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The Patrick Moore Practical
Astronomy Series

Series Editor
John Watson

More information about this series at http://​www.​springer.​com/​

series/​3192
John Stephen Hicks

Building a Roll-Off Roof or Dome

Observatory
A Complete Guide for Design and
Construction
2nd ed. 2016
John Stephen Hicks
Keswick, ON, Canada

ISSN 1431-9756 e-ISSN 2197-6562

ISBN 978-1-4939-3010-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4939-3011-1

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-3011-1

Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015947505

© Springer-Verlag New York 2016

The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names,

trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply,
even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and
therefore free for general use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that
the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and
accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or
omissions that may have been made.

Cover illustration: Cover Photo by Gordon Rife, Astrophotography,

Ontario, Canada

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer Science+Business Media LLC New York is part of Springer

Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
This second edition, including dome observatories, is dedicated to
my longtime friend and mentor in astronomy, Jack Newton. Jack is
to be credited with introducing me to the fascinating study of
astronomy and the long journey over 35 years I have had in
discovering the wonders of the night and daytime sky. The study of
astronomy has opened windows to new friends, star parties, and
eclipse travels that have enriched my life. This book is the
culmination of 35 years of progressive design of observatories, by
trial and error, to what I believe are the two most popular designs,
most sought-for by amateur astronomers.
Preface
Building a Roll-Off Roof or Dome Observatory has required several
years in all to write, redrafting many diagrams and descriptions to
arrive at the most practical and universal model illustrated in this
book. At various stages, it was delayed for want of more information
on existing observatories and at others carried forward again by a
rush of newfound techniques. The prevailing private observatory
models you see today involve the roll-off roof mechanism, but the
ultimate goal in observatory ownership is the dome observatory—the
historically recognized structure. There are a multitude of designs
invented to achieve the same result, but only a few good ones,
which consumed most of my research effort. Also, all things
considered, no one writes a technical book on his own, and at
various stages I happily reflect on the people who inspired me to
undertake this work.
My beginnings in astronomy were unquestionably launched by
the Royal Astronomical Society, Toronto Centre, almost 20 years ago,
and by a single individual, Jack Newton, whose extraordinary
enthusiasm for astrophotography and observatory building swept me
up into a new pursuit. As years went on, attending the annual—
Starfest—astronomy convention hosted by the North York
Astronomical Association, and the Huronia Star Party Convention in
Ontario, Canada, I was an occasional speaker talking about the
design of observatories. Various refinements in the construction of
these prototypes led to the ultimate design and creation of my own
models that have stood the test of time. My wife, conscripted to help
in construction, was indeed patient and understanding to put up
with the countless hours of diagrams produced at the dinner table,
and the geometry that was required to design such structures. As
the observatory dome took shape from a skeleton of curved
aluminum angle, she was always there to hold a wrench or brace a
rib while it was riveted to the curved panels. Many a wrench or rivet
gun found its way into the forest, hurled in frustration well into its
interior from the lofty dome. It has always been a mystery to me
how she endured those hot humid worksessions with the sun’s
reflection so strong it burnt our eyelids. She rightly deserves my
fullest respect for her devotion to a task that was essentially only in
“my mind’s eye.” My first observatory was a domed observatory,
entirely self-designed. We named it “New Forest Observatory”
because of its location in the center of our magnificent pine forest
(Figs. P.1 and P.2 ).
Fig. P.1 John Hicks beside his observatory within a 20 acre pine forest. (Photo by John
Hicks)
Fig. P.2 John Hicks inside the dome beside the main instrument—a 102 mm refractor.
(Photo by John Hicks)
The “prototype” turned out so well that in fact it became an
extension of the telescope you might say. Inside, on sunny
mornings, searching the surface of the Sun with my Lunt and
Coronado hydrogen filters, I felt quite removed from the clamor of
the rest of the world and found real adventure surrounded by the
“machinery” of the observatory. Lured by its presence against the
forest backdrop, I found it hard to do my usual work, and many a
client took second place to an observing run in my beautiful
observatory. As time went on with improvements, I felt compelled to
share the design with others, so I embarked on selling plans for the
structure far and wide. Little did I know that hundreds of plan sets
would find their way around the world to places like Iceland, Africa,
India, and even Australia. It was a real pleasure to share my
inspiration with others just starting on the same journey. My first
design for a real customer was a request from Don Trombino in
Deltona, Florida, who asked me to design a Roll-Off Roof
Observatory for solar astronomy.
Don and I were both avid solar astronomers with special
requirements for refractors, especially long-focus refractors, which
suited the incredible hydrogen alpha filters produced by Daystar
Corporation, then in California. The model in this book closely
mirrors that which I designed for Don, which he dedicated as the
“Davis Memorial Observatory” in memory of a close friend. We wrote
articles together on “Shooting The Sun” and published articles and
photos over the years in Astronomy Magazine (Figs. P.3 and P.4 ).
Fig. P.3 Sir Patrick Moore visits Don Trombino’s Observatory in Deltona, Florida.
(Courtesy of Jeff Pettitt)

