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 An Introduction to
Transport Phenomena in
Materials Engineering
This book elucidates the important role of conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer,
mass transport in solids and fluids, and internal and external fluid flow in the behavior of
materials processes. These phenomena are critical in materials engineering because of the
connection of transport to the evolution and distribution of microstructural properties during
processing. From making choices in the derivation of fundamental conservation equations, to
using scaling (order-of-magnitude) analysis showing relationships among different phenomena,
to giving examples of how to represent real systems by simple models, the book takes the
reader through the fundamentals of transport phenomena applied to materials processing. Fully
updated, this third edition of a classic textbook offers a significant shift from the previous
editions in the approach to this subject, representing an evolution incorporating the original
ideas and extending them to a more comprehensive approach to the topic.
FEATURES
• Introduces order-of-magnitude (scaling) analysis and uses it to quickly obtain
approximate solutions for complicated problems throughout the book
• Focuses on building models to solve practical problems
• Adds new sections on non-Newtonian flows, turbulence, and measurement of heat
transfer coefficients
• Offers expanded sections on thermal resistance networks, transient heat transfer,
two-phase diffusion mass transfer, and flow in porous media
• Features more homework problems, mostly on the analysis of practical problems, and
new examples from a much broader range of materials classes and processes, including
metals, ceramics, polymers, and electronic materials
• Includes homework problems for the review of the mathematics required for a
course based on this book and connects the theory represented by mathematics with
real-world problems
This book is aimed at advanced engineering undergraduates and students early in their
graduate studies, as well as practicing engineers interested in understanding the behavior
of heat and mass transfer and fluid flow during materials processing. While it is designed
primarily for materials engineering education, it is a good reference for practicing materials
engineers looking for insight into phenomena controlling their processes.
A solutions manual, lecture slides, and figure slides are available for qualifying adopting
professors.
 An Introduction to
Transport Phenomena in
Materials Engineering
Third Edition

David R. Gaskell
Matthew John M. Krane
Designed cover image: Alicia Krane
Third edition published 2024
by CRC Press
2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2024 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
First edition published by Macmillan Publishing Company 1991
Second edition published by Momentum Press 2012
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information,
but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of
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has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Gaskell, David R., 1940– author. | Krane, Matthew J. M., author.
Title: An introduction to transport phenomena in materials engineering / David R.
Gaskell and Matthew John M. Krane.
Description: Third edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2024. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023025079 (print) | LCCN 2023025080 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367821074 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367611316 (paperback) | ISBN
9781003104278 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Materials—Fluid dynamics. | Mass transfer. | Heat—
Transmission.
Classification: LCC TA418.5 .G37 2024 (print) | LCC TA418.5 (ebook) | DDC
620.1/1296—dc23/eng/20230729
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023025079
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023025080
ISBN: 978-0-367-82107-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-61131-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-10427-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003104278
Typeset in Times
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367821074
 This work is dedicated to my father,
Robert Joseph Krane, PhD
Eternal rest grant unto him, O Lord,
and may perpetual light shine upon him.
Contents
Preface to the Third Edition .................................................................................. xiii
Authors ...................................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials

Processing ............................................................................................1
1.1 Transport Phenomena ................................................................ 1
1.2 Examples of Transport Phenomena in Materials
Processing ..................................................................................3
1.2.1 Fluid Flow .................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Heat Transfer ................................................................ 4
1.2.3 Mass Transfer ............................................................... 7
1.2.4 Multimode Transport Phenomena ................................ 8
1.2.5 Nonuniform Distribution of Microstructure ................ 9
1.3 Constitutive Relations for Transport Phenomena .................... 10
1.3.1 Shear in Fluids............................................................ 11
1.3.2 Modes of Heat Transfer .............................................. 22
1.3.3 Mass Transfer ............................................................. 33
1.3.4 Summary of Constitutive Equations .......................... 39
1.4 Finding Solutions to Models of Transport Phenomena ...........40
1.4.1 Mathematical Solutions .............................................. 41
1.4.2 Numerical Solutions ................................................... 43
1.4.3 Scaling Analysis ......................................................... 45
1.4.4 A Note on Selection of Solution Approach ................ 48
1.5 Engineering Units .................................................................... 50
1.6 Summary ................................................................................. 52
References ..........................................................................................53

Chapter 2 Steady State Conduction Heat Transfer.............................................. 55

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 55
2.2 Thermal Resistances................................................................ 55
2.2.1 Conduction Resistance ............................................... 55
2.2.2 Convection Resistance................................................ 59
2.2.3 Radiation Resistance ..................................................60
2.2.4 Interface Resistance ...................................................60
2.3 Resistance Networks................................................................ 63
2.4 General Heat Conduction Equation ......................................... 67
2.5 Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions ........................................ 71
2.6 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction ........................................ 73
2.7 Conduction with Heat Generation ........................................... 85

vii
viii Contents

2.8 Multidimensional Conduction ................................................. 91

2.8.1 Scaling Analysis ......................................................... 91
2.8.2 Two-Dimensional Paths in Resistance Networks:
Branches and Shape Factors .......................................97
2.8.3 Exact Solutions ......................................................... 105
2.9 Summary ............................................................................... 109
2.10 Homework Problems ............................................................. 109
References ........................................................................................118

Chapter 3 Transient Conduction Heat Transfer................................................. 120

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 120
3.2 Scaling Analysis of General Transient Conduction .............. 120
3.3 Lumped Capacitance Analysis: Convection Resistance
Dominated (Bi << 1) .............................................................. 122
3.3.1 Convection Heat Loss............................................... 122
3.3.2 Radiation Heat Loss ................................................. 126
3.4 Spatial Dependence: Conduction Resistance Dominated
(Bi >> 1) ................................................................................. 129
3.4.1 Cooling in a Slab: Early Times for Bi >> 1 .............. 130
3.4.2 Cooling in a Slab: Late Times for Bi >> 1 ............... 137
3.4.3 Heating in a Radial System ...................................... 144
3.5 Spatial Dependence: The General Solution with a Balance
of Conduction and Convection Resistances (Bi ~ 1) ................ 150
3.5.1 Heating in a Slab: Early Times for Bi ~ 1 ................ 150
3.5.2 Heating in a Slab: Late Times for Bi ~ 1 .................. 153
3.6 Solidification.......................................................................... 160
3.6.1 Energy Balances with Phase Change ....................... 161
3.6.2 Solidification of a Pure Substance............................ 165
3.7 Summary ............................................................................... 174
3.8 Homework Problems ............................................................. 174
References ........................................................................................185

Chapter 4 Mass Diffusion in the Solid State .................................................... 187

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 187
4.2 Steady State Mass Diffusion ................................................. 187
4.3 Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion: Transient Diffusion ........... 188
4.4 Infinite Diffusion Couple....................................................... 195
4.5 Diffusion Involving Solid-Solid Phase Change..................... 197
4.6 Diffusion in Substitutional Solid Solutions ...........................208
4.7 Darken’s Analysis ..................................................................209
4.8 Self-Diffusion Coefficient ..................................................... 213
4.9 Measurement of the Interdiffusion Coefficient:
Boltzmann–Matano Analysis ................................................ 216
4.10 Influence of Temperature on the Diffusion Coefficient......... 221
Contents ix

