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Assessing the Accuracy of
Remotely Sensed Data
Principles and Practices, Third Edition
Assessing the Accuracy of
Remotely Sensed Data
Principles and Practices, Third Edition

by
Russell G. Congalton and Kass Green
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

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 The third edition of this book is dedicated to our spouses,
Jeanie Congalton and Gene Forsburg, for their constant
support, encouragement, and love. It is also dedicated to a
very special friendship between the authors that has stood
the test of time for over 32 years and is still going strong.
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... xv
Authors....................................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
Why Map?.............................................................................................1
Why Assess the Accuracy of a Map?....................................................1
Types of Map Accuracy Assessment.....................................................2
Critical Steps in Accuracy Assessment................................................. 3
Organization of the Book...................................................................... 4

Chapter 2 The History of Map Accuracy Assessment........................................... 7

How Maps Are Made............................................................................7
History of Accuracy Assessment........................................................ 13
Positional Accuracy Assessment......................................................... 13
Thematic Accuracy Assessment.......................................................... 17

Chapter 3 Planning for Conducting an Accuracy Assessment............................ 21

What Type of Assessment?................................................................. 21
Qualitative Accuracy Assessment.................................................. 22
Between Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment........................ 22
Similarity Analysis.................................................................... 23
Error Budget..............................................................................24
Quantitative Accuracy Assessment................................................26
Positional Accuracy Assessment...............................................26
Thematic Accuracy Assessment................................................28
Why Do the Assessment?.................................................................... 29
How Will the Assessment Be Used?................................................... 30
What Special Considerations Exist?................................................... 30
Conclusions......................................................................................... 30

Chapter 4 Positional Accuracy............................................................................. 33

Introduction......................................................................................... 33
What Is Positional Accuracy?............................................................. 33
What are the Common Standards for Positional Accuracy?............... 35
How Should Positional Accuracy Assessment Be Designed and
the Samples Be Selected?.................................................................... 39
How Is Positional Accuracy Analyzed?.............................................. 41

vii
viii Contents

Review of Basic Statistics............................................................... 42

Parameters and Statistics........................................................... 43
Estimating the Dispersal of Variables............................................44
Estimating a Confidence Interval around the Estimate of the
Mean............................................................................................... 48
Statistics in Positional Accuracy Assessment................................ 49
If the Errors Are Assumed to Be Normally Distributed........... 49
If the Errors Are Assumed Not to Be Normally Distributed.......61
How Is Positional Accuracy Reported?............................................... 61
Summary............................................................................................. 67

Chapter 5 Thematic Map Accuracy Basics.......................................................... 69

Non-site-specific Assessments............................................................ 69
Site-specific Assessments.................................................................... 70
The Error Matrix............................................................................ 71
Overall, Producer’ s, and User’ s Accuracies.............................. 73
Mathematical Representation of the Error Matrix.................... 74

Chapter 6 Thematic Map Accuracy Assessment Considerations........................ 77

What Are the Thematic Map Classes to Be Assessed?....................... 78
The Classification Scheme............................................................. 79
Other Data Considerations.............................................................84
Continuous versus Non-Continuous Data.................................84
Spatial Autocorrelation.............................................................. 85
What Is the Appropriate Sample Unit?............................................... 87
Single Pixel..................................................................................... 87
Cluster of Pixels as a Single Sample Unit...................................... 88
Polygon as Single Sample Unit.......................................................90
Clusters of Sample Units................................................................92
How Many Samples Should Be Taken?.............................................. 93
Binomial Distribution.....................................................................94
Multinomial Distribution................................................................ 95
How Should the Samples Be Chosen?................................................. 98
Sampling Schemes.......................................................................... 98
Sampling Scheme Considerations..................................................99
Equal versus Minimum versus Proportional
Distribution.............................................................................. 102
Conclusions....................................................................................... 104

Chapter 7 Reference Data Collection................................................................. 107

What Should Be the Source of the Reference Data?......................... 108
Using Existing versus Newly Collected Data............................... 109
Remotely Sensed Data versus Field Visits................................... 110
Contents ix

How Should the Reference Data Be Collected?................................ 111

When Should the Reference Data Be Collected?.............................. 115
Ensuring Objectivity and Consistency.............................................. 120
Data Independence....................................................................... 120
Data Collection Consistency........................................................ 121
Quality Control............................................................................. 123

Chapter 8 Basic Analysis Techniques................................................................ 127

Kappa................................................................................................ 127
Margfit............................................................................................... 133
Conditional Kappa............................................................................. 136
Weighted Kappa................................................................................ 136
Compensation for Chance Agreement.............................................. 138
Confidence Limits............................................................................. 138
Area Estimation/Correction.............................................................. 142

Chapter 9 Analysis of Differences in the Error Matrix..................................... 145

Errors in the Reference Data............................................................. 145
Sensitivity of the Classification Scheme to Observer Variability..........147
Inappropriateness of the Remote Sensing Data Employed to
Make the Map................................................................................... 149
Mapping Error................................................................................... 150
Summary........................................................................................... 151
Appendix 9.1: Forest and Woodland Map Class Key of
Haleakalā National Park................................................................... 151

Chapter 10 Fuzzy Accuracy Assessment............................................................. 157

Expanding the Major Diagonal of the Error Matrix......................... 158
Measuring Map Class Variability..................................................... 159
The Fuzzy Error Matrix Approach................................................... 160
The Fuzzy Error Matrix............................................................... 161
Implementation of the Fuzzy Error Matrix.................................. 164
Another Fuzzy Error Matrix Example......................................... 166
Summary........................................................................................... 168

Chapter 11 Object-Based or Polygon Accuracy Assessment............................... 169

What Sample Unit Should Be Used?................................................. 169
Traditional Tally-based versus Area-based Error Matrix................. 170
Comparison of the Two Error Matrix Approaches...................... 172
Reference Data Collection/Labeling................................................. 172
Computing the Accuracy................................................................... 177
Conclusions....................................................................................... 180
x Contents

Chapter 12 An Object-based Accuracy Assessment Case Study: The Grand

Canyon National Park/Grand Canyon-Parashant National
Monument Vegetation Classification and Mapping Project.............. 181
Introduction....................................................................................... 182
Overview of the Case Study.............................................................. 182
Accuracy Assessment........................................................................ 186
What Are the Thematic Classes to Be Assessed?........................ 186
What Is the Appropriate Sampling Unit?..................................... 187
How Many Samples Should Be Taken?........................................ 187
How Should the Samples Be Chosen?.......................................... 187
What Should Be the Source of the Reference Data?.................... 191
How Should the Reference Data Be Collected?........................... 191
When Should the Reference Data Be Collected?......................... 192
How Do I Ensure Consistency and Objectivity in My Data
Collection?.................................................................................... 192
Analysis............................................................................................. 193
What Is an Error Matrix and How Should It Be Used?............... 193
What Are the Statistical Properties Associated with the Error
Matrix and What Analysis Techniques Are Applicable?...............196
What Is Fuzzy Accuracy and How Can You Conduct a
Fuzzy Accuracy Assessment?...................................................... 196
Results............................................................................................... 197
Lessons Learned............................................................................... 199