Fig. P.4 Don seated in the observatory finishing a solar observation and reading his notes.
(Courtesy of Jeff Pettitt)
Don Trombino passed away in 1995, and I must believe his
observatory still stands even as an elaborate garden pergola. I say
this because he had self-designed an attractive patio under the
gantry which held the rolled-off roof. He entertained many
prominent guests under this enclosure celebrating his new
observatory. Among them was Sir Patrick Moore. The most satisfying
aspect of promoting a design is the conversations with clients who
seek your help. Many situations arise that one never expects. Take
the case of a Manhattan astronomer who had cut a hole in his roof
for the observatory.
He called me in desperation with the building inspector and fire
marshal at his door. They were demanding to know just what he was
up to, perforating a large part of his roof. In a hysterical mood, he
passed the telephone over to the fire marshal who inquired of me
just what kind of structure the man was adding to his roof. I replied
“an observatory of course!” I explained that I was a designer and
supplier of plan kits for observatory structures all over the world.
The “all over the world part” seemed to appease him somewhat, but
he still wanted to know what qualifications I had. He was of course
concerned over the draught potential created by the open roof in
case of a fire. But I quickly informed him that it had to be sealed
with a floor and trap door, in order for it to function properly anyway,
as it must remain at ambient air temperature. This precaution
seemed to provide him with the confidence he needed, and he left
the telephone.
I presume all went well from there on as I was never asked for a
set of plans by the fire marshal, or any other Manhattan agency.
I cannot overlook the inspiration which followed, from my good
friend Walter Wrightman, endowed with a talent in both
craftsmanship and inventiveness. Walter walked into my life after I
had completed my first domed observatory, wanting to build one of
his own. He was well on into old age, suffered from diabetes, and
some disability in walking. Yet bounded by these restrictions he
designed and built, by himself, a most unique domed observatory.
Walter had no formal education past grade 8, drove a cement truck
most of his later working life, and took up the science of astronomy
like no one I have ever met. Walter and I spent luncheons and
coffee breaks for the next few years discussing ways and means of
creating better observatories. We went to star parties far and wide
to glean ideas, studied the night sky together, and were both so
proud of the two observatories we had created. We became known
locally, at least around the Town of Newmarket, Ontario, as the
Observatory Specialists. We even talked about prefabricating the
domes worldwide and traveling to exotic places to site them, all the
while meeting the enthusiastic people caught up in a similar rapture.
It never happened. Walter eventually died almost blind and unable
to move outside the room that imprisoned him. He never stopped
talking about observatories nor the various ways to improve the
structures. Eventually, his observatory was sold to a friend, who was
happy to buy such an exceptional model. I miss his friendship, and
his overwhelming devotion to astronomy and the building of
observatories.
I cannot help but credit him with being the second most
influential person toward the writing of this book. I hope such
inspiration spreads over to you, the prospective—inventor—of such a
structure, for inventor you will be, certainly in the eyes of others
who may watch you build it. And remember, before you dedicate its
use to just an observatory, it will also serve as a great garden patio
enclosure, thanks to my innovative friend, Don Trombino. I credit
Don also for most of my inspiration for writing and the idea of
launching a book. My only regret is that he is not alive to finally see
it. He would have been really proud to see his observatory that he
treasured so well, finally in print.
John Stephen Hicks
Keswick, ON, Canada
Acknowledgments
Photo Credits
Throughout the United States and Canada, I searched for owners of
Roll-Off and Dome Observatories who had applied their skills to
create designs that I would recommend to readers. In the Second
Edition that search expanded to retail suppliers of Roll-Off Roof and
Dome Observatories to provide options for those astronomers who
felt reluctant to build their own observatory, or at least all of it. That
search consumed most of my time in the process of writing this
book, and proved to be a necessity. A design/build book would be
uninteresting without images of actual observatories owned mostly
by amateurs—people who are not by profession carpenters, builders,
or contractors. Their innovative ideas sparked a lot of my enthusiasm
for the task that lay ahead of me. Frankly, their creativity opened
paths for many new ideas on techniques that I will use in future
designs. For their generosity in supplying photos and descriptions I
am most thankful. I know they will feel gratified seeing their
particular model exhibited in the book, inspiring others with new
construction ideas.
The following observatory owners and suppliers offered photos
and/or assistance:
Jack Newton (Arizona Sky Village), Arizona
Donald Trombino (1998), Florida, USA
Richard Kelsch, Ontario, Canada
Gordon Rife (Cover Photo) Ontario, Canada
Mike Hood, Georgia, USA
Bob Luffel, IDAHO, USA
Jay Ballauer, Texas, USA
Greg Mort, Maryland, USA
Larry McHenry, Pennsylvania, USA
 Rob Bower, Keswick, Ontario
Gerald Dyck, Massachusetts, USA
Jeff Pettitt, Florida, USA
Terry Ussher, Ontario, Canada
Guy Boily, Quebec, Canada
Doug Clapp, Ontario, Canada
Dave Petherick, Ontario, Canada
Paul Smith (1995), Ontario, Canada
Danny Driscoll, Ontario, Canada
Andreas Gada, North York Astronomical Association (NYAA),
Ontario, Canada
Calvin Cassel Jr. USA
Alan Otterson (Albuquerque Astronomy Society, USA)
Walter Wrightman, Ontario, Canada
Brian Colville, Maple Ridge Observatory, Ontario, Canada
Art Whipple, Maryland, USA
Tatsuro Matsumoto, Japan
Jerry Smith, Home Dome Observatories, USA
Gary Walker, Pulsar Observatories, Norfolk, UK, and USA
Wayne Parker, Sky shed Observatories

Products
Companies and Suppliers that offered brochures and advice on their
products include:
Andex Metal Products, Suppliers of Sheet Steel Roofing, Exeter,
Ontario
Layton Roofing, Keswick, Ontario, Canada
Bestway Casters, Gormley, Ontario, Canada
Harken (Sailing Blocks, etc.) Wisconsin, USA
 Schell-Ace Building Centre, Sutton, Ontario
Sky Shed Observatories, Ontario, Canada
Pulsar Observatories, Norfolk, UK, and USA
Home Dome Observatories, USA
Astro Engineering USA
Skywatcher Telescopes Ontario, Canada
Losmandy Astronomical Products, USA
DeMuth Steel Products (Domes), Ontario, Canada and USA
Arizona Sky Village, Portal, USA
Canadian Wood Frame Construction, Central Mortgage and
Housing Corporation, Ontario, Canada
Home Renovations, Francis D.K. Ching & Dale E. Miller, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New Jersey, USA

Disclaimer
The author has made every effort to insure that all instructions given
in this book are accurate and safe, but cannot accept liability for any
injury, damage, or loss to either person or property—whether direct
or consequential—resulting from the use of these plans and
instructions. The author, however, will be grateful for any information
that will assist him in improving the clarity and use of these
instructions.

Jobsite Safety Provision

The author’s instructions as written in the book, carried out on the
construction site, shall not relieve the owner, or General Contractor
of its obligations, duties, and responsibilities, including, but not
limited to construction means, methods, sequence, techniques, or
procedures, necessary for performing, superintending, and
coordinating the Work in accordance with the plans, diagrams, and
text in the book, and any health or safety procedures required by
any regulatory agency. The author has no authority to exercise any
control over any construction contractor or its employees in
connection with their work or any health or safety programs or
procedures. The owner agrees that he or his General Contractor
shall be solely responsible for jobsite safety, and warrants that this
intent shall be carried out in any contract he has with the General
Contractor. The owner also agrees that the Author and the Publisher
shall be indemnified by the General Contractor, if any, and shall be
made additional insureds under the General Contractor’s Policies of
General Liability Insurance.
Full-Size Construction Plans are available from the author –
please send e-mail or request To: John Hicks, P.O. Box 75, Keswick,
ONT L4P 3E1, Canada jsh@interhop.net
Contents
Part I The Roll-Off Roof Observatory