4.11 Summary ............................................................................... 225

4.12 Homework Problems ............................................................. 227
References ........................................................................................ 231

Chapter 5 Fluid Statics ...................................................................................... 232

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 232
5.2 Concept of Pressure ............................................................... 232
5.2.1 Pressure at a Point and in a Column ........................ 232
5.2.2 Atmospheric Pressure............................................... 235
5.3 Measurement of Pressure ...................................................... 237
5.4 Pressure in Incompressible Fluids ......................................... 241
5.5 Buoyancy ...............................................................................244
5.6 Summary ...............................................................................246
5.7 Homework Problems ............................................................. 247
Reference .......................................................................................... 250

Chapter 6 Mechanical Energy Balance in Fluid Flow ...................................... 251

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 251
6.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows ............................................... 251
6.3 Bernoulli’s Equation .............................................................. 253
6.4 Friction Losses....................................................................... 255
6.5 Influence of Bends, Fittings, and Changes in
Pipe Radius ............................................................................ 261
6.6 Steady-State Applications of the Modified
Bernoulli Equation ................................................................ 263
6.7 Concept of Hydrostatic Head................................................. 269
6.8 Fluid Flow in an Open Channel ............................................ 270
6.9 Transient Applications of the Modified
Bernoulli Equation ................................................................ 273
6.10 Summary ............................................................................... 277
6.11 Homework Problems ............................................................. 278
References ........................................................................................ 283

Chapter 7 Equations of Fluid Motion ............................................................... 285

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 285
7.2 Conservation of Mass ............................................................ 285
7.3 Momentum Balance: The Navier-Stokes Equations.............. 291
7.4 Boundary Conditions for Fluid Flow .................................... 296
7.5 Characteristics of Pressure-Driven Flow Behavior in
a Channel ............................................................................... 299
7.6 Summary ............................................................................... 303
7.7 Homework Problems ............................................................. 303
References ........................................................................................306
x Contents

Chapter 8 Internal Flows...................................................................................307

8.1 Introduction ...........................................................................307
8.2 Simplifications of Equations of Motion for Internal Flows ...307
8.3 Shear-Driven Flow between Flat Parallel Plates ...................309
8.4 Pressure-Driven Flow between Flat Parallel Plates .............. 311
8.5 Fluid Flow in a Vertical Cylindrical Tube............................. 319
8.6 Capillary Flowmeter.............................................................. 325
8.7 Non-Newtonian Internal Flows ............................................. 328
8.7.1 Shear-Driven Flow of a Power-Law Fluid ................ 328
8.7.2 Pressure-Driven Flow of a Power-Law Fluid ........... 329
8.7.3 Pressure-Driven Flow of a Bingham Plastic ............ 334
8.8 Flow through Porous Media .................................................. 336
8.8.1 Resistance to Flow.................................................... 336
8.8.2 Effect of Porous Media Structure on Flow .............. 342
8.9 Fluidized Beds ....................................................................... 349
8.10 Summary ............................................................................... 354
8.11 Homework Problems ............................................................. 354
References ........................................................................................ 359

Chapter 9 External Flows..................................................................................360

9.1 Introduction ...........................................................................360
9.2 Fully Developed Flow Down an Inclined Plane....................360
9.3 Flow over a Horizontal Flat Plane ......................................... 363
9.4 Momentum Integral Solution for Boundary Layer on a
Horizontal Flat Plate.............................................................. 367
9.4.1 Entry Length at Entrance to a Pipe .......................... 373
9.5 Turbulent Flow....................................................................... 375
9.5.1 Characteristics of Turbulent Flows........................... 376
9.5.2 Transition and Turbulent Flow over a Flat Plate ...... 383
9.6 Flow Past Submerged Bluff Objects ...................................... 390
9.7 Summary ............................................................................... 398
9.8 Homework Problems ............................................................. 399
References ........................................................................................ 403

Chapter 10 Convection Heat Transfer .................................................................405

10.1 Introduction ...........................................................................405
10.2 General Energy Equation with Advection and Diffusion .....408
10.3 Advection in Rigid, Moving Media ....................................... 413
10.4 External Forced Convection .................................................. 420
10.4.1 Forced Convection from a Horizontal Flat Plate ..... 420
10.4.2 Forced Convection Correlations in Other
Geometries ............................................................... 439
10.5 Internal Forced Convection ................................................... 451
Contents xi

10.6 Natural Convection Heat Transfer .........................................460

10.6.1 Natural Convection from an Isothermal Vertical
Flat Plate................................................................... 462
10.6.2 Natural Convection from Other Geometries ............ 467
10.7 Boiling Heat Transfer ............................................................469
10.8 Summary ............................................................................... 474
10.9 Homework Problems ............................................................. 475
References ........................................................................................481

Chapter 11 Mass Transfer in Fluids ....................................................................484

11.1 Introduction ...........................................................................484
11.2 Mass and Molar Fluxes in a Fluid .........................................484
11.3 Equations of Diffusion with Advection in a Binary
Mixture A-B ........................................................................... 486
11.4 Equimolar Counterdiffusion.................................................. 489
11.5 One-Dimensional Steady-State Diffusion of Gas A
through Stationary Gas B ...................................................... 490
11.6 Sublimation of a Sphere into a Stationary Gas...................... 496
11.7 Film Model ............................................................................ 498
11.8 Catalytic Surface Reactions ..................................................500
11.9 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction in Stagnant Film ............. 502
11.10 Mass Transfer at Large Fluxes and Large Concentrations ....506
11.11 Influence of Mass Transport on Heat Transfer in
Stagnant Film ........................................................................509
11.12 Mass Transfer Coefficient for Concentration Boundary
Layer on a Flat Plate .............................................................. 512
11.13 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer: Evaporative
Cooling.................................................................................. 517
11.14 Summary ............................................................................... 520
11.15 Homework Problems ............................................................. 520

Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer ................................................................... 523

12.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 523
12.2 Intensity and Emissive Power ................................................ 524
12.2.1 Emissive Flux ........................................................... 526
12.2.2 Irradiation ................................................................. 527
12.2.3 Radiosity................................................................... 528
12.3 Blackbody Radiation ............................................................. 528
12.4 Surface Properties ................................................................. 531
12.5 Kirchhoff’s Law and the Hohlraum ...................................... 537
12.6 Radiation Exchange in an Enclosure: View Factors ..............540
12.7 Radiation Exchange among Blackbodies .............................. 551
12.8 Radiation Exchange among Diffuse-Gray Surfaces ............. 554
12.9 Notes on the Electrical Analogy ........................................... 559
xii Contents

12.10 Radiation Shields ................................................................... 562

12.11 Reradiating Surfaces .............................................................564
12.12 Summary ............................................................................... 568
12.13 Homework Problems ............................................................. 569
References ........................................................................................ 574

Appendix I Math Practice for Transport Phenomena Course ........................ 575

Appendix II Equations of Motion and Thermal Energy Balance ................... 579
Appendix III Unit Conversions........................................................................... 581
Appendix IV Selected Thermophysical Properties .......................................... 583
Index ...................................................................................................................... 591
Preface to the Third Edition
APPROACH
This new edition represents a significant shift from the previous version in the
approach to this subject, which should not be unexpected with the addition of a new
author. The shift is not a discontinuous one but represents an evolution over the last
15 years, incorporating the original ideas and extending them to a more comprehen-
sive approach to the topic.
In his original preface, Prof. Gaskell, who passed away in 2013, posited the need
for materials engineers to study transport phenomena and, given the constraints of
the materials science and engineering (MSE) curriculum, to do so in one semester.
Heat and mass transfer and fluid flow in materials processing control microstructural
development and the associated distribution of properties in engineered products and
so understanding transport phenomena is absolutely critical to the understanding and
design of those processes and products. To support this activity, Prof. Gaskell wrote
this text and developed his third-year course at Purdue University. Regarding the
focus of his text, he wrote in his first-edition preface that

a careful balance must be made between an explanation of the fundamentals

that govern the dynamics of fluid flow and the transport of heat and mass, on
the one hand, and, on the other, illustration of the application of the fundamen-
tals to specific systems of interest in materials engineering.

