Chapter 6

FOUNDATION CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION

Chapters 6 and 7 both deal with applied aspects of work motivation. The purpose of this chapter,
however, is to present the more basic or underlying theories. The chapter begins with a description of
need theories of motivation, including Maslow’s need hierarchy. The large majority of students have
studied the need hierarchy in at least one other course. Attention then shifts to goal theory and
reinforcement theory, followed by expectancy theory. A description is then presented of how equity
and social comparison contribute to an understanding of motivation. After that is a brief description of
social learning theory, and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The chapter concludes with a discussion
of how selected personality factors are related to motivation.

Learning Objectives

1. Describe several needs theories of motivation including the needs hierarchy, the two-factor
theory, and the achievement-power-affiliation triad.

2. Summarize the key propositions to goal theory and reinforcement theory.

3. Explain the expectancy theory of motivation.

4. Explain how equity and social comparison theory contribute to motivation.

5. Use social learning theory to motivate yourself.

6. Recognize the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.

7. Explain how personality and cultural factors are related to motivation.

Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes

Motivation (in a work setting) is the process by which behavior is mobilized and sustained in the
interest of achieving organizational goals. Expending effort indicates that motivation is present.

I. NEED THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

People are willing to expend effort toward achieving a goal because it satisfies one of their
important needs. The self-interest principle is referred to as “What’s in it for me?” or WIIFM.

A. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs arranges human needs into a pyramid-shaped model with
basic physiological needs at the bottom and self-actualization needs at the top. Lower-order
needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs are activated. The five levels of needs are
as follows:
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Social and love needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualization needs

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A key principle of the need hierarchy is that as needs at a given level are gratified, they lose
their potency (strength). Lower-level needs, however, are still important in motivation.
Examples include concerns about childcare and security threats created by downsizing.
Sweatshop workers, too, still lack basic need satisfaction. Many construction workers
repairing Hurricane Katrina damage had unsatisfied safety and security needs.

B. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

The two-factor theory of work motivation divides job factors into two types: motivators, or
satisfiers, which can motivate and satisfy workers, and dissatisfiers, or hygiene factors,
which can only prevent dissatisfaction.
1. Key points in the theory. The motivational elements are the intrinsic, or job content
factors that make a job exciting. The extrinsic, or job context, factors are hygienic.
Although they are health-maintaining and desirable, they are not motivational. Only the
presence of motivator factors leads to more positive, energized behavior. If intrinsic
factors such as challenging work are not present, the result is neutral rather than
negative. Although the presence of hygiene factors is not motivational, their absence can
cause dissatisfaction.
2. Evaluation. The two-factor theory has made managers aware of a variety of motivators
and has contributed immensely to job design in the form of job enrichment. Yet the
theory de-emphasizes individual differences, and glosses over the importance of hygiene
factors in attracting and retaining workers. The two-factor theory also neglects the reality
that some workers show no particular interest in such motivators as opportunity for
growth and advancement.

C. McClelland’s Achievement-Power-Affiliation Triad

McClelland and his associates have presented additional needs that influence job behavior.
People acquire or learn certain needs from their culture. When a need is strong enough, it
prompts a person to engage in work activities to satisfy it.
1. The need for achievement. The need for achievement is the desire to accomplish
something difficult for its own sake. Individuals with a strong need for achievement
figure out how to do a job better, set realistic goals, take calculated risks, and desire
feedback on performance.
2. The need for power. The need for power is the desire to control other people, to
influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them. Managers with a strong need for
power like to control resources in addition to people.
3. The need for affiliation. The need for affiliation is the desire to establish and maintain
friendly and warm relationships with others.

The acquired needs theory has made an important contribution to identifying needs related to
managerial performance, such as successful executives having a strong need for power. The
most direct application of needs theories for managing and leading people is that to get the most
from workers’ talents, it is necessary to “push their hot buttons.”

II. GOAL THEORY

The core finding of goal theory is: Individuals who are provided with specific hard goals perform
better than those given easy, nonspecific, “do your best,” or no goals. At the same time, however,
the individual must have sufficient ability, accept the goals, and receive feedback related to the
task. A goal is what a person is trying to accomplish. Following are consistent findings about
goal theory:
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1. Specific goals lead to higher performance than do generalized goals.