1 The Benefits of a Permanent Observatory

Pros and Cons:​The Dome Versus the Roll-Off Roof

Roll-Off Roof Variations:​The Sky Is the Limit

Observatory Kits and Complete Observatory Fabricators

Other Types of Roll-Off Roof Observatories

Observing Sheds

2 Observatory Design Considerations

Size and Internal Space Required

Advantages of a Roll-Off Roof Observatory

Questions to Ask Before You Begin

Overall Site Requirements

Zoning:​The Surrounding Land Use

Zoning:​Limitations on Your Own Property

Ownership Versus Leasing

Comparison of Roll-Off Roof and Domed Observatories

The Prestige of Ownership

3 Options for Foundation Types and Laying Out the
Observatory “Footprint”

Slab Footing Versus Sono Tube Footings

Preparing the Site and Orienting the Observatory

Measuring and Squaring the Building Footprint

Note

4 Fabricating the Telescope Pier

Combining a Concrete Pier Footing with Upper Metal Pier

Full Length Concrete Pier

Notes

5 Preparing the Footings and the Observatory Floor

The Concrete Slab Floor

The Sono-Tube Footings Floor

Observatory Floor Framing

Combining a Poured Cement Observatory Floor with Sono-

Tube Footings Under the Gantry

Converting the Gantry Section into an Outdoor Patio

Installing the Floor

6 Framing the Walls

Constructing and Erecting the Walls

Choosing, Locating, and Installing a Door

Installing the Metal Pier Top

7 Framing the Gantry Section

8 Fabricating the Track and Base Plate

Installing the Track

Alternative Track Designs

Track Ends and Stops

9 Framing the Roof

The Assembly Process

Construction of the Caster Plate

Calculating the Rafter Lengths

Framing Sequence (Layout of the Rafters on the Caster

Plate)

Further Reading

10 Applying the Steel Roofing

Tools and Equipment

Applying the Sheet Steel

11 Applying Exterior Siding and Interior Wall sheathing

Exterior Siding

Gable Vents and Fan Systems

Interior Wall Sheathing

12 Final Luxuries

A Winch System for Opening and Closing the Roof

Comfort Items

Part II The Dome Observatory

13 Dome Design Materials and Construction Methods

Design and Construction Considerations

Commonly Used Materials and Construction Techniques

An Outstanding Dome Design

The Warm Room Addition

Overall Site Requirements

14 Commercial Models and Kits

The SkyShed POD and POD MAX

The Pulsar Observatory and Technical Innovations ‘Home

Dome’ Observatories

15 Plans and Construction Steps Toward Building a Dome

Observatory

Introduction

Basic Observatory Parts List

Fabricating the Metal Pier

Site Preparation, Pouring the Concrete Base, Pier and Floor

Slab
Framing the Cylindrical Base, Walls, and Pre-hung Entry
Door

Fabricating the Track and V-Groove Caster Assembly

Preparing the Dome Framework, Roller Bending and

Welding Requirements

Assembly of the Dome and Applying the Aluminum Panels

Construction of the Slot Door Frame, Slot Door, and its

Wheels

Construction of the Elevated Observing Floor

Lifting the Dome onto the Track, Securing the Dome, and
Adding the Skirt

Weatherproofing the Structure

Final Luxuries and Interior Fixtures

Maintenance

Appendix

End Notes

Glossary

Index
About the Author
John Stephen Hicksis
a senior Landscape
Architect specializing in
Provincial Park Site
Planning and
environmental assessment.
His spare time is spent
managing his own forest
and wildlife area, along
with studying the surface
of the Sun in his private
observatory on his home
property. Through the
design and construction of his own observatory, he developed a
complete package of construction plans which he has marketed
worldwide.
Guest speaker at astronomy conventions in Ontario, Canada,
John has for many years promoted the idea of building your own
observatory, refining the process to the steps outlined in this book.
He also designs and builds his own refracting and reflecting
telescopes, again with plans to follow.
His special interest in astronomy is in the realm of solar
observing and photography. For 25 years he has employed various
Hydrogen alpha filters to examine the solar chromosphere, all the
while improving photographic techniques toward capturing what the
eye actually sees. He photographs flares, activity areas, and
prominence dancing on the edge of the Sun. His astronomical
presentations to astronomers are split between solar H-alpha
techniques and observatory design and construction. He welcomes
any inquiry on either subject, always interested in assisting people
involved in astronomy.
Part I
The Roll-Off Roof Observatory
© Springer-Verlag New York 2016
John Stephen Hicks, Building a Roll-Off Roof or Dome Observatory, The Patrick
Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-3011-1_1

1. The Benefits of a Permanent

Observatory
John Stephen Hicks1
(1) Keswick, ON, Canada

Any astronomer familiar with setting up an equatorial telescope will

realize the time required to level, polar align, and prepare an
instrument for an observing session. In the case of a non-
computerized system, the tasks involved with centering Polaris with
its required off-set for the North Celestial Pole is daunting enough
night after night. Even with a computer-assisted “scope,” set-up time
still involves the usual lugging of equipment out-of-doors from either
residence or vehicle (although polar alignment is greatly reduced
with computer alignment hardware). Final assembly can still stretch
patience with the attachment of battery, dew heaters, and a myriad
of wires connecting all the apparatus. Additional to all of this, many
observers still have to carry out and assemble an observing table
complete with sky charts, red light, lens case, camera and film. After
completing this Herculean effort, particularly in northern latitudes,
an astronomer usually begins to feel cold and exhausted while a
degree of anxiety increases to finally use the instrument. This is
often the prelude to damaging equipment or injury through acting
too hastily with impatience. Repetition of such set-up experiences
eventually discourages most observers who eventually reduce the
frequency of their observing sessions, or trade the heavy equipment
for lighter instruments with less aperture. The “lightening up”
process works opposite to the usual “aperture-fever” affliction that
burdens most astronomers with greater diameter lenses and mirrors
and their subsequent weight increase. Under normal circumstances,
amateur astronomers also find themselves observing out in the
wind, in the cold, and eventually using an instrument that is covered
with dew. In order to eliminate the majority of these unwanted
effects, one really needs a permanent observatory. Simple forms of
observatories are available, but almost of them also require a set-up
time, offer little weather protection, and are not quite as “portable”
as advertised. The primary decision involved with observatory design
rests between choosing either a domed-type or a roll-off roof type
structure. Both have distinct advantages however, depending on
your personal observing needs—including the requirement for an all-
sky view, protection from the environment, and degree of privacy.
There are other design options for simple observatories such as the
“clam shell roof,” the new cylindrical domes, and various types of
shelters or housings that roll away to expose the telescope. Although
these may be simpler to construct, they most often expose the
observer to the elements, and are more difficult to weather-seal
when not in use.

