17.13 WIND POWER 713 Pips qt P3*Pi —\ 1 2 3 — Throat Figure 17.20 A schematic diagram illustrating a venturi flow- measuring device. velocity may be determined by knowing the pressure change and the flow rate, determined from 1 = pAv. The throat contraction is small, so the pressure change is also small. If the flow is compressible, the velocity change may be found as follows. If adensity change occurs and must be accounted for, the equation po* = Ccan be used to determine the functional relationship in the following integral. The conservation of energy applied between state 1 and state 2 yields for isen- tropic flow hy + (ke), = hy + (key ¥a_vi, [? 272 + ; vdp where dh = T ds + v dp = v dp for isentropic flow: For incompressible flow, v= C. 7 + 20,(D2 — py)? m/s (17.52a) V2 = [v3 + 2geri(P2 — py)]"? ft/sec (17.52b) The velocity, specific volume, and area being known, the mass flow rate may be calculated. There are other flow-measuring devices, such as orifices, but we will not discuss these or the empirical coefficients that must be included in any study of flow-measur- ing devices. Most fluid dynamics texts cover this area in greater detail. 17.13 WIND POWER The use of wind power as a power source appears attractive for several reasons. First, wind power is a renewable resource, for which the required technology has already been developed. Second, no air, water, or thermal pollution is associated with it. Third, weather modification due to wind utilization is negligible. The drawbacks to wind-power utilization are relatively low efficiencies, high capital costs, noise, aes- thetic problems, and reliability of equipment.14 CHAPTER 17 / FLUID FLOW IN NOZZLES AND TURBOMACHINERY Wind power is not a reliable energy source, the output being a function of the wind velocity. Since wind-velocity fluctuations do not normally coincide with power- requirement variations, most wind-power systems must include energy storage sys- tems. There are several types of wind-driven machines, operating on several different principles. Although each type has its advantages, the onc type that stands out as the most promising is the horizontal-axis, two-bladed propeller wind turbine, illustrated in Figure 17.21. Awind turbine should have the following characteristics: the ability to maintain optimum alignment with the wind; a low starting torque; the ability to endure high winds; and, if used to drive a generator, a high rotational speed. The propeller windmill is almost always either a two- or three-bladed design; the two-bladed design is more widely used because it is strong, simple, and less expensive. The horizontal-axis windmill can be positioned so that the blades lie upwind or downwind of the tower. The downwind design is usually preferred for larger ma- chines, where a tail vane is not practical. On smaller models, a tail vane keeps the blades pointing into the wind. Large windmills are usually steered by a pilot wind vane, coupled to the drive gear, which operates to keep the windmill in constant alignment with the wind. The pilot wind vane is more sensitive to wind shifts than is Wind —_ [PiPilot wind vane Rotor axis Figure 17.21 A two-bladed horizontal windmill.17.13 WIND POWER 715 Force on windmill Figure 17.22 Windmill propeller in a flow field. the large windmill, At the cutout wind speed, the blades are turned edgewise to the wind to protect the machine against damage due to high winds. Let us develop the equations governing the windmill, Figure 17.22 illustrates a windmill propeller located in a moving fluid. When the fluid between planes | and 4 is isolated, the only force acting is that exerted by the fluid on the propeller. The force acting on tne windmill is equal to the pressure drop across the blades. F=(p,—p3)A (17.53) The force is also equal to F= mv, —v4) If we let v be the mean velocity across the blades and p be the air density, F=pvA(vy — v4) (17.54) Combining equations (17.53) and (17.54) yields Pa Ps = pV(Yy — Va) (17.55) Applying the first law to the flow between planes 1 and 2 yields 4, + Dd + $V} = ey + Pad + $V} (17.56) The temperature is constant; hence u, = u, and Pit Spit = Bo t+ 4p.vi (17.57a) Similarly, for planes 3 and 4, Pst $p3v3 = Da + $Dav4 (17.57) Fora windmill operating in an unconfined fluid, pressures p, and p, are equal. Since thisis so, equations (17.56) and (17.57) may be combined, on the assumption that the density is constant and by virtue of the conservation of mass Vj = V2. Pa Py = tAVi— vd) (17.58)716 CHAPTER 17 / FLUID FLOW IN NOZZLES AND TURBOMACHINERY Combining equations (17.55) and (17.58) yields + yom (17.59) ‘The mean velocity across the propeller blades is equal to the average of the upstream and downstream velocities, measured at some distance from the windmill. Thus, the velocity drop through the propeller is the same ahead as behind. The windmill efficiency is the ratio of the power output to the total power available in the airstream of area A and velocity v. This was derived in Chapter 3. avd Power available = 2 ya Power output = inne ait vot =v) a 2v3 The maximum efficiency is found by differentiating 7 with respect to (v,/v,) and setting the result equal to zero. Let (17.60) Me ‘ Then 2 — y2y2) -y 1 SE ey) (rn y’) (761) dn My 3y2 4 2y-1 dy mee The only physically possible solution is y= }. This results in a value of v4/v; = 4, which when substituted in equation (17.61) yields a maximum efficiency of 59.3%. Thisis the maximum percentage of energy that can be used from the available energy, the inlet wind’s kinetic energy. 4 ENERGY TRANSFER IN A TURBOMACHINE The word turbomachine is derived from two Latin words, turbo, a spinning object, and machina, a solid device. If these are combined, the result is a “machine that spins or rotates.” The rotating portion, or rotor, interacts with the fluid that encompasses it. A turbomachine is, therefore, a device that imparts energy to (does work on) or receives energy from (has work done by) a fluid. Sce Figure 17.23 for a simplified sketch noting the rotor; fixed portion, or stator; and fluid flow direction. Thermody- namically, the effect of the energy transfer is manifested as a change in the stagnation enthalpy.