Chapter 13 The California Hardwood Rangeland Project................................... 201

Introduction....................................................................................... 201
Background....................................................................................... 201
Sample Design...................................................................................202
How Is the Map Information Distributed?...................................203
What Is the Appropriate Sample Unit?........................................204
How Many Samples Should Be Taken?........................................206
How Should the Samples Be Chosen and Distributed across
the Landscape?.............................................................................206
Samples Chosen from the 1981 Map.......................................207
Samples Chosen from the 1990 Coverage...............................208
Reference Data Collection.................................................................208
What Should Be the Source Data for the Reference Samples?...... 209
What Type of Information Should Be Collected?........................209
When Should the Reference Data Be Collected?......................... 212
Quality Control........................................................................ 213
Analysis............................................................................................. 213
Development of the Error Matrices.............................................. 213
Statistical Analysis....................................................................... 214
Analysis of Off-diagonal Samples................................................ 218
Contents xi

Crown Closure Analysis............................................................... 218

Crown Closure Map Results......................................................... 220
Cover Type Analysis.....................................................................224
Cover Type Map Results............................................................... 225
Extent............................................................................................ 228
Discussion......................................................................................... 229
Conclusions....................................................................................... 230

Chapter 14 Advanced Topics............................................................................... 233

Change Detection.............................................................................. 233
Reference Data............................................................................. 234
Sampling....................................................................................... 235
Change Detection Error Matrix................................................... 236
Two-Step Approach to Change Detection Accuracy
Assessment................................................................................... 239
Case Study....................................................................................240
Step 1: Accuracy of the Change Areas....................................240
Step 2: Change/No Change Assessment.................................. 243
Multi-layer Assessments....................................................................244
Appendix 14.1: Class Descriptions of the 2005 NLCD
Land Cover........................................................................................ 245

Chapter 15 Summary and Conclusions................................................................ 247

Appendix 1: ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital

Geospatial Data................................................................................. 251

Foreword................................................................................................................ 254
ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data............... 255
Annex A Background and Justifications (Informative).................................... 271

Annex B Data Accuracy and Quality Examples (Normative).......................... 277

Annex C Accuracy Testing and Reporting Guidelines (Normative)................ 293

Annex D Accuracy Statistics and Example (Normative)................................. 303

Bibliography.......................................................................................................... 311
Index....................................................................................................................... 319
Preface
Our ability to map and monitor our earth using remotely sensed data has improved
rapidly over the last decade since the second edition of this book was published.
These advancements include amazing leaps forward in microelectronics, digital sen-
sor technology, object-based analysis, sensor platforms, machine learning, and cloud
computing. Therefore, the principles and especially the practices for assessing the
accuracy of these maps created from remotely sensed data have also continued to
develop and mature. The first edition of this book, published in 1999, had only eight
chapters. The second edition, published about 10 years later, expanded to 11 chap-
ters, including the very significant addition of a new chapter on positional accuracy.
This third edition contains 15 chapters, including a new chapter on better planning
for an assessment, a thoroughly revised positional accuracy chapter, a new chapter on
object-based accuracy assessment, two case studies (a polygon-based assessment of
an object-based classification map and a more classic example), and a new summary
chapter with helpful bullets emphasizing key issues. While it presents the salient
principles needed to conduct a valid accuracy assessment, the strength of this book
is the thorough presentation and discussion of the practical considerations that must
be understood for a geospatial analyst to conduct a successful assessment. These
concepts are also important for the map user to understand so as to make effective
use of any map. Not every method or approach or descriptive measure suggested
in the literature is covered here. Rather, this book is written for those who wish to
conduct a valid and successful assessment of a map to better understand the errors,
limitations, and usefulness of that map and for those who wish to be effective users
of the map. As such, this book emphasizes the practical considerations, tradeoffs,
and decisions that must be deliberated at the beginning of a mapping project and the
awareness that must be maintained throughout the project and during the accuracy
assessment. The authors have conducted many map accuracy assessments over the
last 35 years and have faced every possible situation, limitation, and difficulty imag-
inable (and some that were unimaginable). It is our hope that this book provides you
with the guidance and encouragement necessary to be successful, whether you are
assessing the accuracy of a map or using the map for a specific objective and needing
to understand its accuracy.

xiii
Acknowledgments
Every book is the responsibility of the authors but comes from a collection of ideas,
encouragement, and suggestions of countless others. By the time a third edition of a
book is published, there are many people to thank and acknowledge. The first edi-
tion of this book was inspired by Dr. John Lyon and dedicated to Dr. Roy Mead. In
addition, we are especially thankful to Dr. John Jensen, Dr. Greg Biging, Dr. Tom
Lillesand, Dr. Jim Smith, Mr. Ross Lunetta, Mr. Mike Renslow, Dr. George Lee, and
Dr. Jim Campbell for their positive feedback and support. The second edition added
a very significant chapter on positional accuracy with the help of Drs. George Lee,
Greg Biging, and Dave Maune.
This chapter has been significantly revised in the third edition with signifi-
cant input from Dr. Qassim Abdullah. Thanks also to the American Society for
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) for allowing the publication of the
new positional accuracy standards as an appendix in this edition. We would also
like to thank Dr. Michael Kearsley of the National Park Service for allowing us to
include the Grand Canyon National Park vegetation map accuracy assessment as a
case study in this edition.
Along this 30-year adventure, many colleagues at Pacific Meridian Resources,
Space Imaging Solutions, Fugro-Earthdata, Dewberry, Tukman Geospatial, and
Sanborn Solutions, as well as numerous graduate students in the Department of
Natural Resources and the Environment at the University of New Hampshire, helped
make all the editions of this book better.
Significant contributions to this third edition were made by Mark Tukman of
Tukman Geospatial, Dr. J.B. Sharma from the University of North Georgia, and
Chad Lopez of Dewberry. Kamini Yadav, Heather Grybas, and Ben Fraser, gradu-
ate students at the University of New Hampshire, also contributed extensively to
this edition. We also gratefully acknowledge all of our friends and colleagues in the
geospatial community who inspired and encouraged us on many occasions. Finally,
we would like to thank our families for the time they managed without us while we
worked on this book.

