, then looked scared as she realized she
had broken the rule. Miss Rand argued to herself that the child
meant well, so she let the talking aloud pass uncommented upon.
And so it went, the children falling rapidly back into their old habit
of talking whenever they pleased. By the middle of the next week
pandemonium was again the order of the day and Miss Rand again
“cleaned house,” saying, “Tomorrow morning I’m going to begin
making everyone of you who talks aloud stay in at recess. There is no
reason why you can’t do your work quietly, and tend to your business
without asking so many questions,” and for a few days she was most
energetic in enforcing quiet and order.
But in two weeks the school-room was again a place of noisy
confusion. And so it went.
CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT
Instead of announcing, each time, that there would be a change in

her way of running the school, Miss Rand should have said, “Don’t
talk aloud without permission, Theodore,” the first time and then,
without saying any more about it, she should have quietly signified
by a gesture or a look that speaking aloud was forbidden, refusing to
answer queries put in this fashion. If she had done this every time a
pupil spoke aloud and had never let a single opportunity to correct
this bad habit go by, the school would always have run as smoothly
and as well as it did for the few days after one of her periodic
upheavals of enforcing order.
Have backbone enough to stick to the course of action which you
know to be the best, in spite of the fact that you are tired and that
four o’clock is almost at hand. All you need to do is to raise your
hand in a gesture enforcing silence, but do it every time talking aloud
occurs.
The effect of quiet insistence upon the no-talking rule is much
better than a hundred spells of violent housecleaning, with periods of
laxness in between.
COMMENTS
A school can not run smoothly and be governed well if the

authority of the teacher has to be constantly brought into view. It is
the unseen authority which counts for the most.
A teacher who is consistent, and who makes her pupils understand
that she means what she says always—not just temporarily—gains
their respect and confidence. She can govern them then without the
prop of punishment or rewards, because they feel her strength and
continuity of purpose—her ability to govern.
ILLUSTRATION
A certain young man who owned a fine Work Steadily

colt undertook to break him himself,
although he had had no experience in training horses. The colt was
high-spirited and difficult to control, the young man impatient and
nervous. When the colt did not do as he was expected to
immediately, the young man was apt to lose his temper and use the
lash pretty roughly.
One day an experienced horseman watched such a performance
from across the street. The young man gave the colt several beatings
in succession, the horse becoming more and more difficult to handle
all the while. After the horseman had watched a long time in silence,
he called to the colt’s owner, “Put up your whip, young man, and
hold the lines tight and steady and you will find that your colt will act
differently.” The young man acted upon the suggestion and found
that he could claim immediate success.
CASE 112 (SEVENTH GRADE)
Miss Bersley was a teacher in the fourth Too Great

grade of a school in Brockton, Maine. She Absorption
was an enthusiastic young woman, but there was one great drawback
to her teaching. She became so interested in what she was saying,
that she gave the backward pupils in her room no chance to recite.
They were too slow. She was always sure of a quick reply from such
children as Spencer Thorpe. He was ever ready to speak on every
subject, even though he was not always informed. Miss Bersley
would not have openly admitted this to be the situation, but her
recitations disclosed her attitude.
“Name the principal manufacturing towns in New England.”
Up went Spencer’s hand.
Miss Bersley hesitated.
Spencer flung his arm around until she said, “All right! Spencer,
since you are so anxious to recite, you may tell us.”
Once on his feet, he named one town after another, as fast as they
came into his mind, regardless of whether they were manufacturing
towns or whether they were located in New England.
“What natural advantages does New England have for
manufacturing?”
As usual, Spencer raised his hand.
“Very well, Spencer.”
So, through over thirty minutes recitation, out of a class of thirty-
five, Spencer Thorpe was called upon five times, while many less
forward pupils were given no opportunity for self-expression.
At the beginning of the geography recitation say, “I am going to try