His response to this challenge for an introductory class was to focus the first two
editions of the text on the development of the governing equations and the small set
of exact solutions. It is my view that he correctly eschewed a more handbook-style
approach that tends to center on a catalog of processes, with ad hoc descriptions of
associated transport phenomena included as needed, in favor of a more strictly fun-
damental approach, inspired by Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot’s Transport Phenomena
(1960). The understanding of the origins and solutions of the governing equations is
vital to their application to materials processing, either in closed form or by numer-
ical analysis.
However, I believe that being restricted to this approach gives necessary, but not
sufficient, coverage of the subject in response to the needs of MSE students and prac-
ticing materials engineers, and that it can be improved in two ways. First, the previ-
ous approach gives little explicit motivation or demonstration for why this subject is
in the MSE curriculum. Students who have used this text at Purdue and elsewhere
have repeatedly made this point, so a case must be made for the allocation of scarce
time in the curriculum to this subject instead of others. New examples of processing
in the text and end-of-chapter problems are included to show the applicability of this
topic and help to justify its place in the plan of study. As part of this effort, exam-
ples are given from across the broad range of materials, including the processing of
metals, ceramics, polymers, and electronic materials. The second aspect addressed
in this edition is the need for more substantial discussion of the physical basis and

xiii
xiv Preface to the Third Edition

meaning of the derived balance equations, which are the bedrock of the previous
editions, and how to apply them to practical problems. These equations should be
viewed as balances of physical phenomena, and my teaching approach in many cases
has been to begin with scaling analysis to determine the order of magnitude of these
phenomena and their interrelationships before attempting mathematical or numer-
ical solutions. Further exploration is by approximating complex reality to one or
more simple problems, which can be solved and from which solutions we can draw
conclusions about the system’s behavior. This simple approach focuses the student
on fundamental physics and provides the rationale for model simplification during
application to practical problems. It helps the student connect the theory represented
by the mathematics to the real world. In fact, in industrial settings, the scaling of
a practical problem, perhaps followed by the approximate solution of a simplified
model, frequently provides sufficient information to make an engineering decision.
When not sufficient, the preliminary scaling and approximate analysis are still useful
to understand the problem, guide development of a numerical model, and to interpret
its results. I strongly believe that including practical examples and the practice of
problem-solving methods adds depth to the framework provided by Prof. Gaskell in
the previous editions and brings it more in line with a more materials processing–
focused teaching approach. Many former students who took the course on which this
text is based have reported the utility of this approach in exploring real situations in
an industrial context.
USE OF THIS TEXT
This text is aimed at junior/senior-level engineering undergraduates and students
early in their graduate studies, as well as practicing engineers interested in under-
standing the behavior of heat and mass transfer and fluid flow during materials
processing. It assumes familiarity with calculus, basic differential equations, and
introductory thermodynamics and mechanics. An introductory course in materials
science covering phase diagrams, time-temperature-transformation diagrams, and
basic microstructural forms is very useful for understanding many applications.
The course is a useful prerequisite to any materials processing lecture or lab course.
The text is designed primarily for materials engineering education but will also be a
good reference for anyone desiring a one-semester treatment of introductory fluids
and heat transfer or for the practicing materials engineer looking for insight into the
transport phenomena controlling her process. In all cases, the main purpose is to
understand the basic physics of transport phenomena and how to model and apply
them to materials processing.
Looking through many syllabi for courses at many universities that could use this
text, I discovered many different orders and choices of topics. Looking through a
variety of options, certain general restrictions became apparent:

• fluid mechanics should be before convection,

• conduction should be before convection heat transfer,
• mass diffusion should be before convection mass transfer, and
• convection heat transfer should be before boiling.
Preface to the Third Edition xv

One difficulty with any text is convincing students it is worth their time to read it.
To incentivize reading the book, I recently added daily reading quizzes to the course.
These short evaluations, usually just a few multiple choice or true/false questions, are
taken online and graded by the course management software used at Purdue. They
have been an effective tool to encourage reading before lecture and have improved
class participation and quiz scores.
As a last note on teaching, I will address the evaluation of the students in this
course, for which I have tried two different methods for testing. The first is to require
weekly homework assignments, three hour-long midterms, and a two-hour final
exam. This practice is common and does have the advantage of giving students direct
incentives to work problems, which is the best way to learn the material. However,
there are some difficulties. Many students tend to rely on others for their homework
and so do not pay serious attention to the class for the five weeks between exams, but
the material is too difficult to cram for exams three or four times a semester. In recent
years, we have still assigned homework problems, but we did not collect the work.
While it seems counterintuitive, the students have proven to be more likely to do their
own work because of another structural change: we replaced the few midterms with
biweekly, 25-minute quizzes. Having to perform as individuals on a much more fre-
quent basis seems to keep the students’ attention, and their overall performance has
improved (with no significant change in the types or total number of test questions).
Authors
David R. Gaskell (1940–2013) was Professor of Materials Engineering at Purdue
University from 1982 to 2013. Dr. Gaskell was born in Glasgow, Scotland, and at-
tended the Royal College of Science and Technology, receiving First Class Honors
in metallurgy and technical chemistry for a BSc in 1962. He moved to Hamilton,
Canada, to pursue graduate studies at McMaster University and then immigrated
to the United States, teaching first at the University of Pennsylvania and then at
Purdue. During his career, he served as a visiting professor at the NRC Atlantic Re-
gional Laboratory, Canada, and at the G. C. Williams Cooperative Research Centre
for Extraction Metallurgy in the Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Melbourne, Australia. Professor Gaskell was dedicated to teaching and was the
recipient of the Reinhardt Schumann Jr. Best Undergraduate Teacher Award in Mate-
rials Engineering several times over.
Matthew John M. Krane (1964– ) is Professor of Materials Engineering at Purdue
University and a member of the Purdue Center for Metal Casting Research and the
Purdue Heat Treatment Consortium. Using modeling and experiments, his research
focuses on the connection between macroscopic transport phenomena and defect
formation during materials processes, particularly the study of the solidification of
metal alloys. Professor Krane has been with Purdue’s School of Materials Engineer-
ing since 1996, but his education is in mechanical engineering (Cornell, BS, 1986;
Pennsylvania, MS, 1989; Purdue, PhD, 1996), with a concentration in heat transfer
and fluid flow. He has been a visiting researcher at the University of Birmingham
(UK), the University of Greenwich (UK), and the Université de Lorraine (Nancy,
France). In addition to consulting, research programs, and undergraduate projects
with the metals processing industry during his time at Purdue, he worked in indus-
try for three years on thermal issues in the design and manufacturing of electronic
packaging.