xv
Authors
Russell G. Congalton is Professor of Remote Sensing and GIS in the Department
of Natural Resources and the Environment at the University of New Hampshire. He
is responsible for teaching courses in geospatial analysis, including The Science of
Where, Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry and Image Interpretation, Digital Image
Processing, and Geographic Information Systems. Russ has authored or coauthored
more than 200 papers and conference proceedings. He is the author of 12 book chap-
ters, co-editor of a book on spatial uncertainty in natural resource databases titled
Quantifying Spatial Uncertainty in Natural Resources: Theory and Applications for
GIS and Remote Sensing, and co-author of five books, including Imagery and GIS:
Best Practices for Extracting Information from Imagery, published by Esri in 2017.
Russ served as president of the ASPRS in 2004–2005, as the National Workshop
Director for ASPRS from 1997 to 2008, and as editor-in-chief of Photogrammetric
Engineering and Remote Sensing from 2008 to 2016. He was elected a Fellow in
2007 and an Honorary Member in 2016.
Dr. Congalton received a BS (Natural Resource Management) from Rutgers
University in 1979. He earned an MS (1981) and a PhD (1984) in remote sensing
and forest biometrics from Virginia Tech. In addition to his academic position, Russ
served as chief scientist of Pacific Meridian Resources from its founding in 1988
until 2000 and then as chief scientist of Space Imaging Solutions from 2000 to
2004. From 2004 until 2015, Russ held the position of senior technical advisor with
the Solutions Group of Sanborn, the oldest mapping company in the United States.
Finally, he has been the New Hampshire View Director, part of the AmericaView
Consortium, since 2007 and has served as member, secretary, vice-chair, and chair
of the AmericaView Board of Directors.
Kass Green’s experience spans 30 years of managing and supervising GIS and
remote sensing professionals for vegetation mapping, as well as leadership in GIS
and remote sensing research and policy. In 1988, Ms. Green co-founded Pacific
Meridian Resources, a GIS/remote sensing firm, which she grew to 75 employees
in seven offices nationwide and sold to Space Imaging (now Digital Globe) in 2000.
After running half of Space Imaging for 3 years, Ms. Green decided to focus her
career on challenging remote sensing mapping and policy projects for public agen-
cies, development organizations, and nongovernmental organizations. Over the last
10 years, Ms. Green has had the pleasure of using object-oriented techniques to cre-
ate detailed vegetation maps of Grand Canyon National Park, the national parks of
Hawaii, and Sonoma County, California from high-resolution optical imagery, lidar
data, Landsat imagery, and multiple other data sets. Her work also includes inter-
national market studies and strategy papers for organizations such as the Omidyar
Network, The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the UK Department of
International Development (DFID).

xvii
xviii Authors

Ms. Green is a fellow and a lifetime honorary member of ASPRS and a past
president of both Management Association for Private Photogrammetric Surveyors
(MAPPS) and ASPRS. She is the principal author of a recently published text for
Esri Press titled Imagery and GIS: Best Practices for Extracting Information from
Imagery. Ms. Green chairs NASA’s Earth Science Applications Committee, co-
founded and chaired the Department of the Interior’s Landsat Advisory Group, and
participated in the Landsat Science Team from 2013 to 2017 as an ex officio member.
 1 Introduction

WHY MAP?
The earth’s resources are scarce. As we continue to add more people to the earth,
the scarcity of resources increases, as does their value. From land use conversion
throughout the world, to fragmentation of tropical bird habitat, to polar bear habitat
loss in the Arctic, to the droughts in Africa, and wars worldwide, people have signifi-
cantly affected the resources and ecosystems of the world. The ever-increasing world
population and need for all types of resources continue to cause the price of these
resources to increase and to intensify conflicts over resource allocation.
As resources become more valuable, the need for timely and accurate information
about the type, quantity, and extent of resources multiplies. Allocating and managing
the earth’s resources requires accurate knowledge about the distribution of resources
across space and time. To efficiently plan emergency response, we need to know
the location of roads relative to fire and police stations, hospitals, and emergency
shelters. To improve the habitat of endangered species, we need to know what the
species habitat requirements are, where that habitat exists, where the animals exist,
and how changes to the habitat and surrounding environments will affect species
distribution, population, and viability. To plan for future developments, we need to
know where people will work, live, shop, and go to school. To grow enough food for
an ever-increasing population, we need information about the spatial distribution
and yields of our agricultural regions. Because each decision (including the decision
to do nothing) impacts (1) the status and location of resources and (2) the relative
wealth of individuals and organizations who derive value from the resources, know-
ing the location of resources and how they interact spatially is critical to effectively
managing those resources and ourselves over time.

WHY ASSESS THE ACCURACY OF A MAP?

Decisions about resources require maps; and effective decisions require accurate
maps or, at least, maps of known accuracy. For centuries, maps have provided impor-
tant information concerning the distribution of resources across the earth. Maps help
us to measure the extent and distribution of resources, analyze resource interactions,
and identify suitable locations for specific actions (e.g., development or preservation),
plan future events, and monitor change. If our decisions based on map informa-
tion are to have the expected results, the accuracy of these maps must be known.
Otherwise, implementing any decisions based on these maps will result in surprises,
and often these surprises may be unacceptable.
For example, suppose that you wish to have a picnic in a forest on the edge of
a lake. If you have a map that displays forest, crops, urban, water, and barren land
cover types, you can plan the location of your picnic. If you don’t know the accuracy

1
2 A ssessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data

of the map, but the map is 100% accurate, you will be able to travel to your forest
lakeside location and, in fact, find yourself in a nice picnic spot. However, if the map
is not spatially accurate, you may find that your picnic location falls in the middle of
the lake rather than on the shore; and if the map is not labeled correctly (i.e., themati-
cally accurate), you may find yourself in a city next to a fountain or in an agricultural
field next to an irrigation ditch. Conversely, if you know the accuracy of the map,
you can incorporate the known expectations of accuracy into your planning and
create contingency plans in situations when the accuracy is low. This type of knowl-
edge is critical when we move from our lighthearted picnic example to more critical
decisions such as endangered species preservation, resource allocation, feeding our
growing populations, peace-keeping actions, and emergency response.
There are many reasons for performing an accuracy assessment. Perhaps the sim-
plest reason is curiosity—the desire to know how good a map you have made. In
addition to the satisfaction gained from this knowledge, we also need or want to
increase the quality of the map information by identifying and correcting the sources
of errors. Third, analysts often need to compare various techniques, algorithms, ana-
lysts, or interpreters to test which is best. Also, if the information derived from the
remotely sensed data is to be used in some decision-making process (i.e., geographic
information system [GIS] analysis), then it is critical that some measure of its qual-
ity be known. Finally, it is more and more common that some measure of accuracy
is included in the contract requirements of many mapping projects. Therefore, valid
accuracy is not only useful but may be required.
Accuracy assessment determines the quality of a map created from remotely
sensed data. Accuracy assessment can be qualitative or quantitative, expensive or
inexpensive, quick or time-consuming, well designed and efficient, or haphazard.
The goal of quantitative accuracy assessment is the identification and measurement
of map errors so that the map can be as useful as possible to the persons using it to
make decisions.
The central purpose of this book is to present the necessary theory and principles
for conducting a quantitative accuracy assessment along with the practical consider-
ations of how to effectively and efficiently design and implement such an assessment.
Throughout the book, we emphasize that no one single recipe exists for conducting
an accuracy assessment. Just as there is no one way to produce a map; there is no one
way to assess the accuracy of a map. Instead, this book will teach you to consider
every aspect of a mapping project and to design and implement the best possible
assessment given the strengths and limitations of each mapping project you conduct,
fund, or rely on. This book is not written to be an academic review of every possible
idea or method ever published on map accuracy assessment. Instead, it is written for
the geospatial analyst who wishes to best conduct a valid and effective assessment
of their particular mapping project. As such, the considerations and limitations of
such an assessment are emphasized here to best lead the analyst through the process.