a new plan in the lesson today. Let us see if I can tell who knows his
lessons by the way he looks instead of by the raising of his hand.”
Be sure to give as many of the children an opportunity to recite as
you can—all if possible.
At the beginning of the next recitation say, “The plan we tried
yesterday worked so well, I believe we will try it for the whole day.”
COMMENTS
By calling on all or nearly all of the pupils, you will accustom the
boy who wants to speak all the time, to the idea that he must take his
turn with the others.
By substituting an intelligent interest in the recitation for the
raising of hands and the mere pleasure of being the central figure in
the class, you will raise the class standard to a higher level. By
assuming an attitude of attention, the pupils will unconsciously
become interested in each other’s recitations.
The teacher may not hope entirely to do away in a day with the
excessive raising of hands, or of speaking without waiting to be called
upon, but the fact that she has secured her point during one
recitation makes it easier the next time to suppress the excessive
desire, on the part of one or two pupils, to monopolize the time and
attention of the class to the exclusion and detriment of others.
ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)
At the beginning of the class in United States history in the

Deerfield rural school, Miss Deaton decided she was going to do
away with the privilege which four of the pupils seemed to claim of
talking all the time.
“We have so many points to cover in the Refuse Answers
recitation today, we shall have no time to
stop for the raising of hands. I shall call on you individually without
waiting for that. Every one be ready to answer promptly.”
Miss Deaton smiled. Her attitude was one of complete confidence.
The class responded accordingly.
Just once during the recitation did George Mills, the class
“speaker,” forget. Miss Deaton had only to raise her eyebrows to
remind him that this was not the form to be followed that day.
Laxness on the part of the teacher, even in a seemingly trifling
matter, sometimes destroys the order in a school-room for all time.
To get the best results and to make the most progress in school work,
there must be no leaks in the efficiency tank. The experience of a
certain eighth grade teacher proves this to be true.
CASE 113 (EIGHTH GRADE)
Miss James was a strict teacher who kept her word and was both
feared and respected by her pupils. Technically she was a good
teacher, too; that is, she knew how to present a subject to the child
mind, to organize and emphasize the vital points in a lesson. There
was apparently no reason why the children of the eighth grade room
should not accomplish as much as the individual ability of each child
would permit.
But they were not doing it. Mildred, who Interrupting the
had gotten averages of 90 in most subjects Studious
throughout the seventh grade, was hovering just above the passing
mark. The same was true to a lesser degree of others, and there was a
continuous effort on the part of Miss James, the teacher, to suppress
small naughtinesses in children who had good records for previous
years.
The children never finished tasks in the time assigned and the
work done was mediocre in quality. Miss James did not realize how
badly things were going until Mildred’s mother presented the case to
her.
It was just after the monthly issue of report cards. Mildred’s card
showed some unusually low marks—one that was far below passing
grade. Mildred was a conscientious girl and could not herself
understand why she failed to do as good work as she had done the
year before. She knew she worked hard but she never seemed to
accomplish results. Things always managed to happen just so that
she had to skip over the last few paragraphs of her history lesson in a
hurry, and look up all her reading words at recess because she had no
other time to spend on them.
When she showed her card to her mother, bitter tears of hurt pride
were in her eyes, for in the past there had never been anything but
commendation at home when she brought home her month’s record.
Her mother, being a wise woman, drew her little daughter to her and
asked:
“What’s the matter, dear? Father and I know you don’t waste your
time at school. There must be a reason for these low marks. Is it that
Miss James is unfair? Doesn’t she give you what you deserve to get?”
“No,” sobbed Mildred. “It isn’t that. She marks higher than Miss
Johnson did last year. I really don’t deserve to get any more than
this. I do well enough on tests when I can study up, but I don’t do
good work every day.”
And Mildred cried out her trouble in her mother’s arms. That lady
resolved to visit Miss James the next day and have a serious talk with
her.
Miss James had seen that the eighth grade was doing uncommonly
poor work and had cast about in her mind for the reason. She had
shortened lessons until she was in danger of not complying with the