Pros and Cons: The Dome Versus the Roll-

Off Roof
Many owners of the roll-off roof type prefer an all-sky view, and are
willing to tolerate the residual effects of wind, cold, and less control
over light pollution (without the benefit of being able to select
specific sky segments as with the dome slot). They also may be
interested in hosting large groups, which of course demands the
more spacious accommodation offered by the roll-off model. The
person demanding a high degree of privacy in his viewing may
appreciate the canopy provided by the dome, although the side walls
of a roll-off type observatory still afford a reasonable degree of
privacy. It is hard to concentrate on solar viewing for example when
a host of neighbors watch you set up and enjoy your fumbles.
Solitude is important for concentration and speculation. Admittedly,
the roll-off roof offers a substantial improvement over just an open
observing site, while the domed observatory may further reduce
most annoyances, achieving a completely sheltered structure. The
crucial decision to make in selecting either is one of sky view. If you
want to see the whole sky dome at once, the roll-off is the better
choice (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 The advantage of a completely open observatory—the glorious night sky dome
(Courtesy of Jeff Pettitt )
In addition, the roll-off roof type quickly cools down to ambient
temperature with the entire roof rolled off and the instrument(s)
Another random document with
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used in her subsequent treatment. Applications of faradic electricity,
both with the metallic brush and the moist sponges, were made
every other day. She was persistently and strongly encouraged as to
the certainty of her recovery. Her paralysis, anæsthesia, etc.
gradually disappeared, and in little more than two months she was
able to leave home and go to the country. She has since remained
well, but is more easily fatigued than formerly, and does not feel as
strong in the left side of her body as she did when in perfect health.
At her menstrual period she becomes very nervous.

M——, æt. twenty-three, a well-educated young lady,9 in the autumn

of 1880 had nursed her mother faithfully through a serious illness.
She became anæmic and nervous. Choreic twitchings and
occasional slight spasms were the first symptoms that alarmed her
family. The spasms came on apparently from any over-exertion.
Gradually they became a little more severe in character. Under rest-
treatment, with gentle massage, tonics, and steady feeding, in six
weeks she greatly improved. A few weeks later, however, she again
relapsed, and became worse than she had ever been. The spasms
returned with greater force and frequency. She became unable to
walk, or could only walk a few steps with the greatest difficulty,
although she could stand still quite well. On attempting to step either
forward or backward her head, shoulders, hips, and trunk would jerk
spasmodically and she would appear to give way at the knees. No
true paralysis or ataxia seemed to be present, but locomotion was
impossible, apparently because of irregular clonic spasms affecting
various parts of her body. Eventually she became extremely
hypersæsthetic in various regions (hysterogenic zones), along the
spine, beneath the breasts, in the ovarian area, etc. The slightest
pressure or any applications of heat or cold, electricity, etc. would
generally bring on an attack of spasm.
9 This patient was for a long time under the professional care of George McClellan of
Philadelphia, who has kindly furnished me with some notes. I shall simply give an
outline sketch of the case, describing particularly her epileptoid attack. For several
weeks, during the absence of McClellan from the city, she was attended by M.
O'Hara, and with him I saw her frequently in consultation.
While trying to apply galvanism on one occasion she suddenly
complained of nausea, and her expression changed, becoming
somewhat fixed. Her face became flushed, her limbs and body rigid.
The head and body were thrown backward to a moderate extent.
Next, the shoulders were drawn upward, the head appearing to be
sunk between them; the arms were found to be rigidly extended at
her sides, the wrists partly flexed, and the fingers clenched; the legs
also were spasmodically extended, the thighs drawn together, and
the feet in the equino-varus or hysterical club-foot position.
Phenomena like those described above as visceral spasm now were
observed. The chest, and even the abdomen, were lifted up and
down rapidly, and the respiration became quick, irregular, and
apparently very difficult. Consciousness seemed to be impaired, but
not absolutely lost. The symptoms just described took about one
minute for their exhibition. Muscular relaxation now occurred, and an
interval of calm, lasting about two minutes, followed, during which
the patient spoke, answering one or two questions addressed to her.
After the brief period of repose, however, another phase of the attack
came on. In this the heaving movements of the body and what
appeared to be intense respiratory spasms were the chief features.
This portion of the attack endured scarcely a minute; the patient
came to quickly, and was able to converse. In general, her attacks
were of a similar character.

The drugs used included bromides, iodides, strychnia, chloride of

sodium and gold, zinc salts, iron, etc. etc.; her condition vacillating,
sometimes better, sometimes worse. She was finally placed in bed
by McClellan, and an extension apparatus was employed, under
which treatment, in a little more than one year from the time she was
first attacked with spasm, she recovered.

The permanent or intervallary symptoms of hystero-epilepsy are in

the main the phenomena which have been described when speaking
of the prodromes of this affection. They are, indeed, the whole train
of symptoms—the mental or psychical disorders, the motor, sensory,
reflex, vaso-motor, and isolated phenomena—which have been
described under special heads when considering the general
symptomatology of hysteria. The full-fledged case of hystero-
epilepsy is hysteria with a full array of special permanent hysterical
manifestations, and the great paroxysm superadded. Certain
phenomena are, however, more prominent and of much more
frequent occurrence. Among these are paralysis or paresis, either of
the unilateral or paraplegic variety; hemianæsthesia, including
anæsthesia of all the senses; and contractures, particularly in the
lower extremities.

DURATION AND COURSE.—The duration and course of hystero-epilepsy

are very uncertain; most cases last many years. In a few instances
the hystero-epileptic attacks are all from which the patient suffers;
even in the cases of long duration the general health does not
appear to become greatly impaired.

DIAGNOSIS.—To arrive at a correct diagnosis between hystero-

epilepsy and epilepsy is sometimes very difficult. The fact that the
patient is a male does not decide for epilepsy. In making this
diagnosis close attention should be given to—1, The history and the
causes of the disease; 2, the physical and mental condition of the
patient; 3, above all, the phenomena of the spasmodic attacks.

In hystero-epilepsy a careful study of the history of the case will often

elicit a moral cause. The patients rarely injure themselves seriously
by falling, whereas in true epilepsy they often suffer from severe
injuries. The mental and physical health of a person suffering from
hystero-epilepsy differs widely from that of the true epileptic. In
hystero-epilepsy the number of attacks has little or no apparent
influence on the patient's mental or physical condition. Little or no
deterioration of the mind occurs. The memory is not much impaired.
Hystero-epileptics are usually well nourished and frequently of good
physique. This is not the case in true epilepsy; the number of attacks
has a decided effect on the patient's mental condition. The demented
appearance of the old epileptic is well known, whereas in the
hystero-epileptic nothing in physiognomy or carriage indicates that
the patient has been suffering from any disease. It cannot be said
that all epileptics have no mental power, but some deterioration of
the mind usually occurs, and becomes well marked as the case
progresses.

The paroxysms in epilepsy are very well marked, especially if it is

epilepsy of the grave form. They are often ushered in with a scream.
The patient suddenly falls, and at times is severely injured. The
convulsion is generally violent, rapidly alternating from clonic to tonic
spasm, without special phases or periods. Complete and profound
loss of consciousness, with great distortion of face and eyes, is
present. The tongue is frequently bitten. After the attack the patient
passes into a deep stupor. In hystero-epilepsy usually the seizure
does not begin with a scream or sudden fall, the convulsion has
periods and phases, and the tongue is not bitten.