2. Performance generally increases in direct proportion to goal difficulty. Superordinate goals,
(overarching goals that capture the imagination of people) are also important.
3. For goals to improve performance, the worker must accept them.
4. Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate performance.
5. Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards.
6. Deadlines improve the effectiveness of goals.
7. A learning-goal orientation improves performance more than a performance goal orientation.
8. Group goal setting is as important as individual goal setting.

One explanation for the value of goals is that they establish a discrepancy between the real and
the ideal. The accompanying arousal and tension prompts the person to achieve the goal. An
effective way to apply goal theory is for the manager to set short-term goals, or encourage others
to do the same. The short-term goals should support the organization’s long-term goals.

III. REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Reinforcement theory is the contention that behavior is determined by its consequences. The
consequences are rewards and punishments people receive for behaving in particular ways.
The manager looks for rewards that will encourage certain behaviors, and punishments that
discourage other behaviors. At the foundation of reinforcement theory is operant
conditioning, or learning that takes place as a consequence of behavior. People repeat
behaviors that bring them pleasurable outcomes and avoid behaviors that lead to
uncomfortable outcomes.

Positive reinforcement is the application of a pleasurable or valued consequence when a person

exhibits the desired response. Reinforcement refers to strengthening a response. Avoidance
motivation (or avoidance learning) is rewarding people by taking away an uncomfortable
consequence. (The same process is referred to as negative reinforcement.) Extinction is the
weakening or decreasing the frequency of undesirable behavior by removing the reward for such
behavior. It is the absence of reinforcement. Punishment is the presentation of an undesirable
consequence for a specific behavior.

IV. EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

According to expectancy theory, motivation results from deliberate choices to engage in
activities in order to achieve worthwhile outcomes. People will be well motivated if they
believe that effort will lead to good performance and good performance will lead to preferred
outcomes.

A. Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

Each component is found in each situation involving motivation. An expectancy is a
person’s subjective estimate of the probability that a given level of performance will occur.
The effort-to-performance (E→P) expectancy refers to the individual’s subjective hunch that
increased effort will lead to the desired response. The importance of having high
expectancies for motivation meshes well with a conception of work motivation that
emphasizes the contribution of self-efficacy.

An instrumentality is the individual’s estimate of the probability that performance will lead
to certain outcomes. The (P→O) instrumentality refers to the person’s subjective evaluation
of the chances that good performance will lead to certain outcomes. Performance leads to
multiple outcomes.
Chapter 6/Foundation Concepts of Motivation 39

Valence refers to the value a person places on a particular outcome. People attach positive
valences to rewards and negative valences to punishments. As presented here, valences range
from +100 to –100.

B. The Calculation of Motivation

Motivation force (or M) = (E→P) × (P→O) × V (V is valence). Motivation can be high only
if all three values are high, and motivation will be zero if any component is zero. Yet the
simple formula just presented does not tell the entire story because each task involves
multiple expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences. Desirable and undesirable outcomes
may cancel one another.

To create a situation of high motivation, the manager should take steps to elevate
expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences. For example, training could elevate
expectancies.

C. The Influence of Affect on Expectancy Theory

Positive affect may exert influence on the components of expectancy theory, as suggested by
two laboratory studies with 97 college students. The task was solving anagrams, and mood
was manipulated by giving members of the experimental group a bag of candy. (Don’t
worry, human rights were not violated. The control group received its bag of candy after the
experiment.) When the link between performance and outcomes was specified, being the
positive affect group increased expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences.

V. EQUITY THEORY AND SOCIAL COMPARISON

According to equity theory, employee satisfaction and motivation depend on how fairly people
believe they are treated in comparison to peers. Employees hold certain beliefs about the outputs
they receive from their jobs and the inputs they invest to obtain these outcomes. The core of
equity theory is that employees compare their inputs and outputs (make social comparisons) with
others in the workplace. When they feel they are being treated equitably, they are more willing to
work hard. When employees feel they are not receiving equitable outcomes, they become
dissatisfied and tense.