schedule, and she had watched with an eagle eye for inattention and
laziness. When Mildred’s mother pointed out the contrast between
this year’s and last year’s work she was forced to admit that Mildred
was always busy and was by no means a dull pupil.
What was the trouble?
She decided to watch more closely than before the events in her
school-room.
The next morning after opening exercises were over, her glance
over the room showed her every head bent over a book. The room
was so quiet that Robert Woods’ wheezy breathing (he had a very bad
cold) was distinctly audible.
Then the stillness was broken by John. He saw Miss James looking
at him and asked a question about the lesson. Most of the children
looked up from their work, shifted their positions, or gave some
other evidence of having noticed the break. In a few minutes
someone else asked permission to leave the room. And so on through
the period.
Not until she had watched for several periods did Miss James
realize the stir each one of these speeches aloud made, and how
frequent they were. Then she saw that the speaking aloud disease
had reached an advanced stage in her school-room and that it, and it
alone, was responsible for the seemingly causeless deterioration in
her pupils’ work.
Do not sit still in the front of the room during a study period and
let children ask questions whenever they please. Require them to
raise their hands and then go to them and settle the difficulty quietly
without disturbing the rest of the school.
Develop the social consciousness in the child as early as possible.
Make him realize that, for the general welfare of the whole school, it
is worth his while to forego satisfying his need immediately.
COMMENTS
In this case the teacher was a good one and a good disciplinarian,
but one minor weakness in her fabric of control had undermined all
the rest of her good work.
Work, no matter how earnest it may be, can not be constantly
interrupted without suffering the consequences. The inspiration is
gone and interest flags.
The fullest and best work of which children are capable can never
be finished on time if it is accomplished under the stress of
interruptions and distracted attention. A steady noise, even a clatter
or roar, does not disturb a worker after he becomes accustomed to it.
It is the occasional outburst, the sudden breaking in upon a silence,
that confuses the mind.
ILLUSTRATION
A young engineer who was accustomed to Exhausted
working in a downtown office in a big city Nerves
was transferred to a branch office in a small town. In the city he had
been surrounded by the continuous clatter of typewriters and
adding-machines, the noise of the traffic in the street below and the
boom of elevated trains just outside the window. Because these
sounds were steady and relatively constant, the man did not notice
them. He paid no heed, though his work required intense
concentration and uninterrupted thought.
In the small town branch office he was the sole occupant of a little
room looking out upon an uncleared field. Shortly after the
engineer’s arrival the owner of the adjacent land began to clear it. He
used dynamite to blast out the stumps. The explosions of the blasts
would have been lost in the din to which this man had been
accustomed in the city, but breaking in upon a dead silence as they
did, they annoyed the engineer so much that he lost much time
trying to pick up the broken threads of his work every day.
Then, these noisy explosions began to get on his nerves, for he was
a high-strung man. At the end of two weeks he had a nervous
breakdown which was caused by nothing but these periodic
disturbances that set his nerves on edge and shattered his self-
control. Fortunately, by the time he had recovered from his illness,
the blasting was finished and he went on with his work undisturbed.
CASE 114 (HIGH SCHOOL)
When Miss Barton had charge of the high school assembly room in
Geneva, Illinois, it was always a time for unlimited privilege on the
part of the pupils.
“Miss Barton, may I speak to Elsie?” Susan Emmons asked,
without raising her hand.
Two blonde heads were soon together talking over what they were
going to wear to Jeannette’s party.
Two minutes later: “Please, may I speak?” This was from a
demure-looking girl who was never known to ask this privilege from
any other teacher.
Several minutes passed without a reply from Miss Barton. She was
enjoying some peace in reading her home newspaper when again,
“Miss Barton, may I speak to Susan?”
“Yes” (said without thinking).
Then, when Elsie was on her way to speak to Susan, she recalled,
“Didn’t I just give you permission?”
“No, you gave Susan permission to speak to me.”
“All right.” Miss Barton sighed as she Too Frequent
turned her attention to another part of the Speaking
room, where two boys were amusing themselves looking out of the
window.
Refuse, without discussion, a request to speak, when you know it is