xvii
Acknowledgments
This edition was produced with the help of many people. First and foremost, my wife
Kathy has been a great friend and support throughout my adult life. Ever since we
met as freshmen at Cornell, she has been interested in my work and has always given
good counsel on matters personal and professional. My life would have been much
less interesting and happy without her in it. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
(our sons: Stash, Pat, Mick, and Bob) and our daughter, Mary Kate, have been a
real joy in our lives and have been very supportive in this endeavor. My father and
mother, Robert and Antoinette Krane, sacrificed much to provide all their children
with educational opportunities.
My father was my most influential teacher in technical and professional matters
through countless discussions over a few decades. Two science teachers in high
school, Gil Luttrell and George Wilson, took a special interest in developing my
scientific curiosity and helped turn my professional aspirations toward the technical;
I probably would not be an engineer now without them. At Cornell, Sidney Leibo-
vich, C. Thomas Avedesian, and Bart Conta gave me my first formal introductions
to fluid and thermal sciences, inspiring a real love for these subjects and providing
models on how to teach them. My thesis advisor at Penn, Benjamin Gebhart, one of
the pioneers in buoyancy-induced flows, introduced me to that very interesting field.
The very different teaching, research, and advising styles of Frank Incropera, Ray-
mond Viskanta, David DeWitt, and Satish Ramadhyani, all professors in the Purdue
Heat Transfer Laboratory during my doctoral work, were instrumental in forming
my thinking on how to study, apply, and teach the thermal sciences. Many other col-
leagues over the years helped form my ideas on practical application and the teach-
ing of transport phenomena, including Greg Gallagher (formerly Digital Equipment
Corporation), Chris Vreeman, Jay Rozzi, Frank Pfefferkorn, and Marcus Bianchi
(grad students with me in Purdue’s School of Mechanical Engineering) and Adam C.
Powell (now of Worcester Polytechnic Institute). Jon Dantzig, professor emeritus at
UIUC, has provided much encouragement and sound advice on how to write about,
teach, and model transport phenomena.
I owe a great debt to my colleagues in the School of Materials Engineering at
Purdue, who took in a young mechanical engineer ignorant of materials and turned
him into a passable metallurgist. Prominent in this effort were David Johnson, Keith
Bowman, and Mysore Dayananda. Some of my polymers colleagues (Kendra Erk,
Chelsea Davis, and John Howarter) helped with the inclusion of more soft materials
topics in the book. Special mention goes to Kevin Trumble, who is a passionate
evangelist for the field of materials engineering and has always been a generous
mentor and guide through my second field of study. His enthusiasm for materials
engineering is infectious, and much of my success over the years is due directly to
his knowledge, advice, and encouragement.
I thank Allison Shatkin and Hannah Warfel, my editor and editorial assistant at
CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, for help producing this book and the Gaskell family
for giving me the opportunity to work on it. I hope this new edition lives up to their

xix
xx Acknowledgments

expectations. My wife provided great practical assistance, converting old, unedita-

ble files into readable Word documents and finding obscure pieces of freeware. My
daughter retyped equations from previous editions, and my son Stash drew most of
the figures. The cover art was designed and drawn by my daughter-in-law, Alicia
Krane. The head of my school, David Bahr, has encouraged this project from the
first and supported it along the way. Several colleagues, including Kyle Fezi, Chelsea
Davis, Michael J. Krane, Michael H. Krane, Patrick Krane, Michael Titus, Kevin
Trumble, and Igor Vušanovi , read different pieces of this text and made helpful
suggestions. I greatly appreciate all their comments and enjoyed the (occasionally
heated) discussions they sparked. Any remaining mistakes, awkward passages, and
ineffective pedagogy are my responsibility.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the help the late David R. Gaskell gave me
in my career. We first met when I asked him to be a member of my doctoral advisory
committee in 1991. The topic was transport phenomena in alloy solidification, and
he agreed to serve as long as I would “do it properly and use a metal” (instead of
a salt-water analogue). I originally signed on to that project because it was rich in
interesting heat transfer and fluid mechanics, but Professor Gaskell from the begin-
ning showed me that it was much more and that transport phenomena are necessary
to understand the property-processing-structure relationships at the heart of materials
engineering. That conversation was the beginning of my journey into materials engi-
neering, a journey he facilitated in many ways over the next two decades.

Matthew John M. Krane

Professor of Materials Engineering
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
on The Feast of St. Athanasius I of Alexandria
May 2, 2023
 1 Introduction to Transport
Phenomena in Materials
Processing

1.1 TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

In any effort, it is wise to start by clearly stating the purpose of the endeavor. Our goal
in writing this textbook is to help future and practicing engineers better understand
and predict the behavior of mass, momentum, heat, and species movement, espe-
cially during materials processing. The study of the movement of these quantities is
the field of transport phenomena.
Before progressing with this topic, we should address an important question
regarding transport phenomena: why should materials engineers find time to study
this topic, either during a university degree program or on their own? There are many
interesting and useful subjects to learn and a very finite amount of time available, so
a case must be made, in a cramped curriculum or in a busy professional life, for the
allocation of scarce time to this subject instead of many other interesting alternatives.
While many engineers are concerned with transport phenomena for their own
sake, the materials engineer heats, cools, pours, pumps, and diffuses materials in
the pursuit of beneficial materials properties, to make the material economical to
produce in the first place. (An example is age-hardened aluminum alloys, which
make the aerospace industry possible and would not have the required mechani-
cal properties without heating- and cooling-induced and mass diffusion–controlled
solid-solid phase transformations [1]. Other examples are described in the next sec-
tion.) The transport phenomena (along with the phase equilibria in the material) are
the mechanisms that produce many material properties throughout processing by
the control of microstructure development. This interrelationship is illustrated by the
oft-cited “MSE triangle” shown in Figure 1.1. The three vertices of this triangle are
interdependent, and understanding the physical mechanisms of transport phenomena
is necessary to understanding many of these relationships.
The primary approach we will use here to improve our understanding and our
predictions is the making of models of the transport phenomena. These models are
mathematical representations of reality, not reality itself. In an excellent descrip-
tion of model-making methodology in materials science and engineering, Ashby
[2] wrote:

A model is an idealization . . . (it) unashamedly distort(s) the inessentials in order to

capture the features that really matter. . . . At best, it captures the essential physics of the
problem, it illuminates the principles that underline the key observations, and it predicts
behavior under conditions which have not yet been studied.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003104278-1 1
2 An Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Engineering

FIGURE 1.1 The “MSE triangle,” a representation of the primary, interconnected aspects
of materials science and engineering.

FIGURE 1.2 Balance of generic quantity transport in control volume.