It is said that in hystero-epilepsy there is no loss of consciousness,

but this is not strictly true. This point is the most difficult one for
physicians to clear up in arriving at a diagnosis, as in many
textbooks complete loss of consciousness is laid down as the
strongest evidence of epilepsy. Loss of consciousness does occur in
hystero-epilepsy, particularly in certain varieties. Richer says that the
loss of consciousness is complete during the entire epileptoid period
in a case of the regular type. To decide as to consciousness or
unconsciousness is not as easy as might be supposed. Varying
degrees of consciousness may be present. At times in hystero-
epileptic attacks the patient may respond to some external
influences and not to others. Consciousness is perverted or
obtunded often, and it is hard to decide whether the patient is
positively and entirely unconscious of her surroundings. In epilepsy
the loss of consciousness is profound and easily determined. In
regard to the distortion of the face and eyes, this sign is usually
absent in hystero-epilepsy, as in the German Hospital case, in which
the patient had a series of violent seizures lasting two hours, with
marked opisthotonos, yet the facial expression remained calm and
serene throughout.
In hystero-epilepsy the attacks are rarely single; usually they are
repeated, constituting the hystero-epileptic status. They are more
frequently repeated than in epilepsy, although it is of course well
known that there is an epileptic status terrible in character. In a
series of hystero-epileptic attacks usually the seizures come on in
rapid succession, the interval being brief. These series are apt to last
for hours or days. The attacks that compose a series in hystero-
epilepsy vary in duration and in violence. At first they are of violent
character; toward the end the seizures may gain in extent, but they
are likely to lose in intensity.

Charcot and Bourneville make a strong diagnostic point between

hystero-epilepsy and true epilepsy of the fact that in epilepsy there is
a peculiar rise of temperature during the convulsion, even to 104° F.,
whereas in hystero-epilepsy the temperature is nearly or quite
normal.

Arrest of attacks by ovarian compression in females, and by nerve

compression, nitrite of amyl, and the application of electric currents,
can be brought about in hystero-epilepsy, and not in epilepsy. A
study of the effect of bromides may assist in arriving at a diagnosis.
The action of bromides, drugs which are often used in both
affections, favors the opinion that the two diseases are distinct.
Bromides, according to Charcot and Richer, so effective in epilepsy,
are without effect in hystero-epilepsy. Dujardin-Beaumetz, however,
on the other hand, declares that “who says hysteria says bromides,”
and also that at the present time there is not an hysterical patient but
has taken bromides, the bromide of potassium being most frequently
used. The truth is, that bromides may be useful for temporary
purposes, for certain phases and symptoms of the disease, but
produce no radical permanent improvement in the disease hystero-
epilepsy.

D. Webster Prentiss,10 in reporting a case, gives some good points of

distinction between real and hysterical tetanus, which is practically
hystero-epilepsy. In his case, which was hysterical, the attack was
ushered in by noise in the ears, deafness, and blindness, whereas in
true tetanus and strychnia-poisoning the senses are preternaturally
acute. There was unconsciousness during the paroxysm, which does
not occur except just before death in the other affections. The eyes
were closed during the spasms; they stare wildly open in the other
diseases. The patient had long, uninterrupted sleep at night; in true
tetanus no such relief comes until convalescence.
10 American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 1879.
 FIG. 25.

The figure is a representation of the opisthotonos of tetanus.11 It is

the sketch of a soldier, struck with opisthotonos after having been
wounded in the head; and in connection with it I will briefly call
attention to the points of differential diagnosis as given by Richer,
and which have been confirmed by my own observations. In the
opisthotonos of tetanus the contraction of the face and the peculiar
grin are distinguishing points, and are well represented in Bell's
sketch. In the hysterical arched position, while the jaws may be
strongly forced together, the features are most often without
expression. The contracture of the face and the distortion of the
features will be met with more often in the other varieties of
contortion. The curvature of the trunk differs but little in the two
cases, but the abdominal depression observed in the sketch of Bell
is far removed from the tympanitic appearance present in the
majority of hystero-epileptics. In the tetanic cases the patient rests
only on the heels, while in the hysterical cases the knees are slightly
flexed, and the patients are usually supported on the bed by the
soles of the feet.
11 From Sir Charles Bell's Anatomy and Physiology of Expression as connected with
the Fine Arts.
Hystero-epileptics are often suspected of simulation. Richer refers to
many facts which seem to throw out conclusively the idea of
simulation. Among these are the results obtained by æsthesiogenic
agents, the experiments in hypnotism, where many of the results
produced could not be simulated. Some English authors—and
among them notably the physiologist Carpenter—have endeavored
to find the explanation of the results obtained by the æsthesiogenic
agents in a special action of the moral on the physical nature which
they designate expectant attention. While the reality of the action of
expectant attention in certain cases will not be denied, it cannot be
invoked to explain satisfactorily all the phenomena. The patients are
not aware of the results sought; which, indeed, in some cases, are
contrary to the expectations of the observer himself.

PROGNOSIS.—A few cases of hystero-epilepsy get well, either with or

without treatment, in a short time. Some cases, which in addition to
the grave attack have had in the intervals the other striking
symptoms of major hysteria, such as hemianæsthesia and
contractures, get well only after many months or years; some never
recover, although, as a rule, they do not die from anything directly
connected with the disease, but from some accident or more
commonly from some intercurrent disorder. Cases supposed to be
cured often relapse. The patient may be apparently well for months,
or even years, when under some exciting cause the old disorder is
again aroused. On the whole, the prognosis is more serious the
longer the case has endured. Family history and environment have
much to do with determining the prognosis.

TREATMENT.—In considering the treatment of hystero-epilepsy I will,

in the main, confine my attention to a discussion of the methods of
managing and treating the convulsive seizures. With reference to the
numerous special phenomena of this disease, the directions given
and the suggestions made in the general article on Hysteria will be
equally applicable in this connection.

Ruault12 has recently recommended compression of a superficial

nerve-trunk in order to terminate an attack of hysteria or hystero-
epilepsy. The face being always accessible, he prefers making
pressure on the infraorbital nerves as they emerge from their
foramina, but he has also compressed the ulnar nerve behind the
inner condyle of the humerus. In a brief note to the Philadelphia
Neurological Society, made Feb. 23, 1884, I called attention to the
value of strong nerve-pressure for the relief of hysterical contracture,
and can confirm from several successes Ruault's recommendation
for the employment of the same measure to avert convulsive attacks.
12 La France médicale, vol. lxxxvi., p. 885.