TYPES OF MAP ACCURACY ASSESSMENT

There are two types of map accuracy assessment: positional and thematic.
Positional accuracy deals with the accuracy of the location of map features and
Introduction 3

measures how far a spatial feature on a map is from its true or reference location on
the ground (Bolstad, 2005). Thematic accuracy deals with the labels or attributes
of the features of a map and measures whether the mapped feature labels are dif-
ferent from the true or reference feature label. For example, in the picnic example,
the earth’s surface was classified as forest, water, crops, urban, or barren. We are
interested in both the accuracy of the location of the features, so that we can locate
our picnic spot in a forest on the shore of a lake, and in the thematic accuracy, so
that we truly end up in a forest and not in a city, desert, or agricultural field that
was erroneously mapped as forest.
The accuracy of any map or spatial data set is a function of both positional accu-
racy and thematic accuracy, and this book considers both. However, because the-
matic accuracy is much more complex than positional accuracy, the book devotes
considerably more attention to thematic accuracy assessment.

CRITICAL STEPS IN ACCURACY ASSESSMENT

As previously stated, there is no one single procedure for conducting either a posi-
tional or a thematic accuracy assessment. However, all accuracy assessments include
these fundamental steps:

1. Consider the factors involved in the assessment.

2. Design the appropriate sampling approach to collect the reference data.
3. Conduct the sampling.
4. Analyze the data.
5. Report the statistics/results.

Each step must be rigorously planned and implemented. First, the accuracy
assessment sampling procedures are designed, and the sample areas on the map are
selected. We use sampling because time and funding limitations preclude the assess-
ment of every spatial unit on the map. Next, information is collected from both the
map and the reference data for each sample site. Thus, two types of information are
collected from each sample:

• Reference accuracy assessment sample data: the position or map class label
of the accuracy assessment site, which is derived from data collected that
are assumed to be correct
• Map accuracy assessment sample data: the position or map class label of
the accuracy assessment site derived from the map or image being assessed

Third, the map and reference information are compared with one another, the
results of the comparison are analyzed for statistical significance and for reason-
ableness, and a report is prepared, which presents the methods and results of the
assessment. In summary, effective accuracy assessment requires (1) design and
implementation of unbiased sampling procedures, (2) consistent and accurate col-
lection of sample data, and (3) rigorous comparative analysis of the sample map and
reference data and reporting of the results.
4 A ssessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data

Because there is no one procedure for designing and implementing an accuracy

assessment, there are quite a number of important questions to ask and consider-
ations to think about when conducting a valid assessment. This book addresses the
most important ones, including:

1. Questions concerning the design of an accuracy assessment sample

approach:
• What are the map classes to be assessed, and how are they distributed
across the landscape?
• What is the appropriate sampling unit?
• How many samples should be taken?
• How should the samples be chosen?
2. Questions concerning how the reference data should be collected:
• What should be the source of the reference data?
• How should the reference data be collected?
• When should the reference data be collected?
• How do I ensure consistency and objectivity in my data collection?
3. Questions concerning how the analysis should be conducted:
• What are the different analysis techniques for continuous versus dis-
continuous map data?
• What is an error matrix, and how should it be used?
• What are the statistical properties associated with the error matrix, and
what analysis techniques are applicable?
• What is fuzzy accuracy, and how can you conduct a fuzzy accuracy
assessment?
• What is object-based accuracy, and how can you conduct an object-
based accuracy assessment?
• How is an accuracy assessment conducted on change detection maps?
• How is an accuracy assessment conducted on maps created from mul-
tiple layers of data?

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The organization of this book takes you through each of these fundamental accuracy
assessment steps as follows:

• Chapter 2 begins with a review of the history and basic assumptions of map
making and accuracy assessment.
• Chapter 3 is a new chapter in this edition and provides the reader with
frameworks for planning out accuracy assessments. An important compo-
nent of any good assessment is proper planning from the beginning of the
mapping project. This chapter aids the reader in getting started on making
an effective plan by identifying the components of the assessment neces-
sary for their project. It is expected that this chapter will be reviewed by the
analyst prior to beginning each and every accuracy assessment.
Introduction 5

• Chapter 4 is a thoroughly revised presentation on positional accuracy

assessment including a review of past standards and concluding with the
latest and most effective ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital
Geospatial Data (ASPRS, 2014). This complete document is included as
an appendix.
• Chapters 5 and 6 provide some of the basic methods and considerations for
thematic map accuracy assessment, including the introduction of the error
matrix and a thorough review of sample design considerations.
• Chapter 7 is devoted to factors that must be taken into account during the
collection of reference data. The collection of sufficient and valid reference
data is key to the success of any thematic accuracy assessment, and this
chapter describes the many considerations, decisions, and practical details
that are part of this process.
• Chapters 8 through 11 detail thematic accuracy assessment analysis, which
is much more complex than positional accuracy assessment analysis and
hence requires more chapters. The basic analysis techniques that can be
applied to an error matrix are discussed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 discusses
the causes of differences in the error matrix, whether from map errors
or from other non-error sources. Chapter 10 presents a solution to some
of the non-error differences in the error matrix by suggesting the use of
fuzzy accuracy assessment. Finally, Chapter 11 is a new chapter that pres-
ents the idea of an object-based accuracy assessment. Given the shift from
pixel-based to object-based classification approaches, especially for high–
spatial resolution imagery, it is necessary to explore accuracy assessment
approaches that incorporate objects and not simply pixels in the assessment.
• Chapters 12 and 13 provide two very different case studies that give the
reader some real-life examples of the complexities involved in conducting
a map accuracy assessment. Neither case study is perfect, and both have
flaws, considerations, and limitations that must be addressed. The goal
is not to have the reader follow either case study for their assessment but
rather, to use the thought process and detailed explanations provided to bet-
ter understand the entire process. Chapter 12 presents a case study using a
polygon-based accuracy assessment of an object-based vegetation map cre-
ated for Grand Canyon National Park in 2014. It reviews all the design, data
collection, and analysis methods and considerations presented in Chapters
5 through 11. Chapter 13 is a case study from the 1990s, and while dated,
it presents a classic accuracy assessment that evaluates two maps—the first
a polygon map created from manual photo interpretation, and the second
a pixel-based map created using semi-automated image analysis. This case
study contains extensive detail and explanation, beyond what would ever
be published in a peer-reviewed paper. Reading through the thought pro-
cess in this case study will help the reader to better understand the entire
assessment.
• Chapter 14 delves into more advanced topics in accuracy assessment,
including change detection accuracy assessment and multi-layer accuracy
assessment.
6 A ssessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data