not necessary.
It is often wise to ask, when such a request is made, “Is it
necessary?” Look into the child’s eyes as you say this, letting him see
by your attitude that you do not intend to give the permission unless
it is necessary.
One cautious teacher asks, “Is it something about your lessons?”
Refuse all requests that have nothing to do with the pupil’s work.
Limit the time for speaking. Do not allow more than one person to
speak at a time.
Much speaking can be avoided frequently by quietly stepping
forward to the person who asks the permission and saying, “Can I
help you? We won’t disturb Susan if we can help it.” The implied
suggestion is itself a reminder to be more careful about asking such
favors.
If you make it clear when you first take charge of a study room that
you expect little or no whispering, the pupils will soon find out that
such “speaking” is quite unnecessary.
COMMENTS
In the case of Miss Barton, the pupils misused a privilege which
should have been reserved for special circumstances only.
The study period is not a time for idleness or recreation on the part
of the teacher. If she makes it so, she can not blame the pupils for
following her example.
ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)
Miss Herrick had charge of the study hall in the Pittsfield High
School the last period of every day. Her presence meant “Study.”
There was no time for foolishness when she came into the room. She
treated requests to speak in such a chary manner that a pupil would
think twice before asking the privilege.
“May I speak?”
Miss Herrick would not say a word, but Learn the
would beckon the pupil to her desk. Reason
“What would you like to learn, Jessie?”
“I wanted to ask Mary how to do an algebra problem.”
“Bring your book up to the desk; perhaps I can help you.”
So time after time a request to speak to a fellow pupil was turned
aside for something more helpful.
(3) Studying aloud. Probably few teachers realize the difficulty a
child meets in learning to suppress tone and muscular movement of
mouth and lips while reading. Indeed, the adult can assure himself
that in silent reading, even he does not suppress all movement of
tongue and vocal cords.
CASE 115 (THIRD GRADE)
When Miss Smedley took charge of the third grade in the Russell
Sage School, she had to meet several new situations, one of which
was most annoying. Almon Metcalf insisted on studying aloud. Most
of the pupils in the room were accustomed to this, as he had been in
the same room with them for years.
Studying Aloud
Miss Smedley was conducting a class in arithmetic in the upper
division, when she heard a monotonous mumbling on the other side
of the room. Almon Metcalf was studying his reading lesson.
“Almon, I wish you would study silently. Don’t you know you are
interrupting our arithmetic lesson?”
All the children then turned around to look at Almon.
Again she started to take up the lesson, but the children’s attention
was all on Almon. Miss Smedley’s patience was taxed to the utmost.
It was hard enough to pound two times two into the minds of
children when they were interested, but to have their attention
distracted by a boy who insisted upon studying out loud—this was
too much.
“Almon Metcalf, come here!”
The scared little boy hesitantly walked up to the front of the room.
“Aren’t you ashamed to take up my time this way?” Miss Smedley
shook him while the rest of the room looked on the scene with
greatest interest.
Give the boy an isolated seat for the time being. When with him
alone apply a test whereby you can find out the cause of his studying
out loud. Take a second grade reader and pick out a simple
paragraph:
“Almon, read this paragraph to yourself.”
If you discover he can not tell you what he has read when he has
finished the paragraph, teach him how to read silently. This matter
of teaching silent reading is a point neglected by a great number of
teachers.
Take one short sentence from the second reader. Read it to
yourself, first, so that he can watch you. Then ask him to read the
sentence the same way.
“What did you read?”
If he answers correctly, say, “That’s right. Now read two
sentences.” If he can not tell you what he has read, give him a
simpler sentence. Do not give up the test until he is able to read
something, no matter how easy the sentence may have to be.
On the following day give the whole class the same test. Select a
somewhat more difficult sentence. Let the one who can first give the
words orally, raise his hand. Make a game of silent reading and its
difficulties will soon disappear.
With third grade children, the teacher should show her class how
to study each lesson. It is not enough to give an assignment. The
method of study should be outlined.
For the preparation of the reading lesson, for instance (for that is
the subject in which a child is more likely to study aloud), put a list of
the most difficult words on the board and mark them for
pronunciation. Ask the class to examine the words. Then say, “Are
there any words you can not pronounce?” Give special attention to
the boy who studies aloud, asking him to pronounce the words which
you have written on the board.
For the fourth and upper grades, place a list of the more difficult
words on the board, the meaning of which the children should be
asked to look up in their small dictionaries; and do not forget that
children have to be taught how to use the dictionary. Have play drills
in this as in all other difficulties of a mechanical sort.
COMMENTS
Miss Smedley did not stop to figure out why Almon Metcalf
studied aloud. If she had, she would have taken into consideration
the fact that he had been two years in school without being taught
how to study. She would have realized that calling the attention of
the whole room to his deficiency would not help him to break the
habit.
The boy was not the only one who was to blame for distracting the
attention of the class in arithmetic. Miss Smedley’s own remarks
were instrumental here.
Almon Metcalf needed Miss Smedley’s special guidance in learning
how to study.
ILLUSTRATION (FIFTH GRADE)
When Rosa Bentley entered the fifth grade of the Lowell school,
Miss Sieger recognized her at once as an inveterate talker. This was
especially manifest in the study periods where Rosa had formed the
habit of studying aloud.
“Well, there must be some cause for the Teach Silent
child’s doing this,” thought Miss Sieger. Study
“She is another one of those untrained pupils.” Miss Sieger was
aware of the deficiencies in our school system.
“I’m going to teach Rosa how to study.”
That afternoon she worked alone with the child for fifteen minutes,
patiently helping her, sentence by sentence, to comprehend what she
was reading without pronouncing the words aloud. This was only the
beginning of a series of special lessons in how to study.
When Rosa had gained some headway, Miss Sieger held her up as
an example to an occasional delinquent.
“Rosa has learned how to study, now can’t you?”
CASE 116 (SEVENTH GRADE)
In Miss Algernon’s seventh grade room there were three pupils