Thiery13 of the Saint Pierre Hospital, Brussels, arrests paroxysms by

what he calls torsion of the abdominal walls. He grasps in his hands
the walls of the abdomen and imparts to them a certain kind of
torsion, which he gradually increases. This treatment is practically
the same as the deep ovarian pressure of Charcot. This
compression of the ovary on the side of the seat of the lesion
ordinarily will arrest immediately the convulsions. The patient is
extended horizontally, and the physician plunges the closed fist into
the iliac fossa, often using great force to overcome the muscular
resistance. Poiner has invented an apparatus called a compressor of
the ovaries, which can sometimes be used with advantage.
13 Medical and Surgical Reporter, Oct. 7, 1876.

Nitrate of amyl is undoubtedly of value in averting grave hysterical

attacks—convulsions, trance, ecstasy, pseudo-coma, mania, etc. It is
frequently used with marked success. Its action was studied on a
vast scale at La Salpêtrière. The convulsions usually stop almost
immediately after one, two, or three inhalations. It is to be preferred
to inhalations of chloroform or ether.

Nitro-glycerin can be used in the treatment of the hystero-epileptoid

convulsions. Notes of a very interesting case of hystero-epilepsy in
which this remedy was successfully employed have been furnished
me by David D. Stewart of Philadelphia. The case was one of
hystero-epilepsy with combined crises. Amyl nitrate on several
occasions broke the convulsive attack, but the patient did not
completely regain consciousness. Stewart was called in during an
attack, and found that the patient had been unconscious for an hour
and a quarter. He gave her hypodermically three minims of a 1 per
cent. solution of nitro-glycerin, and another injection after an interval
of about eight minutes. She became conscious within one minute
after the second injection. After this she had two seizures, both of
which occurred on the same day, and yielded with remarkable
promptness to a few minims of nitro-glycerin given by the mouth.
She was put on three minims three times a day of this drug, the dose
being gradually increased. Sufficient time has not elapsed to report
as to the effect of the drug given during the intervals.

Strong faradic currents, applied with metallic electrodes to the soles

of the feet or to the spine, are occasionally efficacious. The galvanic
current to the head has been extensively employed in the service of
Charcot to arrest hysterical and hystero-epileptic attacks of the grave
variety. One electrode is applied to the forehead, the other to any
convenient place upon the body, as the leg, the ovarian region, or
the spine. The current is applied continuously for several minutes, or
voltaic alternations are made. This method has been used with
success in a few instances, but should never be resorted to by a
physician uncertain of his diagnosis or one practically unfamiliar with
the powers and properties of the electrical current.

The question of oöphorectomy for the relief of hystero-epilepsy is

one of increasing importance in these days of major surgery. At the
meeting of the American Neurological Association (June, 1884) G. L.
Walton read a paper14 in which he concludes that hysteria is
sometimes set up by ovarian irritation, and can be relieved by
removing the offending organ. He cited a single case. Carsten15
concludes that it is criminal neglect not to perform Battey's operation
in cases which fail to be benefited by other treatment. In the
discussion which followed the reading of this paper the subject was
well traversed by Spitzka of New York, Putnam of Boston, Putnam-
Jacobi of New York, and others. Spitzka referred to one case of
Israel's of Breslau, in which a patient was cured of hystero-epilepsy
by a sham operation—a superficial incision in the parietes of the
abdomen. Under the title of castration in hysteria the Lancet16 tells of
an hysterical patient who had suffered for years from obstinate
vomiting and severe ovarian pain. She became extremely weak, and
finally consented to spaying as the only hope. The operation—
performed under chloroform with antiseptic precautions—was a
mockery, the skin only being incised; she was, however, perfectly
cured of her hysterical symptoms.
14 “A Contribution to the Study of Hysteria as Bearing on the Question of
Oöphorectomy.”

15 Quoted by Walton from American Journal of Obstetrics, March, 1883.

16 Vol. ii. p. 588.

In two clinical lectures published in the Philadelphia Medical Times17

I have given the histories of two cases of hystero-epilepsy in which
oöphorectomy was resorted to for hystero-epilepsy. In the first of
these cases, in which clitoridectomy was also performed,
nymphomania, which was a distressing symptom, was benefited, but
even this was not completely cured. The following is the patient's
own statement: “Since the removal of the ovaries I have been able to
control the desire when awake, but at times in my sleep I can feel
something like an orgasm taking place. My experience leads me to
say that my cure (?) is not due to the absence of the ovaries; there is
no diminution of the sexual feeling. There would be as much
excitement of the parts if the clitoris were still there. If my will gave
way, I would be as bad as ever.” Her general mental and nervous
condition is much the same as before the operations. She is still
dominated by morbid ideas, still unable to take up any vocation
which demands persistence, and still the frequent subject of hystero-
epileptic seizures.
17 April 18 and May 30, 1885.

The second of these cases was a young girl about seventeen years
old who had never menstruated. She had had epileptic or hystero-
epileptic seizures for several years. An operation was performed in
which the ovaries and Fallopian tubes were removed. Twelve days
after the operation, from which she made a good recovery, she had
four convulsive seizures. She had several attacks subsequently, and
then for a considerable period was exempt. She had, however, acute
inflammatory rheumatism, with endocarditis and valvular trouble.
About seven months after the operation she had several severe
convulsions with loss of consciousness, and died about a year after
the operation, having had many severe seizures during the last few
weeks of her life.

There is no warrant either in experience or in a study of the subject

for spaying hysterical girls who have never menstruated. In a case
diagnosticated as hysterical rhythmical chorea removal of the
ovaries was advised by a distinguished specialist. The girl's trouble
came on at about the age of thirteen years. She had never
menstruated properly, although on one occasion, after several weeks
of electric treatment, she had a slight show for a few days. It was
proposed to remove the ovaries in this case on some general
principle of given hysterical trouble; the ovaries must go. In this case,
as in the last, it would have been far better to have put in a good pair
of ovaries, or to have developed these rudimentary organs into
health and activity.

With reference to oöphorectomy for hystero-epilepsy or any form of

grave hysteria it may be concluded—1, It is only rarely justifiable; 2,
it is not justifiable in the case of girls who have not menstruated; 3,
when disease of the ovaries can be clearly made out by local
objective signs, it is sometimes justifiable; 4, it is justifiable in some
cases with violent nymphomania; 5, the operation is frequently
performed without due consideration, and the statistics of the
operation are peculiarly unreliable.

When we come to consider the treatment of the disease hystero-

epilepsy, the practical importance of the distinction between this
affection and true epilepsy becomes apparent. Cures of hystero-
epilepsy are not rare. The original cases here reported have all
apparently recovered. Grave hysteria is sometimes cured
spontaneously, either by gradual disappearance with the progress of
age, or suddenly because of some violent impression or under the
influence of unknown causes. One of the worst cases in the service
of Charcot has shown a gradual diminution of the hystero-epileptic
manifestations with the advance of age. In another case under the
influence of strong moral impressions the disease disappeared at a
stroke. The affection, however, should not be abandoned to nature,
as treatment is often of value.