• Chapter 15 summarizes the book by emphasizing lessons learned from the

authors’ implementation of dozens of accuracy assessments over the last
three decades. While mapping technologies have changed significantly over
the last 30 years and will continue to evolve rapidly, the basic principles of
mapping and accuracy assessment endure with little change. This chapter’s
action statements remind and encourage the reader regarding the key com-
ponents of any valid and effective accuracy assessment.
 2 The History of Map
Accuracy Assessment

HOW MAPS ARE MADE

Before the invention of aircraft, maps were created from human observations made
on the earth’ s surface using survey equipment and the most basic yet sophisticated
remote sensing devices— the human eyes and the analytical capabilities of the
human brain. By the early sixteenth century, Portuguese navigators were able to
map the coast of Africa (see Figure 2.1) by relying on measurements taken at sea
from astrolabes, quadrants, cross-staffs, and other early navigation tools. During
their exploration of the American Northwest, Lewis and Clark were able to produce
the remarkably detailed map shown in Figure 2.2. Indian pundits secretly mapped
the Himalayas to high precision in the mid-1800s by pretending to be Buddhist pil-
grims (Hopkirk, 1992)— keeping count of their paces using holy beads, and conceal-
ing compasses and other instruments in their clothing and walking sticks. However,
none of these maps was without error, and when observations on the earth’ s surface
were unobtainable, map makers often interpolated between field observations with
questionable results, as illustrated in one of the earliest maps of California displayed
in Figure 2.3.
One of the most notorious examples of the results of reliance on an erroneous
map created from field observations was the disastrous use by the Donner party
in 1846 when they chose to follow the Hastings cutoff rather than the established
Oregon– California trail during their immigration from the Midwest. As a result,
they added hundreds of miles to their journey, as shown in Figure 2.4 (the posi-
tional accuracy was in error), were forced to cross unexpected expanses of waterless
desert (the thematic accuracy was in error), and ended up attempting to cross the
Sierra Nevada mountains in late fall rather than during the summer. As a result the
group became stranded in 20 feet of snow just below the summit for the entire win-
ter and lost almost half of their party to starvation, hypothermia, and cannibalism.
Regardless of how the map is made, not knowing the accuracy of maps can have
catastrophic results!
Today, most map makers use remote sensing* rather than field observations as
the main source of spatial information. While field observations are still important,
they are ancillary to the remote sensing data; providing information at sample loca-
tions instead of a total enumeration of the area to be mapped. Since the first aerial

* Remote sensing is defined as the collection and interpretation of information about an object from a
distant vantage point. Remote sensing systems involve the measurement of electromagnetic energy
reflected or emitted from an object and include instruments on balloons, aircraft, satellites, and
unmanned aerial systems (UAS).

7
 8

FIGURE 2.1 The Cantino world map, which is a map of the known coastlines of the world, created by sixteenth-century navigators.
A ssessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data
 The History of Map Accuracy Assessment

FIGURE 2.2 Map of the American Northwest created by Lewis and Clark. (From Lewis, M., et al., Maps of Lewis and Clark’ s Track across the
Western Portion of North America , Bradford and Inskeep, Philadelphia, 1814. With permission.)
9
 10
A ssessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data

FIGURE 2.3 A seventeenth-century map of California.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 79.

‘Why now my frends, for England fighte,’ I cryde:

‘Yf euer English hearts your noble breasts posseste,
I promise you to make them flinche, yf I may byde:
Mates follow me.’ Amongst my foes I rusht before the
rest:
‘O here come on,’ quoth I, ‘now fighte wee for the beste.’
And therewithall I vsde such courage, force, and
myghte:
As made my foes to fall, and soldiers fitly fighte.

80.

‘Yf we doe leese,’ quoth I, ‘the Frenche men shall not

gayne:
So if wee wyn, ’tis worth the while to keepe arraye:
Yf yee stand stiflye toet, wele make them peaze the
paine,
And leade with losse of lyuely lymmes the laude awaye.
Although they fearcely fighte, in hope vs all to slaye:
Lo, sixe to one they fall, and deade they lye:
Wee English men, in triomphe fight and honour dye.’

81.

With bloody broiles of war, the haplesse towne did

smoke,
The children sawe theire fathers deare, to bleede their
last:
The wyues bewayled muche the fatall stroke,
Which forste their husbands bleede, fall, dye so fast:
“Helas,” the weemen cryde, the woefull streets that past:
(When soe they sawe the channels bloody streame)
“What plague is this, that pesters so our reame?

82.
“Is no remorce of lyfe, but kill, kill, kill? helasse:
Kill, kill, the English cry, and valiantly they fighte:
What hap had wee to see these mischiues com to
passe?”
“Helas, le sang de nous amis, la mort, helas:”
The maydens cry: the widowes wayle, and aged
mourne,
With wringing hands vplift, and wish them selues
vnborne.

83.

Of vs one thousand Englishmen within the towne,

Sustaynde the force, the powre, and puissaunce of their
king:
And of the French that faught, wee beate three thousand
downe,
Wee slew no lesse, for all the nomber hee did bring:
Yf this vntrue shall seeme, discredite myne to ring,
A French historian writeing for them selues shall say:
Three thousand Frenchmen there, were slayne that
day.

84.

Four hundreth Englishmen that tyme were slayne in

fighte,
My selfe was one, with losse they wan the towne, perdie:
But if I might haue liude t’aue tride our righte,
With one for euery seuen, by ods as wee did dye:
I doubte not (so the rest, would done their partes as I:)
But that king Charles, his lords, nor all his men,
Should scarce haue tane the towne of Pontoise then.

85.

What neade I more debate of these thinges here:

In England was the faulte, though we did feele the
smarte:
While they at home, at bate and strife for honours were,
They lost abroade of Normandy the greater parte:
To thinke on this torments agayne my wounded harte,
That lords at home, should striue about the name,
And loose abroade their countrie’s weale and fame.