who insisted on studying aloud.
“I should think that by the time you Studying Aloud
reached the seventh grade, John Leavitt,
you would know how to study. Only babies in the second and third
grades have to study aloud. I don’t know what our schools are
coming to when they allow pupils to be promoted to the seventh
grade who have never learned how to study. I can not see that there
is much use of your being here.
“Suppose you go down into Miss Kreisler’s room this morning and
learn how to study. Her little third grade pupils know more about
studying than you do.”
At the same time, Miss Kreisler was telling her children, “Miss
Algernon is going to send three of her seventh grade pupils down
here this morning, because they have been disturbing her whole
room by studying aloud. I want you to show them that you can study
silently.”
She had no more than finished her statement, when three children,
John, and Farry Lawrence and Ellery Comstock, came into the room
with all the assurance that such a conspicuous position could give
them.
“You may take those three vacant seats,” said Miss Kreisler, as she
mustered all the self-control she had to keep from laughing. The
situation was so incongruous.
The little children caught the spirit and a general giggle rose in the
room.
It did not take Miss Kreisler many minutes to see the futility of
such a corrective measure. She sent word to Miss Algernon: “The
plan didn’t work. You’ll have to try something better.”
Give a sample lesson of the situation as it would be if everyone in

the room studied aloud.
“Let’s try it. Take your geographies. Don’t be afraid. Read aloud,
everyone.
“That will do.
“How did it seem? Do you think we can afford to study that way?
We couldn’t get much done, could we?
“All right; let us remember to have consideration for others in the
room when we are studying.
“I think that list of questions on the board will help you in
preparing your geography lesson for today. You will find the answers
on pages fourteen to seventeen.”
COMMENTS
It did not help the children who had never learned how to study, to
be held up in ridicule before a third grade room, nor to be cited as
the product of a poor school system. Miss Algernon gave the children
the impression they were the ones at fault and, what was even less
excusable, that there was little hope for them in school. This would
hardly inspire them with courage for greater effort.
ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)
Miss Griffin, a teacher in the eighth grade of the Waller Avenue