The hydrotherapeutic method of treatment has been found of the

greatest service. Hydrotherapy must be methodically employed by
experienced hands. A number of cases cited by Richer were cured
at hydrotherapeutic institutions. Limited success has followed the
use of metallo-therapy. Besides metallic plates, the same results
may be obtained with other physical agents, to which have been
given the name of æsthesiogenic agents. Among these are feeble
electric currents, vibrations of a tuning-fork, static electricity, etc.

Static electricity has a position of undoubted importance in the

treatment of hystero-epilepsy in some of its phases. Those who have
walked in the wards and visited the laboratories of Salpêtrière will
recall the enormous insulated stools to which are brought troops of
hystero-epileptic patients, who, to save time, are given a vigorous
simultaneous charge of electricity. Even this wholesale plan of
treatment is sometimes markedly efficacious. Vigoroux recommends
static electricity as an æsthesiogenic agent, and regards it as the
most valuable of all agents of this character.

Those drugs should be resorted to which have a tonic influence on

the nervous system. Potassium bromide, as has already been
indicated, is not efficacious. More is to be hoped from tonics and
antispasmodics, such as valerian, iron, salts of silver, zinc, copper,
sodium, and gold chlorides, etc. Good hygienic influences, moral,
mental, and physical, are of the utmost importance.
 CATALEPSY.

BY CHARLES K. MILLS, M.D.

DEFINITION.—Catalepsy is a functional nervous disease characterized

by conditions of perverted consciousness, diminished sensibility, and
especially by muscular rigidity or immobility, which is independent of
the will, and in consequence of which the whole body, the limbs, or
the parts affected remain in any position or attitude in which they
may be placed.

Catalepsy sometimes, but not frequently, occurs as an independent

disease; that is, the cataleptic seizure is the only abnormal
phenomena exhibited by the patient. It is sometimes present,
although also rarely, in organic disease of the nervous system. It has
been noted, for instance, as occurring in the course of cases of
cerebral hemorrhage, softening of the brain, abscess, tumor, and
tubercular meningitis. One case is referred to by C. Handfield Jones
in which it seemed to be due to intracranial epithelioma. As
commonly seen, it is a complication, or perhaps, more properly
speaking, a form of hysteria—hystero-catalepsy.

SYNONYMS.—Some of the many synonyms which have been used for

catalepsy are Catochus, Morbus attonitus, Stupor vigilans,
Synochus, Eclipsis, and Hysteria cataleptica. Trance and ecstasy are
discussed sometimes as synonymous with catalepsy, but they will be
considered as separate affections, as they have certain distinctive
features. Catalepsy, trance, ecstasy, hystero-epilepsy, and other
severe nervous disturbances may, however, all appear in the same
patient at different times or at different stages of the same seizure.

With reference to the term catochus (κατοχη, from κατεχω, I take

possession of), which has been used as synonymous with catalepsy,
Laycock1 points out what he considers to be the proper use of this
word, differentiating two cataleptic conditions, which he designates
as the tetanic and the paralytic states. Catochus is the tetanic form,
in which the trunk and limbs are rigidly extended and consciousness
is abolished. Catalepsy proper is Laycock's paralytic form, although
the term paralytic, as here applied, is by no means happy. It is the
form characterized by the peculiar and striking symptom known as
waxen flexibility (flexibilitas cerea)—a condition in which the limbs or
parts are passive and are capable of being moulded like wax or lead
pipe. Rosenthal would not consider any case as one of genuine
catalepsy if this waxen flexibility was absent. I do not think that this
rigorous criterion should always be imposed, although it might
perhaps be better to apply the term cataleptoid to all cases which do
not present true wax-like flexibility. The distinction sometimes made
between catalepsia vera, or true catalepsy, and catalepsia spuria, or
false catalepsy, is practically that indicated between Laycock's two
forms. According to Charcot and Richer,2 the flexibilitas cerea is not
present in the cataleptic state of hypnotism.
1 A Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women, by Thomas Laycock, M.D., London,
1840.

2 Journal of Mental and Nervous Diseases, Jan., 1883.

HISTORY.—The word catalepsy was used by Greek writers in its

etymological signification of a seizure or surprise. Hippocrates
described catalepsy; Galen, Aëtius, Rondeletius, and Fernelius have
all related cases; Aëtius has left an accurate description of both
catochus and catalepsy. In 1683, Laurence Bellini published a quarto
volume on various subjects, one of which was catalepsy. From time
to time interesting cases of catalepsy have been reported by medical
writers. One of the best is that recorded by John Jebb in 1782, and
quoted by Chambers in Reynolds's System of Medicine. The
researches in hypnotism during the present century, and particularly
those of Heidenhain and of Charcot and Richer, have thrown new
light on many cataleptic phenomena.

ETIOLOGY.—In catalepsy, as in hysteria, insanity, and many neuroses,

inheritance frequently plays a predisposing part. Eulenburg places it
in the large group of diseased conditions designated by Griesinger
constitutional neuropathies. The cataleptic of one generation may be
the descendant of the insane, the epileptic, the syphilitic, or the
alcoholized of a former. Catalepsy is particularly likely to occur in
families which have a history of insanity or drunkenness. Of the
cases detailed or alluded to in this paper, more than a majority had a
clear neurotic history. Catalepsy, like hysteria, occurs with some
frequency among the tuberculous.

Age plays some part in the development of catalepsy. It is of most

frequent occurrence between the ages of fifteen and thirty, but has
been observed at all ages. It is of unusual occurrence in very early
childhood, but A. Jacoby,3 Clinical Professor of the Diseases of
Children in the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York,
reports a case of well-marked catalepsy in a child three years old.
This patient, a girl, was admitted to the Mt. Sinai Hospital, New York,
in September, 1879. She had whooping cough and some symptoms
of typhoid fever. After she had been in the hospital three weeks
choreic twitchings of the eyes and eyelids, with divergent strabismus,
were observed. Examining her, it was found that she was cataleptic;
her arms and legs would remain in any position in which they were
placed; she would drop the uplifted arms slowly when commanded;
sensibility to contact, pain, and temperature were entirely lost, and
the skin and patellar reflexes were diminished. Her appetite was
ravenous, and urine was passed in large quantities. Other
phenomena and details of cataleptic symptoms, which continued for
about a month, are recorded by Jacoby. The child recovered, but
remained weak and anæmic for a long time.
 3 American Journal of Medical Science, N. S. lxxxix., 1885, p. 450.