Equity exists when an individual concludes that his or her own outcome/input ratio is equal
to that of other people. The highest motivation occurs when a person has outcome/input ratios
equal to those of the comparison person. When people perceive an inequity, they are likely to
engage in one of the following actions:
1. Alter the outcomes. An example would be asking for more salary.
2. Alter the inputs. An example would be decreasing effort.
3. Distort the perception. People can distort their perception of their own or others’ inputs or
outputs.
4. Change the reference source. The person finds another reference source whose
outcome/input ratio is similar to one’s own.
5. Leave the situation. The person who feels treated inequitably might quit a job.

Equity theory has much face validity and has direct relevance for pay systems.

VI. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

People learn various behaviors by observing and imitating others, and are motivated to repeat
those behaviors in the future. Social learning is the process of observing the behavior of others,
recognizing its consequences, and altering behavior as a result. Individual behavior is influenced
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by a combination of a person’s cognitions and social environment. Effective social learning takes
place when:
1. The person has high expectations about learning the behavior and high instrumentalities that
the learned behavior will lead to a reward. The person must have high self-efficacy.
2. Self-administration of rewards takes place, including extrinsic rewards.
3. The behavior to be learned involves mostly tangible mechanical and verbal activities such as
physical and interpersonal tasks.
4. The person possesses the physical and mental ability needed to imitate the behavior. In social
learning, part of the motivation for learning and repeating the target behavior is to receive
approval from significant people in the work environment.

VII. INTRINSIC VERSUS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Motivating people through interesting work is based on the principle of intrinsic motivation. It
refers to a person’s beliefs about the extent to which an activity can satisfy his or her needs for
competence and self-determination. People who highly value work tend to be intrinsically
motivated.

A. The Rationale behind Intrinsic Motivation Theory

Intrinsic motivation is also referred to as self-determination theory, the idea that people are
motivated when they experience a sense of choice in initiating and regulating behavior their
actions. Also, intrinsic motivation increases when people perceive that they perform tasks for
themselves rather than for an external reward.

When an individual performs a task to achieve an external reward, a shift occurs. The
individual believes that the external reward caused the behavior, and that money or
recognition is now controlling his or her actions. The worker no longer perceives that he or
she is self-determining. As a result, intrinsic motivation may decrease.

Intrinsic motivation is necessary for self-management because self-management implies that

you find your work rewarding in itself.

B. Problems Associated with Extrinsic Rewards

At times extrinsic rewards can prompt a person to (a) focus narrowly on a task, (b) rush
through a job to get a reward, (c) regard the task as a drudgery that must be suffered to
receive the reward, and (d) see themselves as less free and self-determining. Despite these
problems, the sensible solution is for managers to balance intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.

Bob Nelson says that intrinsic motivation can be built into an incentive program with goals
that have mutual benefits, such as the employee learning new skills while pursuing a
productivity goal. Also, form a partnership in achieving the goals, and allow for individual
choice in rewards.

VIII. THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY AND CULTURE ON MOTIVATION

Two examples of traits that predispose people to being well motivated are conscientiousness and
the achievement need. A study involving 164 telemarketers at a financial services firm provides
empirical evidence for the link between the Five Factor Model of personality and motivation.
Motivation was measured in relation to three factors: communion striving, status striving, and
accomplishment striving. Among the findings were that (a) extraversion correlated with
communion striving and status striving, (b) conscientiousness correlated with accomplishment
striving and status striving, (c) extraversion and conscientiousness correlated with sales
performance, and (d) status striving and accomplishment striving correlated with sales
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performance. The study demonstrated that personality factors correlated with motivation, and
both personality factors and motivation are related to sales performance.

Cross-cultural factors typically influence which rewards or outcomes are likely to have the
highest valence for a particular cultural group. Hispanic people, for example, generally favor
outcomes that enable them to maintain cordial relations with other members of the work group.
American managers are urged to be careful in assuming that rewards are effective in their culture
necessarily work well in other cultures. As Nancy Adler notes, expectancy theory depends on the
extent to which workers believe they have control over the outcome of their efforts, and how
much faith they have in leaders to deliver rewards.

IX. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERIAL PRACTICE

Expectancy theory includes components from other theories, and has key implications for
managers. Determine what levels and kinds of performance are needed to achieve organizational
goals. Train and encourage people. Understand individual differences in valences. Also, use
positive reinforcement rather than punishment.