School, decided to cure two boys in her room who had the idea they
could not study in school unless they spoke aloud.
During a study period in which she was at leisure she went quietly
to each boy’s desk and privately asked:
“Are you a Chinese boy, Leonard?” The boy laughed and shook his
head.
“I thought not. Well, do you know, Chinese Method
Leonard, that Chinese boys study out loud?
A Chinese boy learns his lessons by shouting aloud until he has
committed the passage to memory. Then he hands his book to the
teacher, turns his back and recites the lesson as fast as he can.
“Now, you are not a Chinese, Leonard, neither are we advertising
the old Chinese method of education. Let me see you study like an
American boy hereafter.”
(4) Tattling. The tale-bearer usually acts to satisfy some secret
desire either for fame or for revenge. Tale-bearing grows directly out
of the taproot of selfishness.
Fortunately, public opinion, both in school and out is sufficient to
suppress the majority of pupils in their leanings in this direction.
Nevertheless, a few individuals now and then taste the sweets of
tale-bearing. These are apt to be in the lower grades, where the force
of community ideas has less weight.
For the sake of both teacher and pupil it is necessary to mark a
clear distinction between the legitimate report of a misdeed that is a
menace to good order and the petty, selfish carrying of stories of
other pupils’ misdemeanors.
The difference is marked by the character of the motive and the
frequency of the reporting.
Some supervisors and administrators take the unwarranted
position that all reporting of misbehavior by pupils is wrong. They do
not expect nor desire information of misbehavior to come to them
from pupil sources. They highly commend all pupils who refuse to
answer questions on the misconduct of their schoolmates. They deny
that the best of motives can warrant a revelation of student wrongs to
the school authorities.
This position is extreme. It seems due to an attempt to adopt a
pupil’s point of view. It positively contradicts the duty laid down by
public sentiment and the fundamental law of the land, to the effect
that all good citizens must aid in the discovery and repression of
crime.
A pupil stands in a double position. He owes good will both to his
comrades as individuals and to the school as an institution. His duty
to neither must be overlooked. The rule of right in the case seems to
be somewhat as follows: to his schoolmates he owes a generous
silence when their misdeeds are not a serious menace to the school
and a kindly sympathy when he must report their wrong actions. To
the school he owes a loyalty that requires only a reporting of that
which if left untold will be a serious injury to both the wrong-doer
and to the school.
These broad statements need careful application in particular
instances. For example, to answer the questions of an administrator
should never be construed as tattling. To relate daily that Charley has
been dropping hints of his intention to give Robert a sound thrashing
should not be approved under the head of school loyalty; it stands on
the level of gossip.
Teachers will do well to weigh carefully the attitudes of the
conscientious and the over-conscientious pupils of their schools. The
sense of duty to their schoolmates and to their teachers sometimes
leads them into embarrassing dilemmas. A rough and ready rudeness
with them will mark the dull and hardened teacher, who may foster a
strained abhorrence of tale-bearing.
In the daily experience of the school-room it will be found that
tattling usually arises from a distinctly selfish impulse. Perhaps
jealousy is the most usual inciting cause. At times there is a standing
antagonism between two pupils; the hope of revenge is here the
leading impulse to tale-bearing. In other instances mere
acquaintance, with neither friendship or antipathy, is to be observed;
the eagerness for a sensation such as seeing a boy or girl whipped
may lead to reporting minor or major wrongs.
The little child who comes to school and First Grade
tells the teacher and his playmates all the
happenings of the home is as annoying as the pupil that is constantly
coming to the teacher to tell that a certain pupil did this or that, or,
in common school language, tattles. While a few teachers cultivate
this practice in pupils, it is right to brand it as one of the most
ignoble of habits. Teacher and pupils can be no better off for
knowing all that goes on in a certain home. The teacher should
tactfully talk of something else—something so interesting as to divert
him from his talk about home matters.
The habit of tattling or “telling on” other pupils is more annoying
and usually gets the pupil who indulges in the habit into ill-repute
with the other pupils. It must be admitted that the teacher
sometimes needs information from a pupil or pupils to ferret out
some misdemeanor. But this should be given only when the teacher
asks for it. In the first grade it is almost an exception if the teacher
needs to ask pupils to give information to explain some
misdemeanor. If the teacher pays no attention to tattling, it will soon
stop. The spirit of tattling can be effectively cured, if, when the child
tells on a certain pupil, the teacher will turn to the child and ask him
if he does not admire some particular trait in the other child.
Often the motive for tattling is envy. By asking something about
the other child’s good traits, envy will be eradicated, and it will be the
exception if the offense is repeated.
CASE 117 (SECOND GRADE)
Daisy was a talkative child. Her eyes went everywhere and her ears
picked up all the news that passed her way.
“Teacher, Tommy’s whispering”—“Jennie “Telling on” the
lost her book”—“Philip said some bad Pupils
words”—“Annie’s papa’s dead, and she says she don’t care.” After a
few interruptions of this sort, her teacher broke out with:
“If you don’t shut up, I shall go crazy. Why don’t you go to work
and leave other people’s affairs alone?”
Such a rebuke closed up the torrent of tattling for only a very few
minutes.
The next string of remarks was cut off with, “Not another word
from you this morning. You’re a regular little tattle-tale.” When
another remark began it was blocked by:
“I can’t hear any more tales from you today.”
Substitute some suitable form of expression for this excessive tale-