In this text, we will follow Ashby’s lead with the goal of understanding and esti-
mating the behavior of transport phenomena in materials processing.
The simplest way to arrange our thinking about many models of transport phe-
nomena is in terms of a control volume, a fixed portion of space through and in which
we observe the motion of some quantity. Figure 1.2 shows a schematic of transport in
a control volume, which leads to a very general balance:

quantity in quantity out + quantity generated = quantity stored (1.1)

Mass, momentum, heat, and species each have their own possible mechanisms
of transport across a control volume boundary and generation (or destruction) in the
volume, and these mechanisms and how to model them are the subject of much of
this text. The sum of these three phenomena is not necessarily zero, but is the amount
accumulated in (or depleted from) the control volume. For example, momentum can
be added to a control volume through pressure gradients, buoyancy, or friction, all of
which can drive a fluid’s acceleration (storing momentum) or transport through the
volume. Heat might be generated by a chemical reaction and transported across the
boundary by thermal radiation. Most of the models of transport here will be derived
starting from the simple balance in Eq. (1.1).
Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing 3

1.2 EXAMPLES OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

IN MATERIALS PROCESSING
The study of transport phenomena is sometimes divided into three areas: fluid flow,
heat transfer, and mass transfer. To drive home the importance of transport phenom-
ena in materials processing, we show in this section some examples of industrial
processes in which these phenomena have a significant effect on their behavior.

1.2.1 Fluid Flow

The shot peening process work hardens a metal surface by high-speed bombardment
of that surface by small steel shot. One method of the production of that shot is
sketched in Figure 1.3. Steel is melted in one furnace and then poured into the hold-
ing furnace in the figure, which in turn is drained in a controlled manner. The jet of
liquid steel pouring from the holding furnace is intercepted by a high-speed water
spray. The interaction of these two jets fractures the steel stream, atomizing it into a
cloud of quickly frozen metal droplets. The size distribution of steel shot is a strong
function of the water and steel stream velocities and the angle at which they interact
[3]. Controlling the water spray velocity is done through the design of a piping sys-
tem, taking into account frictional losses in the circuit and the spray nozzle and the
behavior of the pump. That flow is typically steady, but the exit jet velocity of
the steel and the angle at which it enters the water spray change substantially during
the draining, as they are strong functions of the height of the fluid above the nozzle.
In Chapter 6, methods for characterizing the steel jet behavior are explored. The
physics of the liquid metal’s atomization are beyond the scope of this text; interested
readers are referred to monographs on that topic [3, 4].

FIGURE 1.3 Atomizing a steel stream draining from a holding furnace. The water jet frac-
tures the steel into a range of small droplet sizes.
4 An Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Engineering

FIGURE 1.4 Filling a cavity with polymer during injection molding.

One of the cheapest and fastest methods for making plastic parts is to form a
polymer into the desired shape by injection molding. This process uses pressure
to force a liquid polymer into the mold cavity, where it is quickly solidified and
ejected. In Figure 1.4, we see the melt filling the mold. The process finishes when
the mold is filled and perhaps some polymer has pushed into an air vent (which pre-
vents air from building up a back pressure in the last-filled region of the mold). The
front is propelled through the mold by the upstream inlet pressure and is resisted
by the friction at the mold wall, the latter increasing as the filled region lengthens.
For a constant fill rate, the pressure must therefore increase with time; alterna-
tively, the flow rate can be allowed to slow while maintaining a constant pressure,
although this option will slow the process and increase cycle time. Because the
mold is colder than the injected melt, the polymer loses heat, increasing the melt
viscosity and resistance to flow, and must fill the mold before that resistance grows
enough to prevent complete filling. Models of this process in simple geometries,
including the dependence of resistance to flow on the fluid deformation rate, are
found in Chapter 8.

1.2.2 Heat transFer

One example of using thermal transport phenomena to induce desirable materials
behavior is the glass tempering process, Figure 1.5 [5]. Here, air is blown on the
top and bottom of the moving glass sheet starting at a temperature around 640 oC
[6]. This convection heat transfer (see Section 1.3.2 and Chapter 10) extracts heat
from the glass in a way similar to how one cools hot coffee by blowing on it. The
glass cools quickly at the top and bottom surfaces and, inside the solid sheet, heat
moves from the hotter interior toward the edges much more slowly by conduction
(see Section 1.3.2 and Chapters 2 and 3). Initially, the surface contracts and becomes
stronger due to the cooling, while the centerline is still relatively hot and formable.
Later, the centerline region finally cools, but that volume’s shrinkage is constrained
in the in-plane directions by the stronger, colder outer layers. This constraint causes
the centerline to be in tension and the surfaces in compression. With a careful con-
trol of the heating temperature and the convection process, the nonuniform residual
stress field and surface compressive stresses can be tailored to improve the maximum
fracture strength of the glass.
Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing 5

The continuous casting of steel involves the introduction of liquid metal through
a water-chilled copper mold (the primary cooling region), in which a strand is solid-
ified to a small depth from its surface by the time it exits the bottom of the mold [7].
There the steel moves down from the mold and the strand’s direction is altered from
vertical to horizontal by guide rolls (Figure 1.6). In this secondary cooling section,
solidification is completed by heat extraction by forced convection to the water jets
impinging on the steel surface and by conduction losses to the rolls. The convection

FIGURE 1.5 Side view of tempering process, with glass moved by rollers and cooled by
air jets.

FIGURE 1.6 Schematic of steel continuous casting after the mold as the solidification of the
strand is completed (not to scale).
6 An Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Engineering

is similar to that in glass tempering, but is much more effective because of boil-
ing of the water on the very hot surface (see Chapter 10). The liquid-vapor phase
change significantly enhances the heat transfer rate from the steel, required due to
the high speed of the strand (~1 m/s); gas or single-phase liquid convection would
be insufficient. The heat transfer from the steel to boil the water drives the other
phase change in the system, the steel solidification (see Chapter 3). The thermal
energy removed in only a few seconds is supplied by the drop in steel temperature
and by the liquid-solid phase change. The secondary cooling finishes solidification
but leaves a steep temperature gradient through the strand’s thickness; the leveling of
that gradient and/or the further cooling of the steel is due to many other downstream
convection and radiation processes.
A third heat transfer example is found in Figure 1.7, which shows a green, or
unfired, ceramic part in a furnace. A ceramic green body is made of small particles,
formed while wet into a desired shape and then dried, producing a friable (easily
crumbled) solid. Firing the body sinters the structure, growing the connections among
the powder particles, increasing part density, and perhaps initiating solid-solid phase
changes. One way to provide the heat for firing is to expose the body to high temper-
ature–resistant heating elements or to a gas flame. In either case, heat is transferred
from the source to the part by radiation (see Section 1.3.2 and Chapter 12), which is
an electromagnetic phenomenon with wavelengths between ~0.1 μm and ~100 μm
(depending on the source temperature). At these high temperatures, radiation is the
dominant mechanism of heat addition to the part, but conduction controls how fast

FIGURE 1.7 A ceramic part being fired in a furnace with high-temperature interior walls.
Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Processing 7

FIGURE 1.8 Dopant diffusing into unprotected Si, with dashed lines indicating constant
concentration profiles. Most diffusion is normal to surface, but some dopant travels laterally,
undercutting the SiO2 layers.

the body distributes the heat internally. Ceramics tend not to conduct heat quickly, so
large temperature gradients may develop. These gradients cause a spatial distribution
of thermal expansion, leading to high internal stresses and possible cracking.

1.2.3 Mass transFer

One of the many steps in the production of integrated circuits is the doping of
exposed silicon to form n-type junctions (e.g., with phosphorous) or p-type junctions
(e.g., with boron) [8]. The dopant is supplied to the surface either as a solid or a gas
and moves into the silicon layer by means of mass diffusion (see Section 1.3.3 and
Chapter 4), with the maximum concentration on the surface. The dopant concen-
tration falls exponentially deeper into the substrate, which initially has no dopant.
Figure 1.8 shows such a Si layer, partially masked by silicon oxide. The dopant is
applied to the unmasked regions and most diffuses normal to the surface. At the
edges of the masking, the dopant diffusion becomes two dimensional, as it diffuses
laterally underneath the SiO2. The junction formed by the dopant addition is some-
what wider than the exposed Si region. The spatial distribution of the dopant in the
silicon is a function of the solid-state diffusion process, and control of these process
outcomes is required for the reliable manufacture of integrated circuits.
Mass may also be transferred by convection mass transfer, where it is carried
through a vessel by a moving fluid. The chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process
deposits thin solid films by encouraging a chemical reaction on a substrate in contact
with various reactants mixed in a carrier gas. The flowing gas carries the reactants
through a reactor vessel to the substrate and transports the products (and unused
reactants) away from it. Ideally, the reaction will take place uniformly over the sub-
strate and produce a uniform coating thickness [5]. In the case shown in Figure 1.9,
in which the reaction occurs very rapidly compared to the rate of mass transfer to
and from the surface, the difficulty is to configure the flow field and substrate so that
the desired layer uniformity is achieved. One example of CVD is the deposition of a
silicon nitride layer on silicon wafers by the reaction of dichlorosilane and ammonia
at the heated substrate surface,
8 An Introduction to Transport Phenomena in Materials Engineering

FIGURE 1.9 Chemical vapor deposition vessel, where a solid reaction product coats the
wafers.

with a reaction temperature around 750 oC [8]. The wafers are kept at the reaction
temperature while the vessel walls are heated to levels outside the range in which the
reaction occurs (so the reaction is only on the wafers), but always high enough so
that there is no gas condensation. The solid coating, Si3N4, can be applied to mask
areas of a wafer, preventing oxidation of the underlying silicon layer during process-
ing and acting as a resistance to diffusion from the atmosphere to the silicon. The
effectiveness of the coating is partially a function of its uniformity over the wafers,
which is a strong function of how the carrier gas and reactants are moved from the
gas stream to the surface.

1.2.4 MultiMode transport pHenoMena

Almost every example of a process (including the ones mentioned earlier) has
more than one significant phenomenon, and usually they interact as they influ-
ence the development of microstructure. A classic example of the role of multiple
transport phenomena in processing, structure, and properties is the quenching
of plain carbon steel, a topic usually discussed in an introductory materials
engineering course [e.g., 9]. Beginning with a carbon-bearing austenite phase
(a face-centered cubic crystal structure) at an elevated temperature, the rate of
cooling to room temperature controls the developing microstructure. If heat is
extracted slowly, two new, lower-temperature, equilibrium phases are formed as
the carbon diffuses in the austenite from regions where ferrite (BCC) forms to
regions where cementite (Fe3C) forms. Chemical equilibrium predicts the for-
mation of these two phases, given enough time for the carbon to move from
one phase to the other. Rapid heat extraction will produce a cooling rate fast
enough that the carbon cannot diffuse quickly enough to avoid being trapped in
a new body-centered tetragonal phase (similar to a BCC structure, but elongated
slightly by the trapped carbon atoms). In this case without long-range diffusion
of carbon, only the BCT phase (distorted BCC) forms from FCC. This nonequi-
librium phase, martensite, is much stronger than the ferrite-carbide structure and
much less tough. This example illustrates the mechanism by which the relative
rates of two transport phenomena (diffusion of heat and carbon) contribute to
form different microstructures and properties.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Charles
Dickens and other Victorians
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
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laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Charles Dickens and other Victorians

Author: Arthur Quiller-Couch

Release date: December 21, 2023 [eBook #72466]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1925

Credits: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHARLES

DICKENS AND OTHER VICTORIANS ***
By Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch

On the Art of Writing

On the Art of Reading
Studies in Literature
(first series)
Studies in Literature
(second series)
Adventures in Criticism
Charles Dickens and
Other Victorians
Charles Dickens
And Other Victorians
 Charles Dickens
And Other Victorians

By
Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, M.A.
Fellow of Jesus College
King Edward VII Professor of English Literature
in the University of Cambridge

G.P. Putnam’s Sons

New York & London
The Knickerbocker Press
1925
 Copyright, 1925
by
Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch

The
Knickerbocke
r
Press
New York

Made in the United States of America

 PREFACE
ALL save one of the papers here collected were written as lectures
and read from a desk at Cambridge; the exception being that upon
Trollope, contributed to The Nation and the Athenaeum and
pleasantly provoked by a recent edition of the “Barsetshire” novels.
To these it almost wholly confines itself. But a full estimate of
Trollope as one of our greatest English novelists—and perhaps the
raciest of them all—is long overdue, awaiting a complete edition of
him. His bulk is a part of his quality: it can no more be separated
from the man than can Falstaff’s belly from Falstaff. He will certainly
come to his own some day, but this implies his coming with all his
merits and all his defects: and this again cannot happen until some
publisher shows enterprise. The expensive and artificial vogue of the
three-volume-novel did wonders for Trollope in one generation, to kill
him for another: since no critic can talk usefully about books to many
of which his hearers have no access. But we shall see Trollope
reanimated.
The papers on Dickens and Thackeray attempt judgment on
them as full novelists. Those on Disraeli and Mrs. Gaskell merely
take a theme, and try to show how one theme, taking possession,
will work upon two very different minds. Much more could have been
said generally upon both authors, and generically upon the “idea” of
a novel.
As usual, with a few corrections, I leave these lectures as they
were written and given, at intervals and for their purpose. They
abound therefore with repetitions and reminders which the reader
must try to forgive.
ARTHUR QUILLER-COUCH.
January 5, 1925.
 CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface v
Dickens
I 3
II 24
III 42
IV 62
V 81
Thackeray
I 100
II 119
III 137
The Victorian Background 158
Disraeli 180
Mrs. Gaskell 199
Anthony Trollope
The Barsetshire Novels 219
Index 235
 Charles Dickens
and Other Victorians
 DICKENS (I)

I
IF anything on this planet be great, great things have happened in
Westminster Hall: which is open for anyone, turning aside from
London’s traffic, to wander in and admire. Some property in the oak
of its roof forbids the spider to spin there, and now that architects
have defeated the worm in beam and rafter it stands gaunt and clean
as when William Rufus built it: and I dare to say that no four walls
and a roof have ever enclosed such a succession of historical
memories as do these, as no pavement—not even that lost one of
the Roman Forum—has been comparably trodden by the feet of
grave men moving towards grave decisions, grand events.
The somewhat cold interior lays its chill on the imagination. A
romantic mind can, like the spider, spin its cobwebs far more easily
in the neighbouring Abbey, over the actual dust to which great men
come—

Here the bones of birth have cried—

“Though gods they were, as men they died.”
Here are sands, ignoble things
Dropt from the ruin’d sides of kings.

But in the Abbey is finis rerum, and our contemplation there the
common contemplation of mortality which, smoothing out place
along with titles, degrees and even deeds, levels the pyramids with
the low mounds of a country churchyard and writes the same moral
over Socrates as over our Unknown Soldier—Vale, vale, nos te in
ordine quo natura permittet sequamur. In Westminster Hall (I am
stressing this with a purpose) we walk heirs of events in actual play,
shaping our destiny as citizens of no mean country: in this covered
rood of ground have been compacted from time to time in set conflict
the high passions by which men are exalted to make history. Here a
king has been brought to trial, heard and condemned to die; under
these rafters have pleaded in turn Bacon, Algernon Sidney, Burke,
Sheridan. Here the destinies of India were, after conflict, decided for
two centuries. Through that great door broke the shout, taken up,
reverberated by gun after gun down the river, announcing the
acquittal of the Seven Bishops.

II
So, if this tragic comedy we call life be worth anything more than
a bitter smile: if patriotism mean anything to you, and strong opposite
wills out of whose conflict come great issues in victory or defeat, the
arrest, the temporary emptiness of Westminster Hall—a sense of
what it has seen and yet in process of time may see—will lay a
deeper solemnity on you than all the honoured dust in the Abbey.
But, as men’s minds are freakish, let me tell you of a solitary
figure I see in Westminster Hall more vividly even than the ghosts of
Charles I and Warren Hastings bayed around by their accusers: the
face and figure of a youth, not yet twenty-two, who has just bought a
copy of the Magazine containing his first appearance in print as an
author. “I walked down to Westminster Hall,” he has recorded, “and
turned into it for half an hour, because my eyes were so dimmed with
joy and pride that they could not bear the street and were not fit to be
seen there.”
Now the paper which opened the fount of these boyish tears
(here, if you will, is bathos) was entitled A Dinner at Poplar Walk.
You may find it to-day under another title, “Mr. Minns and his Cousin”
among Sketches by Boz: reading it, you may pronounce it no great
shakes; and anyhow you may ask why anyone’s imagination should
select this slight figure, to single it out among the crowd of ghosts.
Well, to this I might make simple and sufficient answer, saying that
the figure of unbefriended youth, with its promise, a new-comer
alone in the market-place, has ever been one of the most poignant in
life, and, because in life, therefore in literature. Dickens himself, who
had been this figure and remembered all too well the emotion that
choked its heart, has left us a wonderful portrait-gallery of these lads.
But indeed our literature—every literature, all legend, for that matter
—teems with them: with these youngest brothers of the fairy-tales,
these Oedipus’s, Jasons, these Dick Whittingtons, Sindbads,
Aladdins, Japhets in search of their Fathers; this Shakespeare
holding horses for a groat, that David comely from the sheepfold with
the basket of loaves and cheeses. You remember De Quincey and
the stony waste of Oxford Street? or the forlorn and invalid boy in
Charles Lamb’s paper on The Old Margate Hoy who “when we
asked him whether he had any friends where he was going,” replied,
“he had no friends.” Solitariness is ever the appeal of such a figure;
an unbefriendedness that “makes friends,” searching straight to our
common charity: this and the attraction of youth, knocking—so to
speak—on the house-door of our own lost or locked-away ambitions.
“Is there anybody there?” says this Traveller, and he, unlike the older
one (who is oneself), gets an answer. The mid-Victorian Dr. Smiles
saw him as an embryonic Lord Mayor dazed amid the traffic on
London Bridge but clutching at his one half-crown for fear of pick-
pockets. I myself met him once in a crowded third-class railway
carriage. He was fifteen and bound for the sea: and when we came
in sight of it he pushed past our knees to the carriage window and
broke into a high tuneless chant, all oblivious of us. Challenge was in
it and a sob of desire at sight of his predestined mistress and
adversary. For the sea is great, but the heart in any given boy may
be greater: and

these things are life

And life, some think, is worthy of the Muse.
 III
But I am a Professor, and ought to have begun by assuring you
that this figure in Westminster Hall has a real historical interest in
connexion with your studies “on the subject of English Literature.”
Well, then, it has. The date of the apparition is New Year’s Day,
1834, and by New Year’s Day, 1838, Charles Dickens was not only
the most popular of living authors, but in a fair way to become that
which he remained until the end in 1870—a great National
Institution.
I use no exaggerated term. Our fathers of the nineteenth century
had a way (and perhaps not altogether a bad way) of considering
their great writers as national institutions; Carlyle was one, Ruskin
another. It was a part of their stout individualism, nowadays derided.
And it was, if you will consider, in the depths of its soul [say, if you
will, its Manchester Soul] a high-polite retort upon such a sworn
enemy as Ruskin. “Curse us, Sir: but we and no Government make
you a demigod.” You will never understand your fathers, Gentlemen,
until you understand their proud distrust of Government save by
consent. Take a favourite term of theirs—say “The Liberty of the
Press.” By that they meant liberty from interference by Government.
We, using that term to-day, should mean nothing of the sort. We
should mean “liberty from control by capitalists.”
I interrogate my youthful memories and am confident that, in a
modest country household these men—Carlyle, Ruskin—were, with
decent reverence, though critically, read for prophets. Tennyson, too,
and Browning had their sacred niches; and Darwin and Huxley, and
Buckle, who perished young attempting a History of Civilisation in
Europe: John Stuart Mill, also, and Kingsley, Maurice, George Eliot,
and Thackeray. These names leap to memory as names of
household gods. A few weeks ago, rummaging over some family
papers I came upon the following entry:

1848, June 20. I received a visit from Mr. Alfred Tennyson,

the Poet. He came into Cornwall along the North Coast, and
 from about Camelford crossed over to Fowey, where I called on
him on the 19th. He came to Polperre in a boat, with Mr. Peach
and others; and after viewing our scenery in all directions and
taking tea at our house, they all rowed back to Fowey late in the
evening. I find him well-informed and communicative. I believe a
good Greek scholar with some knowledge of Hebrew. His
personal appearance is not prepossessing; having a slouch in
his gait and rather slovenly in his dress tho’ his clothes were new
and good. He confesses to this. He admired the wildness of our
scenery, deprecated the breaking in of improvements, as they
are termed. He enquired after traditions, especially of the great
Arthur: his object in visiting the County being to collect materials
for a poem on that Chief. But he almost doubted his existence.
He show’d me a MS. sketch of a history of the Hero: but it was
prolix and modern.

You see, hinted in this extract from a journal, how our ancestors, in
1848 and the years roundabout, and in remote parts of England,
welcomed these great men as gods: albeit critically, being
themselves stout fellows. But above all these, from the publication of
Pickwick—or, to be precise, of its fifth number, in which (as Beatrice
would say) “there was a star danced” and under it Sam Weller was
born—down to June 14, 1870, and the funeral in Westminster
Abbey, Dickens stood exalted, in a rank apart. Nay, when he had
been laid in the grave upon which, left and right, face the
monuments of Chaucer, Shakespeare and Dryden, and for days
after the grave was closed, the stream of unbidden mourners went
by. “All day long,” wrote Dean Stanley on the 17th, “there was a
constant pressure on the spot, and many flowers were strewn on it
by unknown hands, many tears shed from unknown eyes.”
Without commenting on it for the moment, I want you to realise
this exaltation of Dickens in the popular mind, his countrymen’s and
countrywomen’s intimate, passionate pride in him; in the first place
because it is an historical fact, and a fact (I think) singular in our
literary history; but also because, as a phenomenon itself unique—
unique, at any rate, in its magnitude—it reacted singularly upon the
man and his work, and you must allow for this if you would
thoroughly understand either.

IV
To begin with, you must get it out of your minds that it resembled
any popularity known to us, in our day: the deserved popularity of Mr.
Kipling, for example. You must also (of this generation I may be
asking a hard thing, but it is necessary) get it out of your minds that
Dickens was, in any sense at all, a cheap artist playing to the gallery.
He was a writer of imperfect, or hazardous, literary education: but he
was also a man of iron will and an artist of the fiercest literary
conscience. Let me enforce this by quoting two critics whom you will
respect. “The faults of Dickens,” says William Ernest Henley,

were many and grave. He wrote some nonsense; he sinned

repeatedly against taste; he could be both noisy and vulgar; he
was apt to be a caricaturist where he should have been a
painter; he was often mawkish and often extravagant; and he
was sometimes more inept than a great writer has ever been.
But his work, whether good or bad, has in full measure the
quality of sincerity. He meant what he did; and he meant it with
his whole heart. He looked upon himself as representative and
national—as indeed he was; he regarded his work as a universal
possession; and he determined to do nothing that for lack of
pains should prove unworthy of his function. If he sinned, it was
unadvisedly and unconsciously; if he failed it was because he
knew no better. You feel that as you read....
He had enchanted the public without an effort: he was the
best beloved of modern writers almost from the outset of his
career. But he had in him at least as much of the French artist as
of the middle-class Englishman; and if all his life he never
ceased from self-education, but went unswervingly in pursuit of
 culture, it was out of love for his art and because his conscience
as an artist would not let him do otherwise.

Now let me add this testimony from Mr. G. K. Chesterton:

Dickens stands first as a defiant monument of what happens

when a great literary genius has a literary taste akin to that of the
community. For the kinship was deep and spiritual. Dickens was
not like our ordinary demagogues and journalists. Dickens did
not write what the people wanted. Dickens wanted what the
people wanted.... Dickens never talked down to the people. He
talked up to the people. He approached the people like a deity
and poured out his riches and his blood. He had not merely
produced something they could understand, but he took it
seriously, and toiled and agonised to produce it. They were not
only enjoying one of the best writers, they were enjoying the best
he could do. His raging and sleepless nights, his wild walks in
the darkness, his note-books crowded, his nerves in rags, all this
extraordinary output was but a fit sacrifice to the ordinary man.

“The good, the gentle, high-gifted, ever-friendly, noble Dickens,”

wrote Carlyle of him, on hearing the news of his death,—“every inch
of him an honest man.” “What a face it is to meet,” had said Leigh
Hunt, years before; and Mrs. Carlyle, “It was as if made of steel.”

V
I shall endeavour to appraise with you, by and by, the true worth
of this amazing popularity. For the moment I merely ask you to
consider the fact and the further fact that Dickens took it with the
seriousness it deserved and endeavoured more and more to make
himself adequate to it. He had—as how could he help having?—an
enormous consciousness of the power he wielded: a consciousness
which in action too often displayed itself as an irritable
conscientiousness. For instance, Pickwick is a landmark in our
literature: its originality can no more be disputed than the originality
(say) of the Divina Commedia. “I thought of Pickwick”—is his
classical phrase. He thought of Pickwick—and Pickwick was. But just
because the ill-fated illustrator, Seymour—who shot himself before
the great novel had found its stride—was acclaimed by some as its
inventor, Dickens must needs charge into the lists with the hottest,
angriest, most superfluous, denials. Even so, later on, when he finds
it intolerable to go on living with his wife, the world is, somehow or
other, made acquainted with this distressing domestic affair as
though by a papal encyclical. Or, even so, when he chooses (in
Bleak House) to destroy an alcoholised old man by “spontaneous
combustion”—quite unnecessarily—a solemn preface has to be
written to explain that such an end is scientifically possible. This
same conscientiousness made him (and here our young novelist of
to-day will start to blaspheme) extremely scrupulous about
scandalising his public—I use the term in its literal sense of laying a
stumbling-block, a cause of offence. For example, while engaged
upon Dombey and Son, he has an idea (and a very good idea too,
though he abandoned it) that instead of keeping young Walter the
unspoilt boyish lover that he is, he will portray the lad as gradually
yielding to moral declension, through hope deferred—a theme which,
as you will remember, he afterwards handled in Bleak House: and he
seriously writes thus about it to his friend Forster:

About the boy, who appears in the last chapter of the first
number—I think it would be a good thing to disappoint all the
expectations that chapter seems to raise of his happy
connection with the story and the heroine, and to show him
gradually and naturally trailing away, from that love of adventure
and boyish light-heartedness, into negligence, idleness,
dissipation, dishonesty and ruin. To show, in short, that common,
every day, miserable declension of which we know so much in
our ordinary life: to exhibit something of the philosophy of it, in
great temptations and an easy nature; and to show how the
good turns into the bad, by degrees. If I kept some notion of
Florence always at the bottom of it, I think it might be made very
 powerful and very useful. What do you think? Do you think it
may be done without making people angry?

George Gissing—in a critical study of Dickens which cries out for

reprinting—imagines a young writer of the ’nineties (as we may
imagine a young writer of to-day) coming on that and crying out upon
it.

What! a great writer, with a great idea, to stay his hand until
he has made grave enquiry whether Messrs. Mudie’s
subscribers will approve it or not! The mere suggestion is
infuriating.... Look at Flaubert, for example. Can you imagine him
in such a sorry plight? Why, nothing would have pleased him
better than to know he was outraging public sentiment! In fact, it
is only when one does so that one’s work has a chance of being
good.

All which, adds Gissing, may be true enough in relation to the

speaker. As regards Dickens, it is irrelevant. And Gissing speaks the
simple truth; “that he owed it to his hundreds of thousands of readers
to teach them a new habit of judgment Dickens did not see or begin
to see.” But that it lay upon him to deal with his public scrupulously
he felt in the very marrow of his bones. Let me give you two
instances:
When editing Household Words he receives from a raw
contributor a MS. impossible as sent, in which he detects merit. “I
have had a story,” he writes to Forster, “to hack and hew into some
form this morning, which has taken me four hours of close attention.”
“Four hours of Dickens’ time,” comments Gissing, “in the year 1856,
devoted to such a matter as this!—where any ordinary editor, or
rather his assistant, would have contented himself with a few
blottings and insertions, sure that ‘the great big stupid heart of the
public,’ as Thackeray called it, would be no better pleased, toil how
one might.”