Monti4 records eleven cases of catalepsy met with in children, male

and female in about equal numbers, of from five to fifteen years, the
average age being nine years. Eulenburg speaks of catalepsy at five
years of age, and quotes Schwartz, who noticed in a boy seven
years old, in consequence of rough treatment, first a choreic
condition, which later passed into catalepsy. Lloyd's case, to be
detailed later, also studied by myself at the University Hospital, was
in a boy eight years old. B. L. Hovey5 of Rochester, New York,
reports an interesting case of catalepsy in a boy eight years old.
4 Gerhardt's Handb. d. Kinderk., vol. v., L. P., 186 et seq., quoted by Jacobi.

5 The Hospital Gazette, 1879, vi. p. 19.

C. E. de Schweinitz of Philadelphia, Ophthalmic Surgeon to the

Children's Hospital and Prosector of Anatomy at the University of
Pennsylvania, has kindly put into my hands the unpublished notes of
a highly interesting case of catalepsy or automatism at command, or
of both, in a child two and a half years old. I will give this case in full,
chiefly in the language of De Schweinitz, because it is, so far as I
know, the youngest case on record. Some of the tests which were
applied in this case are among the most useful which can be
resorted to in determining how far the phenomena presented are
genuine or induced, simulated, or imitated:

The patient was a girl aged two and a half years, who had recently
recovered from an attack of diphtheritic conjunctivitis. During the
period of her convalescence the attending nurse called attention to
the unusual position assumed by the child while sleeping—viz. a
lateral decubitus, the head raised a short distance from the pillow,
and the forearm slightly elevated and stretched out from the body,
the muscles at the same time exhibiting marked tremulousness. A
series of trials readily demonstrated that the child when awake could
be placed in any position compatible with her muscular power, and
that she could thus remain until released. She was placed, for
instance, in the sitting posture, the arm brought at right angles to the
body, the forearm at right angles to the arm, and the hand at right
angles to the forearm, both legs raised from the bed, and the head
bent backward. This position, a most uncomfortable and difficult one
to preserve, would be maintained until the little subject dropped from
sheer exhaustion. Flexion and extension of each separate finger
were easily produced, and the fingers remained until replaced in the
positions in which they had been fixed. At the beginning the child's
mind was sluggish, although she asked for food and made known
her various wants. How far she appreciated surrounding objects
could not be accurately ascertained, inasmuch as the previous
disease of her eyes had left her with a central corneal macula on
each side, rendering her almost sightless in one eye and with but
indifferent object-perception in the other. Voluntary motion was
preserved, and she sat up, turned, and moved whenever she
pleased, but most often when at rest at this stage maintained
somewhat of the position before described which during sleep first
attracted attention to this condition.

In conjunction with Morris Lewis an examination of the cutaneous

sensibility and reflexes was made, which showed diminished
sensibility in the legs and thighs, but not higher up, where the pricks
of the instrument were quickly appreciated. Her knee-jerk was
apparently absent on the right side and present on the left; but this
test, always most unsatisfactory in children, yielded no certain
evidence and constantly gave contradictory results. Scratching the
skin of the soles of the feet, legs, thighs, and abdomen with a
pointed instrument was followed by marked reflex movements.
Electro-muscular contractility was everywhere preserved. The child
at this time was feeble and anæmic, but her appetite was good—not
depraved nor voracious; the tongue was clean, the bowels regular.
The urine was of a light amber color, specific gravity 1020, free from
albumen and sugar.

As the nutrition of the child improved, it was found that the curious
positions could be produced by word of command as well as by
manipulation. In short, within six weeks after the first manifestations
of this disorder, as a usual thing the little patient ate, slept, and
played as a normal child should do, but could at any time be thrown
into this cataleptoid state. Her one dominant idea apparently was to
maintain the position in which she had been placed. She was often
turned into some constrained posture, and all attendants absented
themselves from the room and left her to her own devices; but no
attempt on her part was made to in any way change her attitude. If at
dinner-time a bowl of broth was placed before the patient, she would
begin to eat with great relish, but if the spoon was taken away and
her hands raised over her head, they would so remain, the child
making no effort to return to her meal, although the bowl stood
before her and all watchers again retired from the room. This
experiment was suggested by H. C. Wood, who examined the child
with me. To show how completely her consciousness was occupied
with one idea of maintaining any position in which she had been
placed, the following additional experiments may be quoted: If she
was put into a sitting position, as in the act of supplication, with her
hands folded and arms extended, and then given a sudden push
sufficient to overthrow her equilibrium, the arms would be quickly
and intuitively thrown out to protect her from the impending fall, but,
the fall accomplished, they would as quickly be returned to their
former position. If a heated silver spoon was gradually brought in
contact with her extended hand, an expression of pain would pass
the child's face, perhaps a cry escape her, and the injured member
be rapidly withdrawn, but again almost immediately returned to its
original place. It seemed as if the idea of fixity in a certain position
which occupied the child's mind was suddenly disturbed by another
outside impression, but, being dominant, it quickly drove away the
intruder and the former state was restored. At this time the
phenomena noted were somewhat in accord with those induced by
the mesmeric process, inasmuch as the consciousness seemed
largely given up to the one impression operating at that time—i.e. the
maintenance of certain fixed positions. Unlike this condition,
however, the readiness to receive new impressions, and the
complete abeyance of those senses not operating was wanting, for,
as seen above, the new impression only for a moment disturbed the
child's one idea, to which she quickly returned; nor was there any
true absence of sensibility, as was evidenced by the result from
touching her with a heated spoon.

As time wore on, a new phase of this condition became evident. The
induced manifestations seemed to act the part of some amusement
to the child, and the complete absence of volition which had been an
early characteristic phenomenon was not now so marked a feature.
Thus, if, after the experimenter had for a time moulded and twisted
the child into various shapes, he would suddenly leave the room, the
little subject would cry lustily, as a child does when suddenly
deprived of its playthings, although, curiously enough, no matter how
hard she cried, she would not release herself from the last position in
which she had been left. Often during any series of observations that
were being made it was noted that a faintly-amused look played
about her lips, which speedily gave way to a fit of crying when the
performance stopped. The hand which, when formerly placed in any
position, remained a perfectly motionless and passive object, was
now seen slightly to change its place, move the fingers, or the like—
an observation first made by A. K. Meigs while examining the
patient. The house-physician, Nathan P. Grimm, took great care and
interest in observing the case.

De Schweinitz, in reporting the case, briefly discusses the probable

cause of the phenomena exhibited. He discards the views that either
fear of the experimenter, such as is shown by a trained animal, or
the partial blindness of the child, was responsible for the
manifestations. He believes that a direct relation existed between the
phenomena and the state of the child's nutrition. The more run down
her system was, the more nearly did the nervous phenomena
resemble those of true catalepsy. Evidently, her symptoms were
partly cataleptic and partly phenomena of automatism at command,
similar to those which have been observed in hypnotic experiments,
and which will be alluded to later.

Catalepsy is of more frequency in the female than in the male sex,

but the statistics are not sufficient to give any exact ratio.