bearing. Even an eager interruption of the child, when you discern
the trend of her remarks, is entirely in order. In particular try to find
food for her mental hunger in the novel and sensational matters of
her daily school life. Make immediate offers of help in her school
work, in place of patient attention to tales. Polite ignoring of the
child’s chatter will ultimately induce her to cease; especially if you
suggest your disapproval of her unkind remarks by saying: “I like to
hear good things about people,” or “Haven’t you something pleasant
to tell me today?”
COMMENTS
No doubt the little tale-bearer often conveys useful information. If

the teacher discloses any satisfaction with these tales, she may
aggravate the very ill she should endeavor to cure. Any gains from
tattling, should be used with great caution.
The general attitude of indifference and unconcern is the best
antidote for tattling. When a story-teller loses his audience, all the
impulses to talk are quieted; he necessarily runs down. A dignified
reserve and a continuous distraction from the disagreeable habit will
be a certain remedy.
ILLUSTRATION (RURAL SCHOOL)

Miss Moffit, recently at the Endwood Ignore Remarks
rural school, had the art of drawing out her
pupils’ confidence on a variety of topics. They discussed school work,
flower gardens, dress-making, electrical devices, corn contests, and a
wide range of topics. This freedom of intercourse spurred the tattlers
also into action. Hilliard came up at frequent intervals with
numerous, personal incidents, until he learned how to control his
tongue.
“Some of the boys are taking home chalk in their pockets.” At
another time, “Sallie’s eating in school time,” or “Minnie didn’t get
her problems.”
Miss Moffit sensed the drift of Hilliard’s mind. She decided to
become absolutely impervious to Hilliard’s tales. She took the lead in
conversations when he approached; she switched from one topic to
another so rapidly that he had no opportunity to make much of his
fund of anecdotes. She gratified his impulse to talk, by asking him
questions on themes in which he was interested.
Tattling to the teacher lost its charm for Miss Moffit’s pupils.
CASE 118 (THIRD GRADE)
Marvel Green was one of the innumerable throng of schoolboy

caricaturists. With periodic certainty he spread his drawings before
pupil eyes for his own glory.
Miss Hatfield knew Earl Moss, another “Who Drew the
mischief-maker, so well that she turned to Picture?”
him when she discovered a new “Green” on the blackboard and in an
official manner, asked:
“Did you draw that picture of me over there?”
“No I did not,” was Earl’s quick reply.
“Who did it then; I’m sure you know.”
“I won’t tell, Miss Hatfield.”
“You must tell me now. I’ll punish you if you don’t.”
Good sense came to her rescue and she postponed action until
there was time for reflection.
In the evening the boy’s father called and said:
“I understand that you are going to punish my boy if he does not
tell who drew the picture. Now I came to say that I can’t agree to
that. I don’t want my boy to do wrong, but I can’t allow him to be
punished for refusing to be a tattler. You must find some other way
out of it.”
“Well,” thought Miss Hatfield, “he has a strange idea. I don’t want
to make a tattler out of his boy. He’s a queer one.”
She didn’t whip the boy, and she never learned who drew the
picture.
Silently erase the picture, or better still, pay no attention to it, if it

is not a serious disturbance to school work. At all events make no
public attempt to find out the artist. Many teachers would refuse to
question one who did a given wrong, as it is almost certain to lead to
complications. If your hold on the school is strong, laugh off the
matter and say:
“I know where to find a good salary for a competent cartoonist. If
any of you are interested, let me know.”
COMMENTS
General opinion is divided on the matter of tattling on a

schoolmate. Blue law moralists demand that every child and every
adult freely tell all they know against a fellow pupil.
The majority of persons may be trusted to oppose breaking down
clan loyalty among pupils to the degree that any pupil shall be
expected to tell of another’s fault when requested to do so by a
teacher.
The wise teacher manages to avoid raising this issue as he nearly
always loses in the contest. It is proper, of course, to ask a class to
accept responsibility for a known prank.

PDF Adhesives For Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials First Edition Kumar Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PDF Adhesives For Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials First Edition Kumar Ebook Full Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Adhesives for wood and lignocellulosic

materials First Edition Kumar

Adhesives for Wood and Lignocellulosic Materials

Wood Adhesives Chemistry and Technology Volume 2 First

Bio-based Wood Adhesives : Preparation,

Flame Retardants for Textile Materials 1st Edition Asim

Chemo biological systems for CO2 utilization First

Materials Selection for Hydrocarbon and Chemical Plants

Willa of the Wood First Edition Robert Beatty

Materials and processes for CO2 capture, conversion,

Adhesion and Adhesives: Fundamental and Applied Aspects

of adhesion; modeling of adhesion phenomena; mechanisms of adhesion; surface

aspects in reinforced composites; formation, characterization and durability of

Series Editor: Dr. K.L. Mittal

R. N. Kumar and A Pizzi

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Printed in the USA

1.9 Effect of Processing Parameters on Penetration 26

2.17 Covalent Bond Formation 56

3.18 Characterization of UF Resin 82

5.4 Basic Chemistry 116

6.5.3 Formulation of HMR 154

8.3 Mechanisms of Inactivation 203

11 The Chemistry of Condensed Tannins 239

13.6 Evolution of Formaldehyde Emission Standards 298

14.8 Ford Cup Viscosity 322

Part B: Polymer Matrix Materials For Biofiber Composites

18 Polymer Matrix: Epoxy Resins 403

19.8 Biocomposites Based on PE 430

The dramatic increase in the production of reconstituted wood products

cellulose. In the near future, nanocrystalline cellulose, produced as a high-

materials for natural-fiber-based composites in Part B. The decision to

1.2 Wood, An Adherend with Hierarchical Structure

1.3 Details of Structural Hierarchy in Wood

1.3.1 Physical Structure

hardwood are misnomers and have little to do with hardness or density.

1.3.1.1 Growth Rings and Ring-Porous and Diffuse-Porous Wood

Figure 1.1 Earlywood and latewood [5].

1.3.1.2 Wood Cells

to achieving functional maturity. For this reason, a common convention

that one type of specialized prosenchyma cells is responsible for mechanical

1.3.1.3 Organization of Cell Walls in Wood

Instead of announcing, each time, that there would be a change in

A school can not run smoothly and be governed well if the

A certain young man who owned a fine Work Steadily

CASE 112 (SEVENTH GRADE)

Miss Bersley was a teacher in the fourth Too Great

At the beginning of the geography recitation say, “I am going to try

ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)

At the beginning of the class in United States history in the

CASE 113 (EIGHTH GRADE)

CASE 114 (HIGH SCHOOL)

Refuse, without discussion, a request to speak, when you know it is

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

CASE 115 (THIRD GRADE)

CASE 116 (SEVENTH GRADE)

In Miss Algernon’s seventh grade room there were three pupils

Give a sample lesson of the situation as it would be if everyone in

ILLUSTRATION (EIGHTH GRADE)

Miss Griffin, a teacher in the eighth grade of the Waller Avenue