86.

Let English peeres abandon such contentious strife,

It hurtes the publique weale, decayes the state:
It reaues the yeares too soone of longer lyfe:
It freates the breste with ruste of baend debate:
It giues the checke to him that giues the mate:
Then thus I ende, that wight of all is bleste
Which liues in loue with God, his prince, and country
best.

87.

So Higins, yf thou write, how this my fall befell:

Place it in Baldwine’s Miroir with the reste:
From crazed scull sith here my mynde I tell,
Sith bleedeing hart these ruefull rymes expreste,
This mangled tale beseemes my person beste:
“Do so?” quoth hee “and let it passe euen thus:“
“Viuit” quoth I, “post funera virtus.”

Iohn Higins.[1881]
 [“This knight, my maisters,” quoth one, “came somwhat to late in
order.” “That is maruaile,” quoth maister Ferrers, “it seemes that hee
was forwarde enoughe in seruice.” “Yea,” quoth another, “hee came
the later home for that, and therefore wee must accept his cause.”
“How ere hee came,” quoth M. H.[1882] “hee sayes well, and like a
noble gentleman, as no doubt hee was.” “Hee should haue beene
placed,” quoth one, “after king Iames the first, king of Scots, of
whome wee spake in the yeare 1437.” “Now,” quoth I, “that you talke
of king Iames, I haue king Iames the fourth here, which was slayne
at the batayle of Brampton, or Floddon fielde, but hee is very
rude”[1883] “I like him,” quoth one, “the better: for if hee should bee
otherwise, it would not well beseeme his person, nor the place
whence he comes.” “Reade it,” quoth they, “as it is.” “Thinke then,”
quoth I, “that you see him standing all wounded, with a shafte in his
body, and, emongst other woundes, one geuen by a byll, both
deadly, to say in his rude and faithlesse maner as followeth.”]
[The lamentation of King James the
fourth, King of Scots, slayne at
Brampton, in the fiuthe yeare of King
Henry the eight, Anno Christi, 1513.
1.

As I lay musing, my selfe alone,

In minde not stable, but wauering here and there,
Morpheus my frend espyed mee anone,
And as hee was wont, whistered in mine eare:
Shortly conuyede I was, I wist not where:
Mine eyes were closed fast, I could not see:
I hearde a man crying[1884] sore, trembling for feare:
“Miserere mei Deus et salua mee.

2.

Miserere mei Deus:” oft hee did reporte,

With sorowfull sighes as euer man herde:
For sorowe and pity, I gan[1885] nere to resorte:
His sore exclamations made mee afferde:[1886]
Mine eyes opened, I sawe his grim bearde:[1887]
I knewe not verely, who it should bee:
Hee cryde, as hee had beene stickt with a swerde:
“Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

3.

Of Scotland (hee sayde) late I was king,

With crowne on my[1888] head, and scepter in hand:
In wealth and honour, I wanted[1889] nothing:
In peaceable maner I ruled my land:
Full frendly and faythfull my subiects I fand:[1890]
Now am I exiled from life,[1891] land, and liberty:
King without realme, loe, now where I stand:
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

4.

Thus for my folly, I feele I doe smart,

Both law and nature doth me accuse
Of great vnkindnes: that I should take part
Against my brother, and his liege refuse:
I purposed war, yet I fayned truce:
Thus did I, Frenche king, for the loue of thee,
Inordinate affection so did mee abuse:
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

5.

All this, king Lewis, I suffred for thy sake,

Wo be to the time that euer I thee knewe:
For thee am I put in a[1892] sorowfull brake,
Thy wilfull appetite, doth me sore rewe:
This worlde is not stable, it chaungeth a newe:[1893]
Now am I bond, some time I was free:
Exiled from liberty, I am kept in a mewe:
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

6.

Moreouer for thee, and thy realme of Fraunce,

(Contrary to mine[1894] othe solemnly made)
Unto king Henry I made defiaunce,
To follow thine appetite was all the grace I hade:[1895]
In most cruell wise, I did his realme inuade:
I troubled his subiects, by land and by sea:
 My rewarde is no more, but the showle and spade:
[1896]
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

7.

For my wilfull periury, thus am I brought

From high degree, to the lowest of all:
Whom should I blame? I found that I sought,
By mine owne foly,[1897] I had a great fall:
Wherefore I feare mee, that now I shall
Haue payne long lasting, for mine iniquity:[1898]
Lord full of mercy yet to thee I call,
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

8.

Vanquished in fielde I was to the rebuke

Of mee and all my realme: to our immortall shame:[1899]
There faught agaynst mee neyther king, nor duke,
Prince, ne marquise, ne many lords of name:
One valiaunt earle, our power ouercame:
Yet were wee in nomber, to his one, three:
Lord whom thou fauourest, winneth[1900] the game:
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

9.

I was th’only[1901] author, of myne owne woe;

But yet I began it by[1902] wicked counsell,
Of my lords spirituall and temporall also:
Which for their merits in fielde with mee fell:
I was curst (in deede) the truth for to tell,
And could not (by falshoode) eyther thriue or thie:
To assist my brother’s foe I did not well,[1903]
Miserere mei Deus et salua mee.
 10.

Christe’s commaundements,[1904] I did all refuse:

The breatch of myne oathe,[1905] I did not regarde:
Therfore I am domed[1906] as faythlesse as the Jewes:
Sore is the sentence, and cruell is the swerde:[1907]
Excepte thy mercy helpe, O Lord, I am marde:
Saue mee; for whom thou suffredst on a tree,
To thy mercye I appeale for my sauegarde:
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

11.

Herafter (by mee) my successours may beware,

An ensample[1908] take by my wretched ruyne:
Lest in lykewyse they bee taken with[1909] the snare,
As I am nowe: and pay the[1910] lyke fyne:
Vanquished wee were, by[1911] power devyne:
For by manne’s power it seemed not to bee:
Here now I ly, in an homely shrine,
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

12.

I am a spectacle also in lyke case,

To the Frenche king, yf hee list to take heede,
I feare that hee cannot for lacke of grace,
The king[1912] and hee, bee not yet agreede:
Therefore let him looke, for a lyke speede,
As wee had that were of his leage and vnity,
I trow hee doth neither God[1913] loue, nor dreede,
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

13.

Who euer knew christian king in such a case,[1914]

 As[1915] I wretched creature that cannot haue
In churche or in[1916] churchyard any maner place,
Emong christen people to lye in a graue:
The earth mee abhorreth,[1917] all men mee depraue,
My frends forsake mee, and haue[1918] no pity,
The worlde taketh from mee all that hee mee gaue:
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

14.

There is no more now, I must take my leaue,

In this wretched worlde I may no longer dwell:
But one thing there is doth mee sore greaue,
I not where to rest, in heauen or in hell,
None else thereof but only God can tell:
Adieu, this worlde is full of vanity,
I may no longer be with thee, farewell:
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.

15.

Farewell my queene, sweete lady Margaret:

Farewell my prince, with whom I vsde to play:
I wot not where wee shall together meete:
Farewell my lords and commons eke for aye:
Adieu, ye shall no ransom for mee pay:
Yet I beseeche you of your charity,
To the high Lorde mercifull that yee pray:[1919]
Miserere mei Deus & salua mee.”]

[“King Iames,” quoth one, “wil bee misliked for his Miserere.”
“No,” quod another, “hee cryes Peccaui.” “It is to late,” quoth he,
“there is no man that will like or beleeue him.” “Than,” quod M. H. “he
is still one and the same man: for in life he was neither well liked,
beleeued, nor trusted.” “Why than,” quoth one, “if hee speake as hee
was, let him passe as hee is, and if not, let him bee mended.”
“Mended,” quoth hee, “nay, hee is paste mending, hee is to olde: for
it seemes by the copy, that it was pende aboue fifty yeares agone, or
euen shortly after the death of the sayd king: for I found therewith, in
an olde hand, the copyes of the sayd king Iames’ letters sent unto
king Henry at Turwin, and the king’s aunsweres and letters sent to
him againe, with this lamentation ensuing them: and lastly the sayd
batayle of Floddon fielde, in such verse described, with the order of
the same, and the names of the noble men, knights, and gentlemen,
which serued at the same fielde.” “That would I faine heare,” quoth
one, “it were pity that such particulers should bee lost.” “They would,”
quoth another, “pleasure not only such as write our historyes, but
also encourage our countreymen well, to the like loyall seruice of
their prince, and especially those who should finde therein of their
parents or auncestours to haue bene praysed for valure.” “I pray
you,” quoth hee, “let us haue them.” “There they are,” quoth I, “but I
haue altered the verse, which wee call Intercalaris, because the rest
else would not haue beene well liked; but of the history I haue not
chaunged one word.”]
[The Bataile of Brampton, or Floddon
fielde, faught in the yeare of our
Redeemer 1513, and in the fiuth yeare
of the raygne of that victorious prince,
King Henry the eyght.
1.

O Rex regum in thy realme celestiall,

Glorified with ioyes of Gabriell’s company,
King Iames is dead, haue mercy on vs all:[1920]
For thou haste him prostrate so sodaynly,
(Which was our noble prince his enemy)
That vs to withstand hee had no might:
So thy helpe O Lord, preserude king Henrye’s right.

2.

Into England this prince prowdly did come,

With fourscore thousand in goodly aray:
And the castle of Norham first hee had won,
Prospering victoriously from day to day:
But agaynst him is gone the earle of Surrey,
With him manfully for to fight,
By the helpe of God and in his prince’s right.

3.

This noble earle full wisely hath wrought,

And with thirty thousand forwarde is gone:
After wisedom and pollicy wondrously[1921] hee sought,
How by the Scottish ordinaunce bee might well come:
Thereto helped well Basterd Heron,
On the Scots hee did harme both day and night,
So thy helpe O Lord, preserude our prince’s right.

4.

Our herald of armes to king Iemy did say:

“My lord of Surrey greetes[1922] you well by mee,
Maruayling greatly of this your array,
And what you make here in this countrey:
Peace you haue broken, and olde amity:
Wherefore if yee abide hee will with you fight,
By the helpe of God and in his prince’s right.”

5.

“Abyde:” hee sayde, “els were it great dishonour hye,

That a king crowned an earle durst not abide:
Yf Surrey bee so bolde to[1923] gieue battayle to mee,
I shall him tarry on Floddon hill side:
Open warre then soone was there cryde,”[1924]
And our doughty men were[1925] redily dight,
By the helpe of God, and in theyr prince’s right.

6.

S. Cutberd’s banner with the byshop’s men bolde,

In the vaunt garde[1926] forward fast did hye,
That royall relike more precious than golde,
And sir William Bowmer nere stoode it by:
“Adiuua pater,” then fast did they cry,
“Pray wee that God will graunt vs his might,
That wee may haue the powre to saue our prince’s
right.”
 7.

The lord Clifford and the lord Latimer also,

With the lord Couiers[1927] of the north countrey,
And the lord Scrope of Vpsalle forwarde did goe,
With the lorde Howarde admirall of the see,
Of noble hearte and courage good was hee,
As any went that time agaynst the Scots to fight,
By the helpe of God, and in theyr prince’s right.[1928]

8.

Sir William Percy and lorde Ogle both same,

And sir William Gascoyne, theyr cosin nere was hee:
The shryue of Yorkeshyre sir Ihon Eueringame,
And the nobles of Chesshyre in theyr degree:
The lord Dacres, and Basterd Heyron with heart free,
Which did harme the Scots by day and by night,
By the helpe of God, and in theyr prince’s right.

9.

Sir Edmond Haward of lusty franke courage

Boldly aduaunced himselfe eke in that stounde,
To the Scots our enemies he did great hurte and
domage,
Which were right greedy him and his bloud to confound:
But theyr mischieuous intent on themselues did rebound,
And many a deadly stroke on them there did light,
So the helpe of God preserude our prince’s right.

10.

The baron of Killerton, and both Astones were there,

With sir Iohn Bouthe, and many knightes moe:
Sir Iohn Gower and sir Walter Griffin drewe nere,
With sir Thomas Butler and maister Warcoppe also,
Sir Christopher Warde, and sir William Midylton both two,
 And sir William Maliuer, all did manly fight,
By the helpe of God, and in theyr prince’s right.

11.

In the mydle warde was the earle of Surrey,

That noble man, stoute, bolde, and hardy,[1929]
The father of wit wee call him may,[1930]
The deputy of England most trusty was hee:
With him lorde Scrope of Bolton, and sir George Darcye,
And sir Richard Maliuer with bucks heades bright,
By the helpe of God, and in their prince’s right.

12.

Sir Phillip Tilney was there ready and prest,

In the same warde, with all his mighty powre,
And sir Iohn Willowghby as ready as[1931] the best,
With sir Nicholas Aplyard his[1932] helpe, ayde, and
succour:
O what ioy was it to see that[1933] same howre,
How valiauntly our noble men with the Scots did fight,
By the helpe of God, and in theyr prince’s right.

13.

Yong sir William Gascoyne was there indeede,

With sir Richard Aldburgh, and sir Christofer Danebe,
Sir William Scarkell, and M. Frost’s help at neede,
With sir Raphe Ellarkar and M. Thomas Lee,
M. Raphe Beeston, and M. Hopton men might see
Full well, perdy,[1934] they quite themselues in that
fight,
By the helpe of God, and in theyr prince’s right.

14.
Sir Edward Stanley in the rear warde was hee,
A noble knight both wise and hardy,
With many a noble man of the west countrey,
And the whole powre of the earle of Darby,
With a right[1935] retinue of the bishop Elye,
And of Lankeshyre men manly[1936] did fight,
By the helpe of God, and in theyr prince’s right.

15.

Soone then the gunnes began[1937] a new play,

And the vaunt garde together are gone:
But our gunnes disseuered them out of aray,
And our bolde bilmen of them slewe many one:[1938]
So that of them scarce retourned[1939] none:
Thus were they punished by helpe of God almight:
So thy helpe O Lord, preseru’d our prince his right.

16.

Then they sought embushments, but with[1940] small

chere,
And in fowle[1941] maner brake theyr aray:
Yet some of our men by policy fled were,[1942]
That sawe[1943] king Iemy on the hill where he lay:
“They flee,” he sayes, “follow fast I you pray:”
But by that fit of flying[1944] wee wan the fight:
So the helpe of God preserude our prince’s right.

17.

To the earle of Surrey king Iemy is gone,

With as comly company as euer man did see:[1945]
Full boldly theyr big men agaynst vs did come
Downe the hill, with great myrth and melody:
And our men marked them to the Trinity,[1946]
 Beseeching him there to shew[1947] his might,
In theyr whole defence, and in theyr prince his right.

18.

The red lyon with his owne father’s bloud inclynate,

Came towards the white lyon both meeke and mylde,
And there by the hand of God he was prostrate,
By the helpe of th’eagle with her swadled chylde:
The buckesheads also the Scots has beguilde,
And with theyr grey goose wings doulfully them dight,
By the helpe of God, and in our prince his right.

19.

The moone that day did shine full bright,

And the luce head that day was full bent:
The red cressent did blinde the Scots sight,
And the ship with her ancre many Scots spent:[1948]
But, alas, the good white griffin was felde on Floddon hil,
Yet escape hee did, not vanquisht in the fight:[1949]
So thy helpe, O Lord, preserude our prince his right.

20.

The treyfell was true, and that did well appeare,

And boldly the great griffin vp the hill is gone:
The antlet did lace them with arrowes so nere,
That buffits the Scots bare, they lacked none:
The cinquefoile also was stedfast as the stone,
And slewe of the Scots like a worthy wight:[1950]
So thy helpe, O Lord, preserude our prince his right.

21.

The yong white lyon was angry in that stounde,

And with his merry mariners the myrth him made,
His bells rang lay[1951] couched in the grounde,
Whereof the Scots were[1952] right sore affrayde:
And round about rydeing euermore he sayde
Go to my fellowes all shalbe all or night,[1953]
By the helpe of God, wee saue our prince his right.

22.

The Cornish choughe did picke them in the face,

And the crab them blinded that they might not see:
They flewe and fell,[1954] they had none other grace,
With theyr new conquerour: but where now is hee,
Caryed in a cart, to his rebuke and his posterity,
And his bullies so bonnye are put all to[1955] flight:
So thy helpe, O Lord, preserude our prince his right.

23.

Of Scots lay[1956] slayne full xii thousande,

And xi earles, the sooth for to say,
Xiii lords, and three byshops as I vnderstande,
With two abbots, which haue learnde a new play,
They should haue bene at home for peace to pray:
Wherefore they were thus wise punished by right:
So thy helpe, O Lord, preserude our prince his right.

24.

Theyr ordinaunce is lost, and theyr royalty,

Wee haue theyr riches, God haue the prayseing:[1957]
What ech man[1958] would take, hee had his[1959] liberty:
Wherefore laude and honour to[1960] such a king,
From dolefull daunger vs so defending:[1961]
Hee has graunted vnto vs now his might,
And by his only ayde preserude our prince’s right.
 25.

O rex regum, ruler[1962] of vs all,

As thou for vs sufferedst[1963] thy passion,
Gieue the Scots grace, by king Iemye’s fall,
For to eschue for euer like transgression,[1964]
Preserue the red rose, and be his protection:
Laude, honour, prayse be vnto God almight,
Who thus suppreste our foes, preserud our prince’s
right.[1965]

26.

O yee noble lordes and knights victorius,

I you beseech to haue mee excused,
Your noble acts no better that I discusse,
And that my simple saying be not refused:
Where in any thing I haue mee misused,
I mee submit to your charitable correction:
And in this maner shall be my conclusion.

qd. Frauncis Dingley.[1966]]

 [The[1967] open bruite of princes falles and such as bare sway in
this realme, made mee poore haplesse woman (though once in great
place,) presume to shew my selfe emong that infortunate flock. And
making more haste then good speede, I appeared fyrst to one
Baldwine a minister and a preacher: whose function and calling
disdaynes to looke so lowe, as to searche the secrets of wanton
women, (though commonly a preacher with sufferaunce may rebuke
vice.) Wherefore I haue better bethought mee, and so doe sodaynly
appeale and appeare to some martiall man, who hath more
experience both in defending of women’s honour, and knowes
somwhat more of theyr conditions and qualityes: and the rather
because my tragedy was in question among some that would not
spare due commendation to the autor therof. I now appeare to him
that fyrst set mee forth, a writer of good continuaunce, and one that
dayly is exercised to set out both matter tragicall, and other
prophane histories and verses, whose name is Churchyard: hee
shall not only haue the fame of his owne worke (which no man can
deny)[1968] but shall likewise haue all the glory I can gieue him, if
hee lend mee the hearing of my woefull tale, a matter scarce fit for
woman’s shamefastnes to bewray. But since without blushing I haue
so long beene a talkatiue wench (whose words a world hath
delighted in) I will now goe on boldly with my audacious manner: and
so step I on the stage in my shrowdeing sheete as I was buried.]
How Shore’s wife, King Edward the
Fourth’s Concubine, was by King
Richard despoyled of all her goods,
and forced to doe open penaunce.
1.

Among the rest, by fortune ouerthrowne,

I am not least, that most may wayle her fate:
My fame and bruite abroade the world is blowne,
Who can forget, a thing thus done so late?
My great mischaunce, my fall, and heauy state,
Is such a marke, whereat each tongue doth shoote,
That my good name is pluckt vp by the roote.

2.

This wandring world bewitched mee with wyles,

And won my wits, with wanton sugred ioyes:
In fortune’s frekes, who trustes her when shee smiles,
Shall finde her false, and full of fickle toyes,
Her triumphs all, but fill our eares with noyse,
Her flattring giftes, are pleasures mixt with payne,
Yea, all her wordes are thunders threatning rayne.

3.

The fond desire that wee in glory set,

Doth thirle our hearts to hope in slipper hap,
A blast of pompe is all the fruite wee get,
And vnder that lies hid a sodayne clap: