NOTES ON ALL OBJECTIVES FOR UNIT 1

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Mr. Sheldon Maharaj

 What are Motor Units?

A motor unit is made up of a single nerve cell or neuron and the grouping of muscle fibers
innervated by the neuron. When a motor neuron receives a signal from the brain, it stimulates all
of the muscles cells in its motor unit at the same time. The number of muscle fibers within a
motor unit varies. The strength of a muscle contraction is determined by the size and number of
motor units being stimulated.

 Motor Pool
All of the motor units within a muscle are considered a motor pool. There are often multiple
sizes of motor unit within a motor pool as a means of modulating the precision and force
produced by a single muscle. For example, a small motor unit in the biceps can be activated for
small precise movements, while a larger motor unit can be activated to facilitate more forceful
actions.

 How they work

As soon as a motor unit gets a signal from the brain, all of the muscle fibers in that unit contract
at the same time with full force. You can't go halfway with motor units—it's all or nothing. The
amount of force you generate at any given time depends on how many motor units your body is
calling for.

Wave Summation (a.k.a. frequency summation) and Tetanization- this results from stimulating a
muscle cell before it has relaxed from a previous stimulus.
This causes the contractions to build on one another producing a wave pattern or, if the stimuli
are high frequency, a sustained contraction called tetanic or tetanus.
Tetanus is perfectly normal and in fact is the way you maintain a sustained contraction.

 The Skeleton

The Skeletal System comprises of 206 bones.

 Functions of Bone and Skeletal System

Its structural framework of the body: Supports soft tissues; Provides attachment points for
tendons of skeletal muscle; Protects important internal organs
Assistance in Movement: Skeletal muscle attaches to bone as muscle contraction pulls on bone
producing movement
Mineral Homeostasis: Bone tissue stores several minerals (mainly Calcium and Phosphorus)

Blood Cell Production: Red bone marrow produces red blood cells (erythrocytes); White blood
cells (leucocytes); Platelets (thrombocytes)
Triglyceride Storage: Triglycerides are a type of fat found in your blood; Triglycerides serves as
a potential chemical energy

• The Structure of the Skeleton

The Axial skeleton provides the main area of support for the body and includes the cranium,
vertebral column and the rib cage.
The Appendicular skeleton consists of the remaining appendages (or connecting limbs)
• The Structure of the Vertebral Column

The vertebral column consists of 33 bones. 24 of them are slightly moveable individual bones
and unfused while the remaining 9 fused together
There are 5 principal areas of the vertebral column: The Cervical vertebrae, the Thoracic
vertebrae, the Lumbar vertebrae, the Sacral vertebrae and the Coccyx

(CTLSC) Cute Teddies Love Some Cuddles

• Cartilage
Soft, slightly elastic tissue that protects the end of bones
Hyaline or Articular Cartilage (end of long bones)
White fibrocartilage (e.g. the intervertebral discs and at the socket of the hip joint)
Yellow elastic cartilage (e.g. external ear and the epiglottis)

• Bone
Compact bone or hard bone forms the surface layers of all bones and the whole cylindrical shaft
of long bones.
Surrounding compact bone is the periosteum which enables tendons to attach to the bone.

There are 5 types of bones in the human body: Short, long, irregular, flat, sesamoid.

• Joints
Where two or more bones meet, an articulation or joint exists
Joints are classified according to the degree of movement permitted

• Classification of Joints
Fibrous Joints - The bones of fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue. There
is no cavity, or space, present between the bones, so most fibrous joints do not move at all.

Cartilaginous Joints - Cartilaginous joints are those in which the bones are connected by
cartilage. They have no joint cavity and may be found between the vertebrae.

Synovial Joints - Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining
bones. This space, referred to as the synovial (or joint) cavity, is filled with synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid lubricates the joint, reducing friction between the bones and allowing for greater
movement. Synovial joints are capable of the greatest movement of the three structural joint
types

• Types of Movement at Joints

There are six basic types of movement that are caused by muscle actions
1. Flexion- Decrease in the angle between two bones at a joint
2. Extension- Increase in the angle between two bones at a joint
3. Abduction- Movement of a limb away from the midline of the body
4. Adduction- Movement of a limb towards the midline of the body
5. Rotation- Circular movement where the bone is moved around a central axis
6. Circumduction- A movement where the end of the bone makes a circle and a cone shape
is formed. It is a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and rotation.

• Exercise and the Skeletal system

Skeletal tissues become stronger
Exercise imposes stress on bones which encourages the laying down of tiny bony plates and the
disposition of calcium salts along the lines of stress. This reinforces the crisscross matrix and
improves the tensile stress of bone
There is greater range of movement at the joint through flexibility and mobility training that
cause ligaments to stretch slightly; Hyaline cartilage thickens; Tendons thicken

• Nervous System
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that
connect these organs with the rest of the body.
The brain and spinal cord form the control center known as the central nervous system (CNS),
where information is evaluated and decisions made.
The sensory nerves and sense organs of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) monitor conditions
inside and outside of the body and send this information to the CNS.
Neurons

Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by transmitting
electrochemical signals.

• 3 Types of Neurons
Afferent neurons. Also known as sensory neurons, afferent neurons transmit sensory signals to
the central nervous system from receptors in the body.

Efferent neurons. Also known as motor neurons, efferent neurons transmit signals from the
central nervous system to effectors in the body such as muscles and glands.
Interneurons. Interneurons form complex networks within the central nervous system to integrate
the information received from afferent neurons and to direct the function of the body through
efferent neurons.

• Functions
Sensory. The sensory function of the nervous system involves collecting information from
sensory receptors that monitor the body’s internal and external conditions. These signals are then
passed on to the central nervous system (CNS) for further processing by afferent neurons (and
nerves).
Integration. The processing of the many sensory signals that are passed into the CNS at any
given time. These signals are evaluated, compared, used for decision making, discarded or
committed to memory as deemed appropriate. Integration is performed by internuerons.
Motor. Once the networks of interneurons in the CNS evaluate sensory information and decide
on an action, they stimulate efferent neurons. Efferent neurons (also called motor neurons) carry
signals from the CNS through the nerves of the peripheral nervous system to effector cells the
effector then releases a hormone or moves a part of the body to respond to the stimulus.

• Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system (SNS) is a division of the PNS that includes all of the voluntary
efferent neurons.
• Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the PNS that includes all of the
involuntary efferent neurons.
• Enteric Nervous System
The enteric nervous system (ENS) is the division of the ANS that is responsible for regulating
digestion and the function of the digestive organs.

There are 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous system in the body: the sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions.

1. Sympathetic. The sympathetic division forms the body’s “fight or flight” response to
stress, danger, excitement, exercise, emotions, and embarrassment. The sympathetic
division increases respiration and heart rate, releases adrenaline and other stress
hormones, and decreases digestion to cope with these situations.

2. Parasympathetic. The parasympathetic division forms the body’s “rest and digest”
response when the body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. The parasympathetic works to
undo the work of the sympathetic division after a stressful situation. Among other
functions, the parasympathetic division works to decrease respiration and heart rate,
increase digestion, and permit the elimination of wastes.
• The Circulatory System
The main parts are the heart, blood and blood vessels
The heart is made up of 4 chambers: 2 superior parts called the Atria and 2 inferior parts called
the ventricles
The ventricles are much more muscular than the atria
The heart is also divided sagitally into a right and left sides. The right side pumps deoxygenated
blood to the lungs while the left side pumps oxygenated blood around the body

Circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart is Pulmonary
Circulation.
Circulation from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart is Systemic
Circulation
To ensure a smooth passage and one directional flow, a number of special valves exist

• The Cardiac Cycle

The cardiac cycle refers to the process of cardiac contraction and blood transportation through
the heart. It explains the sequence of events that takes place during one complete heartbeat
Each cycle takes 0.8 seconds and on average 72 times per minute

There are 4 stages to each heartbeat: Atrial diastole, Ventricular diastole, Atrial systole,
Ventricular systole

Diastole occurs when the chamber is filling with blood while the heart is relaxing (0.5 secs) and
systole occurs when the chamber is emptying blood when the heart contracts (0.3 secs)

• How the Heart Works?

The heart produces impulses which spread and innervate (stimulate) specialized muscle fibres.
An electrical impulse begins at the pacemaker or the sino-atrial node (SA node) located in the
atrial wall this causes both atrium to contract
The impulse then passes to another specialized mass of cells called the atrioventricular node (AV
node) which acts as a distributor and passes the action potential to the Bundle of His
The Bundle of His along with branching Purkinje Fibres spread this excitation throughout the
ventricles causing contraction
• Cardiac Dynamics
Cardiac output is the volume of blood that is pumped from the heart from one ventricle per
minute
Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected into the aorta in one beat
Heart rate reflects the number of times the heart beats per minute
Cardiac output= Stroke volume X Heart Rate
During exercise cardiac output may increase by as much as 6 times
Cardiac hypertrophy (athlete’s heart) is the enlargement of the heart due to training
Bradycardia occurs when heart rate drops below 60 bpm

• Functions of Blood
Transportation of nutrients such as glucose, and oxygen
Protecting and fighting disease through the interaction with the lymphatic system
The maintenance of homeostasis, including temperature regulation and maintenance of the acid-
base (pH) balance

• Composition of Blood
Plasma (55%)- This is a pale yellow fluid composed of 90% water, 8% proteins and 2% salts/
hormones/ nutrients
Erythrocytes- These are red blood cells. They contain haemoglobin which is an iron rich
protein that is responsible for all of the oxygen transport in blood.
Leucocytes- These are white blood cells and are involves in combating infection. Although
significantly larger than red blood cells, white blood cells are fewer in number
Thrombocytes- These are also called platelets and are small bits of cytoplasm derived from
bone marrow, which play an important role in blood clotting
Erythrocytes, leucocytes and thrombocytes make up 45% of blood
• Blood Viscosity
Viscosity refers to the thickness of blood and its resistance to flow
The more viscous a fluid, the more resistant it is to flow. E.g. Honey is more viscous than water
Viscosity increases when plasma content decreases due to dehydration

• Blood Vessels
There are 5 different types of blood vessels in the body that link together to form the vascular
system.
1. Arteries- Vessels that carry blood away from the heart
2. Arterioles- A smaller branch of arteries
3. Veins- Vessels that carry blood towards from the heart. They have special valves that
allow blood to flow in one direction
4. Venules- A smaller branch of veins
5. Capillaries- The smallest of the blood vessels that connect arterioles to venules. The
exchange of gas exchange and nutrients take place here.

• The Vascular Shunt

Redistribution of blood flow during exercise. When at rest the muscles receive a relatively small
amount of blood as they are not active. During exercise the distribution of blood changes. A great
deal more blood is required by the muscles for movement. It is also known as blood shunt.

• The role of circulatory system in the production of movement

Muscles need oxygen to work, oxygen is transported via the haemoglobin in blood
Increased stroke volume, heart rate and cardiac output ensures that blood gets to muscles faster
and to rid the body of carbon dioxide faster
Blood is directed to those muscles that are in need of blood (vascular shunt)
The blood vessels to skin areas become enlarged allowing excess heat (cooling down) from
muscles to be lost more easily through the skin

• Respiratory System
Brings oxygen into the body and removes carbon dioxide and other gases. All the cells in your
body require oxygen. Without it, they couldn't move, build, reproduce, and turn food into energy.

There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of
respiration.
The airway, which includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles, carries air between the lungs and the body’s exterior.
The lungs act as the functional units of the respiratory system by passing oxygen into the
body and carbon dioxide out of the body.
The muscles of respiration, including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, work together
to act as a pump, pushing air into and out of the lungs during breathing.

• How do you breathe?

You breathe with the help of your air passages, lungs, diaphragm and other muscles in your chest
and abdomen. These muscles literally change the space and pressure inside your body to
accommodate breathing. When your diaphragm pulls down, it not only leaves more space for the
lungs to expand but also lowers the internal air pressure.

Outside, where the air pressure is greater, you suck in air in and inhale. The air then expands
your lungs like a pair of balloons. When your diaphragm relaxes, the cavity inside your body
gets smaller again. Your muscles squeeze your rib cage and your lungs begin to collapse as the
air is pushed up and out your body in an exhale.

• Circulation and Gas Exchange

Occurs at the connection between circulation and the respiratory system.
Gas exchange at the lungs and in the body occurs where oxygen into cells and carbon dioxide
out.
Haemoglobin binds to oxygen that diffuses into the blood stream. Haemoglobin is responsible
for transporting both oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body
The respiratory surface is made up of the alveoli and capillary walls.
The walls of the capillaries and the alveoli may share the same membrane.
External respiration is the exchange of gases between the air filling the alveoli and the blood in
the capillaries surrounding the walls of the alveoli.
Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood in capillaries and the tissues of
the body.
• What are the effects of physical activity on the respiratory system?
Regular exercise can improve the respiratory system by:
1. Increasing the amount of air taken in with each breath (tidal volume)
2. Reducing the rate of breathing (respiratory rate)
3. Reducing the time it takes to recover your normal breathing rate after strenuous exercise
(oxygen debt)
4. Strengthening the muscles that are involved in the breathing process (intercostal muscles)
• Key terms to know
Respiratory rate- This is how many breaths we take in one minute
Tidal volume- The amount of air we can possibly take in with one breath is our tidal volume
Minute volume- The amount of air we can breathe in one minute. This is calculated by the
formula: tidal volume X respiratory rate
Vital capacity- The largest amount of air we can force out of our lungs after breathing as deeply
as possible
Residual volume- The amount of air left in our lungs after vital capacity
Total lung capacity- Vital capacity + residual volume

• Muscular System
Why muscles?
Muscle tissue is responsible for movement in humans.
Muscles rely on contractile fibers to create motion.
In humans, muscles attach to the skeletal system to produce motion.
Comprises 45% of the total body weight
Over 600 muscles in the human body
Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and blood vessels

• Muscles works in pairs

The muscle that produces any particular movement of the body is known as an agonist or prime
mover.
The agonist always pairs with an antagonist muscle that produces the opposite effect on the same
bones.
In addition to the agonist/antagonist pairing, other muscles work to support the movements of the
agonist. Synergists are muscles that help to stabilize a movement and reduce extraneous
movements.
They are usually found in regions near the agonist and often connect to the same bones.
Muscle tone is a natural condition in which a skeletal muscle stays partially contracted at all
times. Muscle tone provides a slight tension on the muscle to prevent damage to the muscle and
joints from sudden movements, and also helps to maintain the body’s posture. All muscles
maintain some amount of muscle tone at all times, unless the muscle has been disconnected from
the central nervous system due to nerve damage.

• Types of muscle tissue

These three types are found in vertebrates:
1. Skeletal: striated, voluntary control multi nucleated
2. Smooth: involuntary control uni-nucleated
3. Cardiac: involuntary control uni nucleated or bi nucleated

• Skeletal Muscles Properties

Extensibility- The ability of muscle tissue to stretch beyond its normal resting length
Elasticity- The ability of muscles to return to its normal resting length once it has been stretched
Contractibility- Capacity of a muscle to contract or shorten forcibly when stimulated by nerves
and hormones
Excitability- Muscles possess the ability to respond to stimulation by nerves and hormones

• Functions of the Skeletal Muscle

Movement- Skeletal muscles attach to bones, against which they pull to enable movement
Support and Posture- Muscles are seldom fully relaxed and are often in a constant state of slight
contraction. This is known as muscle tone
Heat Production- The contraction of the skeletal muscles involves the production of heat. When
glycogen is broken down to produce energy, heat is produced

• Skeletal muscle to muscle fibers

A skeletal muscle refers to multiple bundles of cells called muscle fibers (fascicles). Muscle
fibers are in turn composed of myofibrils. The myofibrils are composed of actin and myosin
filaments, repeated in units called sarcomeres, which are the basic functional units of the
muscle fiber. The sarcomere is responsible for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle, and
forms the basic machinery necessary for muscle contraction.

• Myofibril
A myofibril is also known as a muscle fiber. It is a basic rod-like unit of a muscle cell.
Muscles are composed of cylindrical cells called muscle fibers in striated muscle and these
cells in turn contain many chains of myofibrils.

• Type 1 (slow twitch) & Type2 (fast twitch)

• There are 2 types of fast twitch muscle fibers (Type 2a & 2b)
Type 2a or fast oxidative glycolytic fibers (FOG). These fibers pick up certain Type 1
characteristics through endurance training (800m run)
Type 2b are pure fast twitch fibers called fast twitch glycolytic (FTG) and are used for activities
of very high intensity and have a much stronger force of contraction e.g. the 100 and 200m
sprints.

• How Do Muscles Contract

Muscle contraction occurs when ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and Calcium cause myosin
heads to pull thin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere (m line). This is known as the
sliding filament theory. This theory states that each sarcomere shortens as the thin filaments
(actin) slide closer between the thick filaments (myosin) so that the Z lines (aka Z disks) are
pulled closer together.

Relaxed Muscle
Contracted Muscle

• Action potential
Action potentials are those electrical impulses that send signals around your body
When you want your hand to move, your brain sends signals through your nerves to your hand
telling the muscles to contract.
An AP is created by the movement of sodium and potassium ions through the membrane of
neurons.
• What is the endocrine system?
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and
mood, among other things

It affects bodily activities by releasing chemical messages called hormones into the blood stream
from glands
• Functions of the endocrine system
Control the internal environment by regulating its chemical composition and volume
Respond to environmental changes to help the body cope with emergencies e.g. stress, infections
Help regulate organic metabolism and energy balance
Contribute to the management of growth and development

Hypothalamus - This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its
main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.

The pituitary gland or master gland is the control centre of our hormonal system. It produces
many hormones, some of which in turn control other hormonal glands. During exercise, the
pituitary gland releases human growth hormone, which tells the body to increase bone, muscle
and tissue production.

The thyroid gland produces three hormones: Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3) and
Calcitonin. When thyroid hormone levels are too high, you will experience symptoms like
weight loss, tremors, anxiety, and a racing heart rate. When thyroid hormone levels are too low,
you might gain weight, become constipated, be overly sensitive to cold temperatures, and feel
fatigued or depressed

The pancreas helps digestion. It also produces insulin which controls the amount of sugar in
the blood. Exercise improves insulin sensitivity and reduces the reliance on insulin injections.

The adrenal glands produce adrenaline and prepare the body for instant action. Adrenaline
has the effect of increasing heart rate and using up more oxygen in the cells to release more
energy.
Testes are in the male. They control the production of testosterone. This hormone is
important for the development of muscle and improved performance.

Pineal: This gland makes a chemical called melatonin. It helps your body get ready to go to
sleep.

Parathyroid: This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They are important for
bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.

Thymus: This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and
are crucial as a child's immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.

• Our Hormonal System and sport

We use many hormones when we take part in physical activity. This will affect the body by:

a. Increasing heart rate

b. Increasing the rate at which the body works
c. Increasing the use of glucose in the muscles
d. Increasing the amount of glucose carried in the blood
e. Moving blood to the working skeletal muscles from other areas
f. Increasing blood pressure
g. Increasing breathing rate
h. Controlling fluid levels and preventing loss of water
i. Insulin levels decline during exercise although blood flow to the muscles are increased

• Nutrition for Performance

A well balanced diet is essential for successful performance in sport both while training and in
preparation for competition.
However, individuals will choose a diet which is SPECIFIC to their needs.
Factors that affect diet:
The type of sport exercise
Duration of the activity
Intensity of the activity
AGE- As you age your metabolism slows down.
SEX- Males usually need more energy than females
Body Type- Depending on your body type (somatotype), your energy needs will differ
 LIFESTYLE- The more active you are, the more energy you need

• Key Terms
Basal metabolic rate (BMR): The amount of energy needed just to keep you alive. BMR
varies from one person to the next.

Physical activity level (PAL) OR Working energy: The amount of energy needed for physical
activity/ sport

Your total energy needs is calculated by the formulae:

BMR + PAL
This is measured in calories. A calorie is a unit of energy. In nutrition calories refer to energy
consumption through eating and drinking and energy usage through physical activity.

• A Balanced Diet
Is one that gives your body the nutrition it needs to function properly.
A balanced diet consists of 7 components: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, fibre, minerals, vitamins,
water.

• Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates: sugar – biscuits, cakes, sugar
Complex carbohydrates: starch – pasta, potatoes, bread
Excess carbohydrates is stored in the body as fat

Your glycaemic index is an indication of the absorption rates of different food stuff. Foods with a
high glycaemic index can be absorbed rapidly by the body.

• Carbohydrates
Stored as glycogen in the muscles
Preferred/ Major source of energy
Broken down rapidly
Important in maximal exercise
Carbohydrates also:
Power muscle contraction
Provide fuel for the brain
Aids in fat metabolism
Protein sparing - Allows protein to be used for tissue maintenance/repair instead for energy

• What happens when Carbohydrate intakes are low?

Decreased athletic performance
Muscle loss (protein used for energy)
Fatigue
Nutrient deficiency
Irritability
• CARBO LOADING – The aim of carbo-loading is to build up stores of carbohydrate so that
energy can be produced for longer periods of time. This is achieved by eating up to 60%
more carbohydrate and reducing physical activity on three days leading up to a competition.
• Protein
Role in the body:
Large compounds consisting of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids required by the body (12
naturally found in the body and 8 found through diet)
Tissue maintenance
Tissue repair
Tissue growth
Energy source (to a lesser degree) Used as an energy source only when carbohydrates and fat
stores have depleted

• How can I meet my protein needs?

Food is the best source of protein. High protein foods include:
Meats
Dairy products
Nuts
Beans
Most Trinis eat more than the recommended amount of protein. Protein supplements are not
necessary once you are eating correctly
• FATS
Fats are a form of STORED ENERGY, released SLOWLY when there is a lack of carbohydrates
(glycogen)
Extra fat is stored just under the skin
Fats are used during AEROBIC work (O2 is present)
• Types of Fats
SATURATED Fats: are solid at room temperature they are “saturated” with hydrogen.
Meats, Whole-milk, cheese, Plant oils like coconut and palm kernel oil, sausage, bacon, hot dogs,
crackers, cookies and pastries.

UNSATURATED fats: Unsaturated fats, which are liquid at room temperature.

Olives, Olive oils, Vegetable oils, canola oils, Fish like salmon containing omega-3 fatty acids,
Nuts, Avocados and seeds:

Monounsaturated fats can help control blood sugar and insulin levels, as well as lower
your cholesterol levels to decrease your risk of cardiovascular conditions.

Polyunsaturated fats are essential to regular body functions such as covering nerves, building
cell membranes, blood clotting, inflammation and muscle movement.
Triglycerides- The stored form of fat
Fatty acids- The usable form of fat for energy production

Glycogen Sparing - The body using fatty acids for energy instead of glycogen during exercise
when oxygen is available
• Water
Water allows the body to maintain a CONSTANT temperature when undertaking physical
activity.
Losses in water can cause:
Reducing the efficiency of the circulatory system (drop in blood pressure)
Loss of electrolytes like sodium, chloride and calcium
• How will I know if I am becoming dehydrated?
Warning Signs:
Headache
Fatigue
Confusion
Nausea
Muscle Cramps
Dizziness
Decreased stamina, speed, energy, muscle strength

• Vitamins
Only small amounts needed
Vitamins regulate the chemical reactions of the body
They help with growth and repair of tissue
They help to resist infections
• Minerals
Minerals are found in a variety of foods
Calcium strengthens bones which is needed for proper performance
Other minerals help with growth
• Fibre
Found in all plant cells or any food that you can grow
Fibre keeps the digestive system working correctly
Fibre helps in food absorption
Fibre makes you feel full, so you eat less

• Why is Nutrition Important?

Good nutrition is essential to:
Preserve and build muscle
Maintain healthy bones
Maximize oxygen transport and use
Repair existing cells and create new tissue
Maintain optimal fluid and electrolyte balance
Provide energy
Nutrition Can Significantly Improve Athletic Performance
• What is the Best Diet for Athletes?
A well balanced diet that includes variety

• Eat to Compete
It takes 1- 4 hours for food to leave your stomach
High Carb foods are digested quickly
High Protein foods can increase water requirements
Foods high in Fat can stay in your stomach for more than 4 hours
Best choice for pre-game meals is something high in Carbs - easy to digest and becomes quick
energy

• What and When should I eat after I Workout?

In the first 30 minutes:
Replace fluids and electrolytes
Eat high-carbohydrate foods
Examples: Banana, Yogurt, Granola Bar

Within 2 hours:
Drink 2-3 cups of fluid for every pound lost
Eat a high-carbohydrate meal with some protein
Example: Ham Sandwich, Rice and beans

• Special Diets
High protein
Low carb
Vegan
Gluten free
Liquid
Low fat high carb
Raw
Clean eating – free range/ non chemical foods
• What are ergogenic aids?
In the context of sport, an ergogenic aid can be broadly defined as a technique or substance used
for the purpose of enhancing performance.
Types of ergogenic aids
Psychological
Mechanical
Pharmacological
Physiological
Nutritional

• Psychological
Hypnosis
Music
Performance Enhancement Techniques (PST)
“Placebo Effect” / Superstitions
Centering
Meditation
Cheering
Imagery

• Mechanical
Clothing
Equipment
Heat and Cold Application
Improved Body Mechanics
Environment (Playing Conditions and Surface)
Weighted vests
Computers - analyse VO2 max, technique, test

• Pharmacological
Over the Counter Drugs:
Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, Melatonin…etc.
“Recreational” Drugs:
Alcohol, Marijuana, Cocaine…etc.
Prescription Drugs
Anabolic Steroids, Human Growth Hormones, Diuretics, Beta Blockers…etc.

• Physiological
Bicarbonate Loading: the administration of sodium bicarbonate before competing in short-
duration, high-intensity sporting events and competitions, which is intended to neutralize lactic
acid produced during anaerobic metabolism of muscles.

Blood Doping: The practice of blood doping involved athletes taking a certain amount of blood
out of their systems, and then, later, when their bodies had made up for the blood taken out,
injected back into their systems.

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone produced by the kidney that promotes the formation of red
blood cells by the bone marrow.

Altitude Training: known as hypoxic training, involves exercising in, living in or otherwise
breathing oxygen reduced air for the purpose of improved athletic performance.
Glycerol: is most commonly used improving hydration and performance in athletes. In the blood,
it attracts water so that the water stays in the body longer. This might help an athlete exercise for
longer.

Phosphate Loading: it is claimed that phosphate loading increases the availability of phosphates
for the production of ATP and increases the potential for aerobic exercise performance.

Acupuncture
Sports Massage
Homeopathy: is a medical system based on the belief that the body can cure itself. Believe that a
substance that causes symptoms of a disease in healthy people would cure similar symptoms in
sick people. It is made from extremely small quantities of nanoparticles of substances extracted
from plants, animals or minerals. The right remedy enables a quicker recovery, reduces
inflammation, and heals bruising and sprained muscles, which in turn gets the athletes back to
training and performing sooner.
• Nutritional
Amino Acid Supplementation
Bee Pollen - It gives me energy,’ is a common report from athletes who use bee pollen to
boost performance in sports involving high, medium and even low intensities.
Carbohydrate Loading
Carnitine - use to increase the oxidation of fat during exercise and spare muscle glycogen.
Coenzyme Q-10CoQ10 is found concentrated inside the mitochondria, or ‘powerhouses’ of
the cells where it plays a vital role in the creation of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the body’s
energy ‘currency’. This can improve energy and decrease muscle aches and pains in people
Creatine Phosphate.

• Energy
Energy is the capacity of the body to perform work. It can exist in many different forms
including mechanical, chemical, heat and electrical. Under certain circumstances energy can be
transferred from one form to another. For example, chemical energy found in food is transformed
into mechanical energy to enable us to move, or indeed can be transformed into potential energy
and stored in the body for use at a later date. The units of energy measurement is joules

• The Body’s Energy Sources

For movement to take place, the body must transferred stored chemical energy to mechanical
energy. The chemical energy requirement of a cell is supplied by the breakdown of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). A high energy compound
The stimulus for ATP splitting is the enzyme ATPase. When this happens some of the energy
given off is in the form of heat. This is known as exothermic reaction. The result is ADP
ATP must be resynthesized (recreated) in order to provide a continuous supply of energy.
• ATP Resynthesis
At rest or prolonged periods of exercise, ATP is resynthesized through aerobic metabolism. That
is the breakdown of carbohydrates and fats in the presence of oxygen.
There are 3 basic energy systems that control the replenishment of ATP. The system that the body
uses is largely dependent on how immediate the energy is required, how intense the activity is
and whether or not oxygen is present.
The 3 systems are:
The A Lactic or ATP-PC system
The Lactic Acid System
The Aerobic System

• A Lactic or ATP- PC System

Rapid regeneration of ATP through another energy rich compound called creatine phosphate
(CP). Creatine phosphate is also known as phosphocreatine or PC
CP is broken down in the sarcoplasm of the muscle cell by the enzyme creatine kinase
The enzyme becomes activated when there is an increase in ‘free’ phosphates (ATP-Pi= ADP)
The energy derived from the breakdown of CP cannot be used for muscle contraction but instead
is used to resynthesizing of ATP from ADP.
This is an endothermic reaction as energy is consumed by ADP + Pi to form ATP.
ATP can be resynthesized quickly through CP because ATP and CP lie alongside each other in
the sarcoplasm of the muscle cell. Just like ATP, CP is very limited so it is used up quickly.
Fatigue occurs when CP levels falls significantly and can no longer sustain ATP resynthesis. This
lasts for 8-10 seconds.

• The Lactic Acid System

Once CP has been depleted in the muscle, ATP must be resynthesized from another substance-
Glycogen.
Glycogen is converted to glucose-6-phosphate. Glucose molecules go through a process called
glycolysis (anaerobic glycolysis) in order to free energy
Glycolytic enzymes break down the glucose molecule in the sarcoplasm of the muscle cell.
Pyruvic acid is produced.
In the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is broken down with enzymes to lactic acid

This entire process frees sufficient energy to resynthesize 2ATP

The lactic acid system only frees a relatively small amount of energy from glucose (5%)
The lactic acid produced also inhibits further glycogen breakdown as it restricts the glycolytic
enzymes
The LA system does however release energy relatively quickly. It peaks in activities lasting for
approximately 1-3 minutes. It also comes into play at the end of aerobic events when the
intensity increases.
• The Aerobic System
It takes approximately 3 minutes to extract the remaining 95% of energy from a glycogen
molecule
The initial stages of the aerobic system is similar to the lactic acid system except that pyruvic
acid changes when oxygen is available
Pyruvic acid is converted to Acetyl-coenzyme-A when there is oxygen present. It is combined
with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid before it enters the Krebs cycle

• In the Krebs Cycle

The sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of
aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, using up oxygen and producing carbon
dioxide and water as waste products, and ADP is converted to energy-rich ATP.
Citric acid is oxidized here and hydrogen is removed and sent to the Electron Transport System
This entire process frees sufficient energy to resynthesize 2ATP

• The Electron Transport System

Hydrogen is received from the Krebs cycle by hydrogen carries NAD & FAD
This will cause the hydrogen atom to split into hydrogen ions and electrons.
The hydrogen electrons provide the energy to resynthesize ATP. In total 34ATP is resynthesized
through this process

• One Molecule of Glycogen

One molecule of glycogen can provide enough energy to resynthesize 38 ATP-
2 ATP during anaerobic glycolysis (Lactic Acid System)
2 ATP during the Krebs cycle
34 ATP during the Electron Transport System

• Energy Continuum
The energy systems rarely work in isolation
The body supplies energy continuously (hence ‘continuum’) as long as activity occurs.
All 3 energy systems occur continuously, but the proportion of energy produced by each system
changes as the exercise continues.
The intensity and duration of the activities is the main determining factor for which system is
predominant.
It is fairly easy to know the dominant energy system for the marathon and shot put, but other
sports are not so easy.

So we use the Energy Continuum to show how the body changes between the 3 systems for
activities that exceed the limits of one or more systems, or for activities that experience changing
levels of intensity.
The way energy is provided for a 1500m race is very specific –
“The ATP-PC is the predominant system for supplying energy during the 1st 10 seconds,
after which the lactic acid system becomes dominant for the next minute. The Aerobic
System takes over for the middle of the race when the pace settles. There is then a
return to the Lactic Acid system for the final sprint finish.”

• Thresholds
= point at which a particular energy system is unable to provide energy

e.g. PC threshold = when no PC is left approx.. 10 seconds

• Fitness
Dick (1989) “…the successful adaptation to the stressors of one’s lifestyle..”
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), physical fitness is defined
as “…the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without undue fatigue, and with
ample energy to enjoy leisure-time pursuits and respond to emergencies.”

● Components of Fitness
Health-related components
Are physiologically based and determine the ability of an individual to meet the physical
demands of the activity: Strength, speed, cardio- respiratory (aerobic capacity), muscular
endurance, flexibility and body composition are all health related factors

Skill/Performance-related components
Are based upon the neuromuscular system and determine how successfully a person can perform
a specific skill: Agility, balance, coordination, reaction time and power are all skill related factors

• Strength
The ability of the body to apply a force. It is the maximum force that can be developed in a
muscle or group of muscle during a single maximal contraction. There are 3 classifications of
strength:
Maximum strength (the greatest force that is possible in a single maximum contraction)
Elastic strength (the ability to overcome a resistance with a fast contraction)
Strength endurance (the ability to express force many times over)

• Factors affecting Strength

Type of muscle fibre- Fast twitch/ slow twitch
Age- Greatest from your teenage years to early twenties
Gender- Men generally have more muscle tissue due to testosterone
Limb and muscle length- Persons with shorter limbs tend to be able to lift heavier weights.
Persons with longer muscles will have a greater potential for developing size and therefore
strength

• Measuring Strength
Handgrip Dynamometer
1 Repetition Maximum Test (1RM test)

Advantage: A simple and objective measure

Disadvantage: The validity of the handgrip test has been questioned since it only indicates
strength of muscles in the forearm

• Muscular Endurance
The ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated contractions against a resistance
for an extended period of time.

• Measuring Muscular Endurance

NCF Abdominal Conditioning Test

Advantages: Easy to administer

Large groups can participate in the test at once
The abdominal muscle can be easily isolated
Disadvantage: Correct technique is essential for successful completion of the test

• Speed
The ability to put body parts into motion quickly, or the maximum rate that a person can move
over a specific distance.
• Measuring Speed
30m Sprint

Advantage: Equipment is readily available

Disadvantages: Timing can be affected by error

Effects of weather and running surface may affect surface
This does not test the speed of individual body parts
• Cardio-respiratory endurance
The ability to provide and sustain energy aerobically. It is dependent on the cardiovascular
system ability to transport and utilize oxygen during sustained exercise.
• Measuring Aerobic Capacity
NCF Multistage Fitness Test (Beep test)
Advantages: Scores can be evaluated by referring to published tables
Large groups can participate at once
Limited equipment needed

Disadvantages: The test is maximal therefore relies on the motivation level of the athlete
The test is only a prediction of aerobic fitness
Tests may favor subjects more used to running

● PWC 170 Test (Physical Work Capacity)

Advantages: Cycle ergometers often contain pulse monitors, therefore heart rate can be easily
monitored
This is a sub-maximal test

Disadvantages: Test favors cyclists

This is only a prediction of aerobic fitness

• Flexibility
The range of movement possible at a joint. It is determined by the elasticity of ligaments and
tendons, strength of surrounding muscles and the shape of articulating bones

• Measuring Flexibility
Sit and Reach Test
Advantages: East to administer
There is plenty of data for comparison

Disadvantages: The test only measures flexibility in the region of the lower back and hamstrings
The extent to which the subject is warmed up may affect results
• Goniometer
Advantage: Gives a very objective reading that can be used to assess improvement

Disadvantage: It is not always easy to identify the axis of rotation at a joint

• Body Composition
Is concerned with the physiological make-up of the body with regards to the relative amount and
distribution of muscle and fat.

• Measuring Body Fat

Body fat is measured using various methods:

Hydrostatic weighing
Bioelectrical impedance
Body Mass Index
Skin Fold measures

Advantages: A simple test that is widely used

Scores can be used to identify changes in body fat over time

Disadvantage: The testing procedure can vary between tester

• Skill/Performance-related components
Agility
Balance
Coordination
Reaction time
Power
• Agility
The ability to move and change direction and position of the body quickly and effectively under
control.
Balance, coordination, speed and flexibility are closely related to agility

• Measuring Agility
Illinois Agility Run

Advantage: The testing procedure is simple to administer with little equipment required
A widely used test with easily accessible rating

Disadvantages: Since agility is influenced by other factors (speed, balance, etc.), the validity of
the test scores could be questioned
The test is not sport specific
• Balance
The maintenance of the center of mass over the base of support. This can be while the body is
static or dynamic.

• Measuring Balance
Stalk test
Balance Board
• Coordination
The interaction of the motor and nervous system and is the ability to perform motor task
accurately and effectively.
Coordination is normally improved through proper practice

• Reaction Time
The time taken to initiate a response to a given stimulus. Reaction time is dependent on the
ability of an individual to process info and initiate a response by the neuro-muscular system.
• Measuring Reaction Time
Ruler drop test

Advantage: The testing procedure is simple and easy to administer with little equipment required

Disadvantages: The relevance of a stick drop test to sporting activities is questionable

The test only measures visual reaction time
• Power
The amount of work done per unit of time. The product of strength and speed. The ability to
exert a large force over a short period of time.
It relies on the interaction of the neuro- muscular system to recruit fast twitch fibers as rapidly as
possible.

• Measuring Power
Standing Broad Jump

Advantages: Easy to administer

Improvement can be easily monitored

Disadvantage: Only tests power in leg muscles

• Physical, mental and social benefits of exercise and recreation

What is exercise and recreation?

Exercise is an activity requiring physical effort, carried out to sustain or improve health and
fitness (It improves your heart and lung power).
Recreation is an activity that people engage in during their free time, that people enjoy, and
that people recognize as having socially redeeming values.

• Physical benefits of exercise and recreation

Reduces Obesity:
Obesity continues to be a major health concern and is closely linked to physical inactivity.
Diminishes Risk of Chronic Disease:
Significantly reduce the risk of many serious diseases like heart disease, diabetes, cancer and
osteoporosis.
Strong muscles, joints and bones:
Maintained by physical activity that adds additional stress to strengthen the skeletal structure
Boosts Immune System:
The physically fit person is less prone to illness.
Increases Life Expectancy:
Regular physical activity reduces the risk of developing or dying from some of the leading
causes of illness and death.
• Mental benefits of exercise and recreation
Regular physical activity/ exercise during recreation can reduce the severity of many mental
health disorders, enabling individuals to better cope with their daily lives.

Reduces Depression
Exercise and recreation can help alleviate depression. Participating in recreation activities
provides many with experiences they look forward to and enjoy. Recreation activities also reduce
alienation, loneliness and isolation, all of which contribute to depression. Recreation provides a
social atmosphere that draws people out of their houses and into community life.

Relieves Stress
Positive and enjoyable recreation experiences can decrease stress, anxiety and psychological
tensions.

• Social benefits of exercise and recreation

Making New Friends
Being active gives you not only an excuse to get together with your current friends, but also
allows you to meet new people who enjoy an active lifestyle.

Strengthens Communities
Park and recreation opportunities are essential for strengthening and maintaining a healthy
community.

Reduces Crime
Well-maintained parks and recreation facilities help reduce crime in a community.

Encourages Volunteerism
Participation in recreation activities promotes volunteerism. Park and recreation agencies rely on
volunteers to ensure the delivery of programs and services.

Unites Families
Families that recreate together tend to be closer and more cohesive, and have a greater chance of
staying together.

Builds Cultural Diversity and Harmony

Recreation promotes positive contact between different ethnic groups and opens communication
in a nonthreatening atmosphere. Recreation and physical activity opportunities provide a means
for social interaction that can help to break down the barriers of unfamiliarity, fear and isolation.

• Principles of Training
S – Specificity
P – Progression
O – Overload
 R – Reversibility
T – Tedium (V- Variance)
• Specificity
The law of specificity suggest that training should be relevant and appropriate to the sport and
the individual. E.g. the majority of a swimmer training should be pool-base work
The rule suggest that the training should not only take the muscles, fiber type and action into
consideration but also the Energy system which is predominately stressed.

• Progressive Overload
This rule considers the intensity of the training. For improvement and adaptation to occur the
training must be increased over the training period to ensure that the body is pushed beyond its
normal rhythm (no pain no gain). Increases must be gradual so that the athlete avoids a plateau in
performance or, worse, injury.
• F.I.T.T.
Frequency - is increased by training a greater number of times each week.
Intensity - Increasing the difficulty of the exercise you do. Intensity is increased by lifting a
greater resistance, such as with weight training, or by training at a higher percentage of
maximum heart rate (maxHR).
Time - Increasing the length of time that you are training for each session. You can also
manipulate time by reducing recovery times or by completing a greater number of sets or
repetitions (also known as reps).
Type - Increase the difficulty of the training you are doing. For example progress from walking to
running.
• Reversibility
Also known as regression or detraining it is very simple “if you don’t use it you lose it”.
Basically if you stop training then the improvements you have made will be reversed.
The body systems reverse or de-adapt if training stops or is significantly reduced.
• Variance (Tedium)
Variety is the spice of life. Try to vary your training, to keep you interested and to give your body
a different challenge.
Use variance to prevent boredom, staleness and injury through training it is necessary that the
training programme employs a range of training methods.
• Individual Differences/Needs
All athletes are different. Training must be related to the athlete's age and gender, their injury
status and fitness level. Any training that fails to be relevant to the individual will fail to motivate
the athlete and will prove to be unsuccessful in the long term.
• Moderation
To prevent overtraining it is essential that the training programme is planned sufficiently well to
include a variation in training intensities and regular rest days.
Physical adaptations occur during the recovery and non-active period of the training cycle.
Therefore athletes must achieve the right amount of rest between sessions.
• Overtraining
If an athlete does not have sufficient rest periods then they are at risk of overtraining. This is
when the body does not have time to adapt to the training and as a result the fitness of the athlete
declines and they are more at risk of becoming ill or injured.
Stages of the Warm up
1. Raising the HR, increasing the speed of oxygen delivery to the muscles and raising body
temperature
2. Mobility or stretching exercises
3. Sport specific or skill related component

Cool Down
A proper cool down prevents unnecessary discomfort after exercise. It involved
performing some kind of light continuous exercise where the heart rate remains elevated
A cool down limits the effects of DOMS (Delayed onset of muscle soreness)
The final part of a cool down should involve a period of stretching activity which should
facilitate and improve flexibility.

• Training Methods: Continuous methods

Continuous Training
Thus type of training works on developing endurance and therefore stress the aerobic energy
system
Activities are done at a steady rate using large muscle groups over a long period of time. Slow
twitch muscle fibres are used e.g. jogging, swimming, cycling and aerobic dance

Advantages of this method of training is that great distances can be covered without the lactate
build up associated with anaerobic training methods because athletes can go long periods of time
using this method injury to muscles and joints are very common, it can be very monotonous and
not necessarily sport specific for team games.

Fartlek Training (Speed play)

The speed or intensity of the activity is varied so that both aerobic and anaerobic systems
can be worked
It is suited for team sports where there is normally a mix of aerobic and anaerobic activity
Two popular examples of fartlek training are The Gerschler and The Saltin Methods

Interval Training
Involves periods of exercise or work followed by periods of rest.
The most popular of the intermittent training methods because it can be used in almost
any activity
Circuit Training
 Involves performing a number of callisthenic exercises in succession
Each exercise is usually performed for a set amount of time or a set amount of repetitions
The circuit can be adapted to meet the specific fitness requirements of a given sport or
activity
One golden rule when devising the layout of the circuit is that the same body part should not
be exercises consecutively
• Strength Training
Strength training can be accomplished through water or resistance training methods
It can be used to develop several components of fitness, including strength, strength
endurance and explosive power
The principle of One Repetition Maximum (1RM) is important when designing a strength
training program
1RM is the maximum amount of weight the athlete can lift in one repetition

● Plyometrics
Muscles generate more force when they have been previously stretched. Plyometrics enables this
to occur by taking the muscle through an eccentric phase before a powerful concentric phase
Bounding, hopping, leaping, skipping and push-ups with claps are all examples of this
• SAQ Training
SAQ stands for speed, agility and quickness
Central to this activity are resistance drills, perhaps using bungee ropes, ladder drills to improve
leg speed and jumping activities to improve leg speed and strength
• Mobility Training
A training method employed to improve flexibility
The method of stretching used in mobility training should center on the connective tissue and the
muscle tissue acting upon the joint, as these tissues have been shown to elongate following a
period of regular and repeated stretching
Three types of stretching are:
Active stretching
Passive stretching
Dynamic stretching
• Altitude Training
This is a method of training based on the principle that with an increase in altitude, the partial
pressure of oxygen (pO2) in the atmosphere decreases by half, causing the body to adapt by
increasing red blood cells mass and hemoglobin levels to cope with the lower pO2
Athletes keep the effects of training after returning to sea level
The disadvantages of altitude training is that it is very expensive and altitude training sometimes
causes altitude sickness
• Sociological Aspects of Sports

What is Sport?
“A well established, officially governed competitive physical activity in which participants are
motivated by internal and external rewards”
Sport: competitive games that are won or lost on the basis of physical skills and played according
to specific rules.

Institutions Can Be Said To Have Four Basic Functions In All Societies:

1. Regulating individuals’ behaviours and relations;

2. Preparing individuals for the society;
3. Determining the relations between individuals and institutions;
4. Thus, maintaining the social continuity…

• Sports as an Institution
Sports as an institution should be classed as other fundamental institutions (family, economics,
politics, religion, education, communication, law, and healthcare).
Physical games have be played as a part of human culture for thousands of years.
Social changes caused industrial revolution gave rise to modern sports.
Sport as a social institution is distinguished by characteristics such as secularization, equality,
specialization, rationalization, bureaucratization, and quantification
• As recreation
Recreation activities play an important role in communities. Their many benefits include
improving the health and well-being of individuals, contributing to the empowerment of
individuals, and promoting the development of inclusive communities.
Recreation activities may involve individuals, small groups, teams or whole communities and are
relevant to people of all different ages, abilities and levels of skill
The types of recreation activities people participate in vary greatly depending on local context,
and tend to reflect the social systems and cultural values.
• As entertainment
Sports entertainment is a type of spectacle which presents an ostensibly competitive event using
a high level of theatrical flourish and extravagant presentation, with the purpose of entertaining
an audience.
Unlike typical sports, which are conducted for competition, sportsmanship, physical exercise or
personal recreation, the primary product of sports entertainment is performance for an audience's
benefit, thus they are never practiced privately. Commonly, but not in all cases, the outcomes are
predetermined; as this is an open secret, it is not considered to be match fixing.
• As business/industry
The sport industry is a market in which people, activities, business, and organizations involved in
producing, facilitating, promoting, or organizing any activity, experience, or business enterprise
focused on sports
It is the market in which the businesses or products offered to its buyers are sports related and
may be goods, services, people, places, or ideas
• For a healthy nation
Playing sports contributes to muscle development, coordination, cardiovascular health and
numerous other benefits associated with disease prevention
Participation in sport helps ward of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
cancer, hypertension, obesity, depression and osteoporosis.
Governments around the world have invested heavily into sport to promote a healthier nation,
thus increasing a nation’s life expectancy and reduction of the health bill at public hospitals. A
healthy nation will also encourage the increase in the pensionable age of a nation
• As a legacy
Legacy is about life and living. It's about learning from the past, living in the present, and
building for the future.
Sport leaves a legacy for us to learn from. Past and present sport heroes and teams create a
feeling of pride that nations and fans are able to appreciate and follow. Current teams and fans
feel a sense of pride and strive to emulate or do better than past accomplishments

• Sport theory

What is a theory?
A set of principles on which the practice of an activity is based
Theories help us to ask questions, seek answers, make decisions, and evaluate what we do.
Without theories we lack the frameworks we need to make sense out of life and learn from our
experiences.

Remember that no theory is perfect

Theories used in sport studies:
1. Functionalist
2. Interactionist theory
3. Conflict theory
4. Critical theory
5. Critical feminist theory
6. Figurational theory

• Functionalist Theory
According to functionalism, society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in
harmony to maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole. Each of the social
institutions contributes important functions for society.
Sports are studied in terms of their contributions to the system. Research "focuses on positive
outcomes for individuals and society"

This theory is popular because it assumes that shared values and agreement are the basis for
social order. Everyone from the garbage man to the wealthy business man has a part to play, and
when everyone plays his/ her part, the society will function perfectly
 Those with power and influence often prefer it because it emphasizes stability and
equilibrium in society
Functionalist theory suggest that sport has 5 major social functions (Stevenson & Nixon 1972):
1. Social emotional- sport assists with managing everyday frustration and helps the athlete
feel part of something
2. Socialization- sports allows us to gain self-discipline and self-control. Values found in
achieving something and team work are also gained.
3. Integration- sport helps us to adapt and adjust positively to group situations and dynamics
(group identification)
4. Political- sport produces national identity and generates national pride
5. Social mobility- sport is an avenue for social mobility through the acquisition of wealth
and prestige

Sport is viewed as having a positive function in society. Among other things, sport:
Transmits cultural values.
Is educational.
Provides a release for physical and psychological pressures.
Provides a feeling of group membership.
Provides a means of social mobility.
Generates a sense of personal competition.

Strengths of Functionalist Theory:

Promote the development and growth of organized sports
Increase sport participation opportunities to foster individual development
Increase the supervision and control of athletes
Mandate coaching education programs
Highlight success in elite programs

Weaknesses of Functionalist Theory:

Overstates the positive consequences of sport in society
Assumes that all social groups benefit equally from sports
Does not recognize that sports are social constructions that privilege or disadvantage
some people more than others
• Interactionist Theory (George Herbert Mead)
In sociology, interactionism is a theoretical perspective that derives social processes (such
as conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction.
It is the study of how individuals shape society and are shaped by society through meaning
that arises in interactions
Called symbolic interactionist theory- a theory that focuses on the relationships among
individuals within a society. The exchange of meaning through language and symbols
(communication) is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds.
It takes a small scale view on society looking at the individual
Society is created and maintained through social interaction
People change as they interact with society and they assign meanings to things to decide
how to act
Sports are studied through the meanings, symbols, people create in social interactions.
Research focuses on how people experience sports and how identities are related to sport
participation and sport cultures

• Herbert Blumer (1969) proposed 3 tenants to explain the symbolic interactionist theory:
1. We act based on the meaning that we give something
2. We give meaning to things based on our social interactions. Persons may view things
differently
3. Meaning can change

Strengths of Interactionist Theory:

Change sports to match the perspectives and identities of those who play them
Make sport organizations more democratic, less autocratic, and less hierarchically
organized
Question identity formation processes that involve the normalization of pain, injury, &
substance use in sports

Weaknesses of Interactionist Theory:

Does not explain how meaning, identity, and interaction are connected with social
structures and materials conditions in society
Ignores issues of power and power relations in society and how they impact sport, sport
participation, and sport experiences

• Conflict Theory (Karl Marx)

Conflict theory states that tensions and conflicts arise when resources, status, and power are
unevenly distributed between groups in society and that these conflicts become the engine for
social change.
The conflict theory, claims society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition
for limited resources. It holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather
than consensus and conformity
View society as a system of social structures and relationships that are shaped ultimately by
economic forces.
Society is determined by economic relations (Class relations, Exploitation)
Sports promote capitalism and inequalities
This theory is concerned with class relations
Research focuses on how sports perpetuate the power and privilege of elite groups in society
 Those with power dislike this theory because it argues that power is the source of problems
in society.
Many people dislike because it argues that the social order is the problem
Seldom used in sports discourse because it portrays sport as part of the problem, not solution

Strengths of Conflict Theory

Focus on class inequality and how it might be minimized or eliminated in and through sports
Develop awareness of how athletes and spectators are used for the profit and personal gain of
the economic elite
More emphasis on play and less on commercial spectator sports

Weaknesses of Conflict Theory

Assumes that all social life is “economically determined”
Ignores the importance of gender, race & ethnicity, age, & other factors in social life
Ignores the possibility that sport participation can be a personally and socially
empowering experience.

• Critical Theories
Society involves cultural production, power relations, & ideological struggles
Sports are social constructions that change as power relations change and as narratives and
discourses change
Research focuses the meaning and organizations of sports, and on sports as sites for cultural
transformation. The relationship between sports and society is never set once and for all. Sports
change as historical conditions and political and economic forces change.
Those who use them assume that sports are more than reflections of society, and they study:
Struggles over the organization & meaning of sports
The narratives and images people use to construct and give meaning to sports
Whose voices and perspectives are used in narratives about sports in society?
How dominant narratives, images, and power relations can be disrupted to promote
progressive changes

● Sports are more than reflections of society

Sports consist of sets of relationships that are produced by people in society.
Sports are the creations of people interacting with one another.
Sports are the “social stuff” out of which society and culture come to be what they are.

Strengths of Critical Theories

Use sports to challenge and transform exploitive and oppressive practices
Increase the number and diversity of sport participation opportunities
Challenge the ideological implications of the stories told about sports in a culture
Challenge the voices and perspectives of those with power in sports and society
Weaknesses of Critical Theories
No clear guidelines for identifying and assessing forms of resistance and strategies for
producing transformation
No unified strategies for dealing with social problems, conflicts, and injustice

• Critical Feminist Theory

It examines social roles, experience, interests, chores, and feminist politics in a variety of
fields like sport. Feminist theory focuses on analysing gender inequality.
Social life is pervasively gendered
Sports are gendered activities grounded primarily in the values and experiences of men with
power and influence
Research focuses how sports reproduce gendered ideas and practices related to physicality,
sexuality, and the body
Those who use them study how sports are involved in the production of ideas about
masculinity and femininity
Feminism is a type of conflict theory which looks at the conflict of interest between men and
women, aiming to point out and condemn their suffrage
Feminist theory focuses on analyzing gender inequality. Themes explored in feminism
include discrimination, objectification, oppression, patriarchy, stereotyping,
The main objective of feminist theory is to get over the gender inequality and this gender
inequality is the worst thing for women.
Society life is pervasively gendered.
Sports are gendered activities grounded primarily in the values and experiences of men with
power and influence
Research focuses how sports reproduce gendered ideas and practices related to physicality,
sexuality, and the body.
Those who use them study:
How sports are involved in the production of ideas about masculinity and femininity
How women are represented in media coverage of sports
Strategies used by women to resist or challenge dominant gender ideology
The gendered dimensions of sports and sport organization

Strengths of Feminist Theories

Challenge aspects of sports that systematically privilege men over women
Expose and transform oppressive forms of sexism and homophobia in sports
Use sports as sites to empower women and promote the notion of partnership and
competition with others

Weaknesses of Feminist Theories

 Lack clear guidelines for assessing forms of resistance and the value of ideas and actions
in producing social transformation
Have not given enough attention to connections between gender and other categories of
experience

• Figurational Theory
The concept of figurations was developed by the sociologist Norbert Elias to convey the
shifting links between people as the nature and extent of their interdependencies change over
time. It became known as figurational or process sociology
In the figurational theory Elias showed that there are interdependent interlocking parts of
society that goes through processes which brings about change. These processes creates patterns
which we must analyze and understand to bring out change

• Figurational in sports
A view of the relationship between sport and politics that suggests that sport is used to promote
common values held essential for the integration and development of a society. Thus, sport helps
to maintain social order.
Elias believed that an increase in social pressures refined manners and was forcing people to
have more self-control.
This self-control was linked to the decreasing need for participating in or seeing violent acts and
a decrease in pleasure gained from such acts. This is known as “the threshold of repugnance”
The threshold of repugnance decreased and caused a change in sports. “civilization of sports”
The civilizing process can relate to sports in what Elias called “sportization of pastimes”
This occurred when more refined classes started to emerge.

Strengths of Figurational Theory

Develop the knowledge that will give rise to strategies for controlling expressions of
violence, exploitation, and the abuse of power
Increase access to sport participation among those who have lacked power through
history.

Weaknesses of Figurational Theory

Gives too little attention to problems & struggles that affect day-today lives
Understates the immediate personal consequences of oppressive power relations
Has not given enough attention to the experiences of women and gender inequities that
affect their lives
• Groups

Why do people join groups?

People often join groups since the groups give the members stability and enhance their
achievement capacity. The main reasons to join a group are:
 1. Have a sense of security
2. Have a status
3. Develop Self-esteem
4. Power
5. Goal achievement
• Group structure
The four different aspects of group structure are:

Norms - Set of beliefs, feelings, and attitudes commonly shared by group members.
Roles - the various parts played by group members.
Status - Status is “a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by
others.”
Cohesiveness – Social and Task cohesion

• Theories of Group Formation

Balance Theory:
Proposed by Theodore Newcomb which states that: Persons (individual X & Y) are
attracted with one another on the basis of similar attitudes towards commonly relevant objectives
and goals (Z).

Social Exchange Theory:

Proposed by John Thibaut and Harold Kelley. The social exchange theory proposes that
social behaviour is the result of an exchange process between rewards and costs. The purpose of
this exchange is to maximize rewards and minimize costs. According to this theory, people weigh
the potential rewards and costs of social relationships. When the rewards outweigh the costs they
will remain in the social relationship, when the costs outweigh the rewards they will terminate or
abandon that relationship.

• Stages of Group formation

1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
5. Adjourning

• Principles of the Group dynamics

“Group dynamics is concerned with the interactions or forces among group members in a
social situation.”

The members of the group must have a strong sense of belonging to the group
 The barrier between the leaders and those to be led must be broken down.
The more attraction a group is to its members, the greater influence it would exercise on
its members.
The greater the prestige of the group member in the eyes of other members, the greater
influence that member can exercise on the group.
The successful efforts to change individuals participation in the group would result in
making them confirm to the norms of the group.
A strong pressure for change can be established in the group by creating a shared
perception by the members for that need for change.

• Fandom
Fandom can be defined or explained as the state of being a fan or all that encompasses
fan culture and fan behaviour in general, or the study of fans and fan behaviour
A fan is an enthusiastic follower of a sport or entertainment or an enthusiastic admirer (as
of a celebrity)

Sports Fandom - Fandom relates more to the “culture” rather than just liking a team. Fandom is a
source of identity, belonging and passion. Fandom is a subculture composed of fans
characterized by a feeling of empathy and camaraderie with others who share a common interest.

Fans will express themselves in 3 basic ways:

1. semiotic productivity- using their object of fandom to create social meaning in their own
lives (e.g. a fan who gains confidence watching his or her favourite player/ team on TV)
2. enunciative productivity- expressing their fandom to the outside world through speech or
appearance (e.g. fans wearing their favourite team's jerseys)
3. textual productivity- creating texts based on their object of fandom (ex. fan fiction)

Gantz and Wenner, (1995) identified three distinct fandom categories:

1. fans, or “true believers,” deeply committed to their team;

2. spectators, or mere observers with a minimal level of interest; and
3. non-fans, or those not necessarily interested in sports, but who watch to be with others.

• Characteristics of sport fans

1. Fans tend to identify with a team. Thus, when a team wins or loses, one tends to respond
as if they themselves have won or lost.
2. Fans typically are interested in even minor details of the object(s) of their fandom and
spend a significant portion of their time and energy involved with their interest.
3. Winning can precipitate symptoms of mania as well as a loss of self-control.
 4. Through identification and projection, fans are able to personally feel a part of their team.
There is a sense of belonging, both to the team, as well as to other fans of the team.
5. It has been well established that people derive self-esteem benefits from simple
associations with successful others. Strong identification with a specific sports team
provides a buffer from feelings of depression and alienation, and at the same time, fosters
feelings of belongingness and self-worth.
6. Sports fans also desire to involve themselves externally through constant social
interaction with fellow fans

• Benefits of sport fandom

1. It builds camaraderie with friends when you cheer for the same team or play on a team
together.
2. It can inspire athleticism by inspiring you to exercise or work out to be like your favorite
player.
3. It provides entertainment and stress relief through cheering and socializing.
4. It builds traditions and connections through your hometown, state, school or alma mater.
5. Being a super-fan not only helps with relieving stress and depression, it also acts as a
self-esteem booster. This feeling is called reflected glory and it’s the positive effect you
feel from your team winning. It allows you to experience success which you wouldn’t
have had if you were not a fan.

• What are the repercussions of fandom?

1. Fandom can be taken to the extreme and to the point of obsession.
2. This can lead to isolating oneself from others – be it family, friends or coworkers.
3. Also one can spend an exorbitant amount of time and money on their obsession, leading
to debt and unemployment.
4. Finally, extreme fandom can produce frequent conflicts, fights and emotional distress.
5. There are fans who, when displeased over the ongoing or the eventual results of a game,
manifest their outrage and utter disappointment by throwing things unto the playing
fields, or crying and screaming uncontrollably or destroying objects, which, when taken
to certain extremes can disrupt other fans and lead to arguments and even brawls in some
cases, causing mayhem in the sports arena.
6. Many cases have been reported about sports athletes being stalked, or of opposite teams'
enthusiasts being threatened.

• Youth Sports
Athletic endeavours that provide children (ages 4- 10) and youth (ages 11- 18) with a systematic
sequence of practices and contests.

• Why are so many children involved?

 Trend toward earlier participation
Increase in female participation
Children are beginning to get involved in what used to be considered non-traditional
sport activities (tennis, cycling, bowling, ice hockey, cross-country skiing)
Rule changes, even the youngest child can experience success

• Benefits of youth sport activities

Academic performance improvement
Physical fitness
Self-esteem enhancement
Deterrent to negative behaviour

• Why Children Participate in Sports?

To have fun
To improve skills
To be with friends
To be part of a team
To experience excitement
To receive awards
To become physically fit
To win (Wankel & Kreisel, 1985)

• How to reduce stress in Youth Sports?

1. Change something about the sport so that success occurs more often than failure e.g.
lowering the basketball ring, smaller soccer fields
2. Skill training instils confidence. Balance time between teaching and on scrimmaging
3. Ensure positive reinforcement. Children who perceive themselves as competent are less
threatened and perform better
4. Winning/losing should be placed in perspective as children may feel that he/she has
disappointed parents or coach
5. Help child set realistic goals

• Youth Sport Coaching Philosophy

Guidelines to Enhance Youth Sport Experience:
a. Healthy philosophy of winning by coach
b. Appropriate reactions to desirable behaviours
c. Appropriate reactions to mistakes
d. Appropriate reactions to misbehaviours, lack of attention, and maintaining discipline
e. Appropriate behaviour by the coach
• Discrimination, Race and Ethnicity in Sports
Key terms:
i. Ethnic Minorities - Groups who are different in their ethnic origin from the majority of
the population.
ii. Racism - means not treating people of different races equally.
iii. Stereotypes - are where we label a group of people as all having the same image or
characteristics.
iv. Stacking - This is where players are put into positions and sports on the basis of their
ethnic background.
v. A linked theory is called “centrality” - this is where the dominant role in a team is done
by the dominant group in society

• The effect of racism

1. Personal racism - where people are made to feel unwelcome by individuals at sports clubs
and facilities.
2. Institutional racism - where racism is perpetrated by an organization rather than particular
individuals
3. Socio-economic factors such as employment, pay and social class play a big part in a
person’s access to sport
4. Ethnic minorities tend to make up the lower social classes in societies.
5. One result of this is that people from ethnic minorities have less money to spend on sport
and other leisure activities.
6. Discrimination occurs when one section of a community is disadvantaged because of
certain sociocultural variables.

• Gender Inequality & Sport

From as early as the first ancient Olympics in 776 B.C, women’s participation in sport has been a
taboo one. In these games women were not allowed participate, and married women were also
not allowed to watch; if found guilty of either offence, the sentence was death. Refusing to
accept those rules, some women dressed up as men to attend the events, even at the risk of being
thrown from the mountain of Typaion, as stipulated in the rules.

The father of the Olympics, Baron Pierre de Courbertin, was not too fond of women’s
participation in the Olympics. He excluded them in the first modern Olympics in 1896.
At the turn of the century, many doctors believed that if women took part in sport there was a
strong chance they would become infertile, and it was a common view that sporting women
might even turn into men. Their main role in life was to marry and raise a family.

Concern for the physical strength and stamina of women led to the discouragement of female
participation in more physically intensive sports, and in some cases led to less physically
demanding female versions of male sports. Thus netball was developed out of basketball and
softball out of baseball.

• Factors for low participation

 1. Traditional roles of daughter, student, wife and mother
2. Not enough sport facilities that cater for female needs
3. Pressures of being a single parent
4. Shortage of female sport role models
5. Little media coverage
6. Difficulty in acquiring sponsorship
7. Inequalities in sport salaries

• Factors for increased participation

1. Exercise recognition
2. Greater economic freedom
3. Increased promotion
4. Increase in female facilities
5. More activities that appeal to women
6. More positive role models
7. Increased media coverage
8. Increased opportunities for women

• Factors that affect participation today

1. Physiological
2. Sociological

Women have not only taken up roles as athletes in sport, but also as:
Officials
Agents
Sport Announcers
Scouts
Team owners
Club managers
Coaches

• Paralympics
The word “Paralympic” derives from the Greek preposition “para” (beside or alongside) and the
word “Olympic”. Its meaning is that Paralympics are the parallel Games to the Olympics and
illustrates how the two movements exists side-by-side.

• International Paralympic Committee functions

1. To organize the summer and winter Paralympic Games and act as the International
Federation for ten sports, supervising and coordinating World Championships and other
competitions.
 2. To enable Para athletes to achieve sporting excellence and inspire and excite the world.’
3. Enable - Creating conditions for athlete empowerment.
4. Para athletes - The primary focus, from initiation to elite level.
5. Achieve - Sporting excellence is the goal of a sport centered organization.
6. Inspire and excite - Touch the heart of all people for a more equitable society.

• Paralympic Values
i. Courage - Para athletes through their performances showcase to the world what can be
achieved when testing your body to its absolute limits.
ii. Determination - Para athletes have a unique strength of character that combines mental
toughness, physical ability and outstanding agility to produce sporting performances that
regularly redefine the boundaries of possibility.
iii. Inspiration - As role models, Para athletes maximize their abilities, thus empowering and
exciting others to participate in sport.
iv. Equality - Through sport Para athletes challenge stereotypes and transform attitudes,
helping to increase inclusion by breaking down social barriers and discrimination towards
people with impairment.

• Paralympic Motto
Mind, Body, Spirit

• Paralympic Symbol
The symbol of the Paralympic Games is composed of three "agitos", colored red, blue,
and green, encircling a single point, on a white field. The agito ("I move" in Latin) is a
symbol of movement.
These three colors are the most widely represented in national flags around the world.
The three agitos encircle a center point, to emphasize "bringing athletes from all corners
of the world together and enabling them to compete".

• Special Olympics
The Special Olympics is the world's largest sports organization for children and adults with
intellectual disabilities.
The first Special Olympics games were held in July 1968 at Soldier Field in Chicago. About
1,000 athletes from the U.S. and Canada took part in the one-day event, which was a joint
venture by the Kennedy Foundation and the Chicago Park District.

• Symbol
The Special Olympics logo is based on the sculpture "Joy and Happiness to All the Children of
the World"

• The Motto
Is "let me win, but if I can't win, let me be brave in the attempt.“
• The Mission
Is to provide year-round sports training and athletic competition in a variety of Olympic-type
sports for children and adults with intellectual disabilities.
This gives them continuing opportunities to develop physical fitness, demonstrate courage,
experience joy and participate in a sharing of gifts, skills and friendship with their families, other
Special Olympics athletes and the community.

• Deviance
Any behaviour which differs from the perceived social or legal norm.
a. The “deviant” is someone whose behaviour (notably, not attitudes or beliefs) departs
from established moral standards.
b. It is possible to find examples of behaviour within sport which are considered acceptable
but would be unacceptable in wider society.
• Over-conformity
Over conformity is the act of trying to change who you are by extreme means to try to fit in and
be accepted. Not only is it changing who you are, but it is letting this change consume your life
and control you. People who over conform do not object to societal and institutional rules no
matter the circumstance.

• Positive Deviance/ Deviant Over-conformity

It is possible to move away from the norm without an intention to do harm or break the rules.
This is a situation where an athlete goes too far in conforming to the rules.
1. Someone who trains or plays so hard they injure themselves.
2. Someone who plays when injured, takes risk and make sacrifices (often praised by media)
3. Normal life is neglected for the sport.
Because their actions are within the rules of the game and are simply in an attempt to
win, their deviance from the norm is seen in a positive light.
This form of deviance is harder to control because of the meaning given to sports by those in
control and the set ethics of sports.
According to Caokley (1993), the sport ethic has four core elements:
1. Athletes make sacrifices for the game.
2. Athletes strive for distinction.
3. Athletes accept risk and play through pain.
4. Athletes accept no limits in the pursuit of possibilities.

• Negative Deviance/ Deviant Under-conformity

Occurs when a player, manager, spectator or anyone involved behaves in a way that knowingly
breaks the rules or ethics of the sport.
 a. Using performance-enhancing drugs
b. Cheating within a contest
c. Being bribed to influence he results
d. Fan violence and hooliganism
e. Illegal betting on the outcome
f. Financial irregularities
g. Player violence
h. Fielding ineligible players
This form of deviance is easy to control because a rule violation can be punished appropriately.

• Relative Deviance
Actions which are considered acceptable in sport but would not be in society.
Right and wrong can mean different things to different people and is sometimes dependent on
culture, gender and social class.

*Seen in rugby when raking an opponent who is on top of the ball

Marion Jones- 6 months in jail
Ben Thatcher- Charged with ABH

This view suggests that deviance can be relative, and that deviants are victims of a power system
which makes the rules.

• Absolute Deviancy
The other view of deviancy takes an absolute view of right and wrong, and regards
deviant behavior as morally bankrupt.
There is no special consideration for culture, gender or social class.
The solution is to establish more control by creating more rules and punishing the
perpetrators more successfully and publicly.

• Causes of Deviance
Why does deviance occur?
i. Individuals lacks the moral restraint to resist
ii. Individuals value wining ahead of prospect of punishment
iii. Rewards for winning are so great that people are prepared to risk it.
iv. Deviant behaviour is more common so less socially unacceptable
v. Governing bodies feel less able to punish, owing to commercial interests or fear of being
taken to court.

• Doping
In competitive sports, doping refers to the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs
by athletic competitors, where the term doping is widely used by organizations that regulate
sporting competitions.
• The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was established in 1999 as an international
independent agency to promote and coordinate the fight against doping in sports at an
international level. Its key activities include scientific research, education, development of anti-
doping capacities, and monitoring of the World Anti-Doping Code.

• Cheating
Cheating is now expected in sports. Athletes try to win by using steroids and by cheating on drug
tests. Rules are no longer guidelines for the game but rather barriers to be overcome as new
methods of gamesmanship come up. Cheating has become a game within the games.

• Sport and the Media

a. Traditional media: Conventional forms of advertising media such as television, print,
radio, direct mail and outdoor
b. Non-traditional media: New and unorthodox media methods that create striking
advertising experiences that capture interest through their creativity and unpredictably,
hoping to command the attention of unassuming viewers
c. Social media: Innovative and contemporary digital media like the Internet, email, mobile,
blogging and social networking channels.

Media can be classified as print media and electronic media.

The media don’t tell us what to think but it greatly influences what we think about.
Sports and the media are interconnected parts of our lives. Sports provide valuable media
content and many sports depend on the media for publicity and revenues.

• What are the functions of sport media?

1. Create excitement about sport events leading up to the contest; describe the action during
the event and offer analyses and criticism at the conclusion of the event.
2. Convey to the fans the significance of the game, players, history and individual
matchups.
3. Facilitate emotional attachments through features of athletes, coaches and teams leading
up to seasons or specific contests.
4. Create a way for us to be preoccupied with sport as a healthy form of recreation and
entertainment that helps us escape from everyday life.

• How media affects sport?

1. Affect the popularity of a sport
 As more persons gained access to televisions and the internet, the popularity of professional
sport grew. The media expanded the popularity of sport by making sport spectatorship
easily accessible, fun and convenient.
2. Provide free publicity for players and teams
Players depend on the media for publicity. Star players are given a public face in their
community, receiving recognition for their sport performances

• Negative effects of the media on sport

1. The media can change the way sports are presented to the audience. Traditionalists
generally oppose any change in sport, claiming changes ruin the integrity of the
game. For example sports like American rugby have instituted overtime rules to
ensure a winner. This rule change was put in place due to the pressure from fans
viewing over the media to have a winner at the end of all matches.
2. Attendance declines in stadiums due to televised sport
3. Conflicts with scheduling
4. Gambling

• How Sport affects Media?

Sport has provided the media with enormous, predictable audiences that are attractive to
advertisers
1. Newspapers- Companies also pay big money to advertise in the sport section.
2. Magazines- Magazines that cover sport have responded to growing interest in specific
sports.
3. Television-Since its inception in the 1950’s, television has included sport coverage as a
critical part of programming. Television executive secured prime time slots for weekly
sporting programs.
The largest television audience in the world has been the FIFA Men’s World Cup.

• The impact of social media

a. By engaging fans via social media, sports rights holders can open new communication
channels with their audience that can be measured and valued as a new commercial
opportunity with sponsors.
b. Mobile phones and tablets have allowed social media to flourish and now football
stadiums such as Anfield and the Etihad Stadium offer fans Wi-Fi, enabling not only
more interactions at live events but more commercial activity.

• Sport as a social and transformational agent

a. Beliefs about consequences of sport participation vary from culture to culture, but people
in many cultures believe that playing sports builds character and improves health and
well-being.
 b. Anecdotal evidence certainly suggests that when applied correctly, sport can create
bridges where boundaries usually exist, giving participants a lesson in teamwork,
empathy for their teammates and respect for their opponents. Even when teams are made
up of kids from different ethnic, socioeconomic, religious or cultural backgrounds.
c. In 1995, the International Sport and Culture Association (ISCA) was created with the
philosophy that sport is not just about competition and exercise, but also regulates
behavior and creates a feeling of belonging, which in turn leads to strengthening of
democracy.
d. As well as being a great benefit to participants’ physical and mental health, sport and
physical activity can be extremely valuable in the context of social inclusion and
integration

• Sport as a political tool for unification

i. Sport has the potential to bring divided nations together.
ii. Sport events provide a stage for political rivalries but also increase understanding,
celebrate commonalities, facilitate cooperation and bridge differences
iii. Government involvement in sports promotes a sense of identity, belonging, and unity
among citizens.
iv. Sport’s role in reducing conflict can be traced back to the creation of the Olympic Games
“Sacred Truce/ Olympic Truce”. The Olympic Truce was reintroduced at the modern
games in 1994, and it remains an ideal of the Olympic movement, with a related UN
resolution passed every two years before each Olympics.
v. Sport is the most unifying and inspiring development and peace tool in the world.
Example In the opening ceremony of the 23rd Winter Olympic Games in South Korea,
we saw the power of sport, when athletes from North and South Korea marched together.
The two nations are even entering a combined women’s hockey team, in what the New
York Times called “the most dramatic gesture of reconciliation between them in a
decade”
vi. Mandela said in 2000: “Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to
inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else does. It speaks to youth in
a language they understand. Sport can create hope where there was only despair.”

• Sports for community development

What is the Role of Sport?
Sports development programs in areas of social and economic deprivation usually have two
broad, interdependent, aims:
1. The development of sport in communities.
2. The development of communities through sport.

• The Development of Sport in Communities

The main aim of such programs is sporting inclusion. The desired sporting outcomes of such
projects can include:
i. Removal of barriers to sports participation in the community among the general
population or target groups.
ii. Provision of opportunities to progress and to develop sporting skills and expertise.
iii. Provision of opportunities to move from recreational participation to competition or
excellence.
iv. Training and support of leaders and coaches.
v. Establishment of links between school, sports clubs and the wider community.

• The Development of Communities through Sport

The main aim of such programs is social inclusion. Although they aim to reduce barriers and
increase participation, they are also concerned to use sport as a means to an end. These projects
aim to use sport to achieve social outcomes such as:
i. Improving the fitness and health of specific social groups.
ii. Addressing issues of community safety and reducing levels of vandalism and crime.
iii. Contributing to improved school attendance/educational performance.
iv. Developing social and technical skills and increasing employability.
v. Contributing to community development and regeneration.

• The Nature of Psychology as related to Sport

Sport psychology is defined as the primarily scientific study of the behavioural, affective, and
cognitive reactions to sport settings, including the reactions of both participants and fans

• History & Development of sport and exercise psychology

It was not until the end of the 19th century that researchers began to examine empirically
the relationship between psychology and sport behaviours.
The first recognized sports psychology study was carried out by an American
psychologist Norman Triplett, in 1898. His works was carried on by Coleman Griffith who is
considered by many to be the father of American sport psychology.

• Roles in sport and exercise psychology

There are 4 types of sport psychologists:
1. Applied sport psychologists- Sport psychologists who apply sport-specific and general
psychological theories and research to sport settings in an attempt to increase the
psychological well-being, health, and performance of athletic participants.
2. Clinical sport psychologists- Sport psychologists specifically trained to deal with the
various emotional problems and personality disorders experienced by athletes
3. Educational sport psychologists- Sport psychologists with an understanding of the
principles of sport psychology who attempt to transmit this information to athletes and
coaches
 4. Experimental sport psychologists- Sport psychologists primarily interested in conducting
research to further the knowledge and understanding of sport

• Common techniques or skills sport psychologists teach to athletes for improving their
performance.
i. Arousal regulation refers to entering into and maintaining an optimal level of cognitive
and physiological activation in order to maximize performance.
ii. Goal setting is the process of systematically planning ways to achieve specific
accomplishments within a certain amount of time.
iii. Imagery (or motor imagery) can be defined as using multiple senses to create or recreate
experiences in one's mind
iv. Pre-performance routines refer to the actions and behaviors athletes use to prepare for a
game or performance. This includes pregame routines, warm up routines, and actions an
athlete will regularly do, mentally and physically, before they execute the performance.
v. Self-talk refers to the thoughts and words athletes and performers say to themselves,
usually in their minds. Self-talk phrases (or cues) are used to direct attention towards a
particular thing in order to improve focus.

• Careers in sport and exercise psychology

a. Academic Positions- Instructor of sport and exercise psychology at a university, Sport
psychologist for a university athletic department
b. Sport psychologist in private practice- Mental training consultant or sport psychologist
for a professional sport agent, Mental training consultant in private practice
c. Athlete Development- Academic coach, Athlete liaison officer
d. Exercise Psychology- Active living consultant, wellness coach

• Motivation
Motivation is a process of arousal (the level of anxiety) within an organism that helps
direct and sustain behaviour.
Motivation is linked with the concept of homeostasis. If the body develops a need then it
will strive to meet this need.
Physiological needs results in psychological drives.
• Maslow’s 1954 Hierarchy of needs
• Types of Motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation refers to behaviour that is driven by internal rewards. In other words,
the motivation to engage in a behaviour arises from within the individual because it is
intrinsically rewarding.
2. Extrinsic Motivation occurs when an athlete is motivated by external factors. This type of
motivation drives the athlete to do things for tangible or intangible rewards or pressures,
rather than for the fun of it.
3. Amotivation refers to behaviors that are neither internally nor externally based. It is the
relative absence of motivation

• Achievement Needs Theory

McClelland says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three motivating
drivers, and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver. This dominant motivator is
largely dependent on our culture and life experiences.
Dominant Drivers:
a. Achievement - Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals.
b. Affiliation - Wants to belong to the group
c. Power - Wants to control and influence others.

• Weiner (1971) Attribution Theory

Attribution theory is concerned with how we interpret and understand events and how
this can influence the way we think and behave. Attributions refer to the process of interpreting
the causes for a specific event or behaviour.
The key element of attribution theory is perception: when athletes are asked “To what do
you attribute to be your greatest success?” They are being asked for their perception.
An assumption of the attribution theory is that people will interpret their environment in such a
way as to maintain a positive self-image.

The Model has two dimensions: locus of causality and stability.

 1. The locus of causality dimension shows whether the attribution comes from internal or
external factors.
2. The stability dimension refers to whether the attribution is permanent and hard to change
or whether it is temporary and easy to change

• Bandura(1997) Self-Efficacy Theory

Is defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required
to produce given attainments”.
Self-efficacy is a form of situation-specific self-confidence.

If an athlete perceives or believes that she can influence for good the outcome of a contest she
will eagerly enter into the competition. Thus, an efficacious athlete is a motivated athlete.
Bandura proposed four fundamental elements effective in developing self-efficacy.:
1. Successful Performance -The athlete must experience success in order for self-efficacy to
develop. The teacher or coach must ensure success by initially reducing the difficulty of
the task.
2. Vicarious Experiences - Beginning athletes can experience success through the use of
models (instructor, skilled team-mate or video).
3. Verbal Persuasion - Encouragement from coaches, teachers, parents or peers. Helpful
verbal statements that suggest that the athlete is competent and can succeed.
4. Emotional Arousal - Emotional arousal can affect readiness for learning. Athletes must be
emotionally ready and optimally aroused to be attentive.

• Equity Theory
Adam’s Equity Theory, also known as the Equity Theory of Motivation, was developed in 1963
by John Stacey Adams.
Equity Theory is based on the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness. In simple terms,
equity theory states that if an individual identifies an inequity between themselves and a peer,
they will adjust the work they do to make the situation fair in their eyes.
Equity theory is also based on the premise that athletes will put forth a particular level of effort
that they feel compares to the reward potential.

• Health Belief Theory

The health belief model, grounded in John Atkinson’s expectancy–value theory of
achievement motivation.
The health belief model proposes that an individual’s readiness (intention) to engage in physical
activities is a function of the perceived vulnerability to a health condition and the probable
severity of that condition.
The HBM was spelled out in terms of four constructs representing the perceived threat and net
benefits:
1. perceived susceptibility: if I play football barefoot I can get injured
2. perceived severity: injury could take me out for the season
3. perceived benefits: using a boots can prevent injury
4. perceived barriers: I do play better barefoot

These concepts were proposed as accounting for people's "readiness to act."

An added concept, cues to action, would activate that readiness and stimulate overt behavior.
Coach saying you need a boots to play.
A recent addition to the HBM is the concept of self-efficacy, or one's confidence in the ability to
successfully perform an action. I can play really good with a boots!

• Gender and Motivation

Strategies in motivation
Motivation is an integral part of the success formula in any sport

Some of the popular strategies used by coaches and sport psychologists to motivate students are:
i. positive and negative feedback
ii. reinforcement
iii. social activity
iv. pep talks
• Positive and Negative feedback
Positive feedback is received when a movement is correctly performed and is used to reinforce
the action. Positive feedback can be intrinsic (from within the athlete) or extrinsic (from an
outside source) and is used to motivate performance.
Negative feedback is received when a movement is incorrect in order to prevent the incorrect
action being repeated. Negative feedback can be intrinsic of extrinsic.
• Reinforcement
Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It is based
on “law of effect”, i.e., individual’s behaviour with positive consequences tends to be repeated,
but individual’s behaviour with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows
positive and required behaviour.

Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing negative /

undesirable consequences.
• Social Activity
Youth sport participants frequently report social reasons for their involvement in sport such as
wanting to be part of a team or to be with friends (affiliation), and social sources of positive and
negative affect such as social recognition(social status) and parental pressure.
As a social activity sport provides opportunities for interpersonal interaction and the
development of social bonds with significant others.

• Pep talks
Coaches routinely use pep talks to inspire and motivate athletes this is known as “Inspirational
Tactics” in sport.
Research on the influence of pre-game pep talks has also shown increases in team efficacy.
Athletes exposed to an ‘emotional plea’ increased in team efficacy compared to those who
received information about the game or game strategy.

• Goals
A goal is an idea of the future or desired result that a person or a group of people
envisions, plans and commits to achieve.
Goal setting is one of the most important skills taught to athletes in order to help them
achieve optimal performance.

In the strategy of goal setting there are 5 types of goals an athlete can have: subjective
goals, objective goals, outcome goals, performance goals and process goals.
1. Subjective goals are not related to a specific performance in sport; these may be related to
just going out and trying one’s best
2. Objective goals are based on an athlete’s performance. For example, an objective goal of
decreasing time by 2 seconds in the 50-meter freestyle event.
3. Outcome goals are related to winning and losing or specific results of a competition.
Such as a goal to come in first place in the swim meet or to win the state championship.
4. Performance goals refer to one’s actual performance in relation to their own standard of
excellence. For example, athletes may wish to improve their first serve percentage from
50% to 60%,or improve their high jump from 6 feet 4 inches to 6 feet 10 inches
5. Process goals are usually concerned with how an athlete performs a particular skill;
displays a certain technique or carries out a specific strategy. For example, a process
goal in tennis might be to bend your knees when hitting a low shot.

• Types of Goals
There are three types of goals: based on time, focus and topic.
1. Long term goals
2. Short term goals
3. Enabling goals
• Goal Orientation
Task Goal Orientation
The goal is mastery of a particular skill. The task oriented individual continues to work for
mastery of the skill she is working on.
Ego Goal Orientation
Perceived ability is measured as a function of outperforming others as opposed to self-
improvement.
• Goal setting process
Kirschenbaum (1997) has presented the SMART acronym to help athletes set effective goals:
Goals are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and they have a specific Time frame.

SMART(ER) goal setting brings structure and track-ability into your goals and objectives.

i. Specific: What exactly do you want to achieve? The more specific your description, the
bigger the chance you'll get exactly that.
ii. Measurable: Means that you identify exactly what it is you will see, hear and feel when
you reach your goal. It means breaking your goal down into measurable elements. You'll
need concrete evidence.
iii. Attainable: Is your goal attainable? That means investigating whether the goal really is
acceptable to you. You weigh the effort, time and other costs your goal will take against
the profits and the other obligations and priorities you have in life.
iv. Realistic/Relevant: Is reaching your goal relevant to you? Decide for yourself whether
you have the personality for it, or your team has the bandwidth.
v. Timed: Install deadlines, for yourself and your team, and go after them. Keep the timeline
realistic and flexible, that way you can keep morale high.
vi. Evaluate: ensure that your goals are evaluated. By evaluating your goals regularly, you’ll
be much more likely to achieve them.
vii. Review: Simply repeat the process after the evaluation process, going through the
SMARTER model again to set new goals to help you reach your new objectives.

• Goal Setting in Sports

(Locke, 1966, 1968; Locke & Latham, 1990; 2006). They argue that goals influence
performance in four distinct ways: (a) directing attention (b) mobilizing effort, (c) enhancing
persistence, and (d) developing new learning strategies.

• Arousal
Arousal can be defined as – a general mixture of both the physiological and psychological levels
of activity that a performer experiences; these levels vary on a continuum from deep sleep to
intense excitement.
In the context of psychology, arousal is the state of being physiologically alert, awake, and
attentive. Arousal is primarily controlled by the reticular activating system (RAS) in the
brain. Simply put it is being alert, physically and mentally.
The RAS and your arousal level are influenced by a number of different things, such as your
emotions, the foods you eat, and the neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine,
and acetylcholine) in the brain.
This relationship between high or low arousal and performance is described by the Yerkes-
Dodson law. According to this law, performance suffers when arousal is either too high or too
low. There's an optimized level of arousal which will produce optimal performance (optimum
arousal)
When we are aroused we are energized and 'feel alive'. There are three ways that arousal can be
achieved: mentally, emotionally and physically.

1. Cognitive, or intellectual, arousal is about thinking and mental stimulation. This is the
state where we are exploring, learning and discovering interesting things.
2. Affective, or emotional, arousal happens when we are emotionally charged up and feel
passionate about something. We may be angry, excited, scared, joyful or feeling the
stimulation of any other emotion.
3. Physical arousal occurs where our bodies are in a heightened sense of arousal, typically
with adrenaline coursing through our system and activating our muscles. This includes
sexual arousal and the bodily activation we feel when we are engaged in sports.

• Anxiety
Anxiety is a mental state that negatively affects athletic, professional, academic and sexual
performance. It can cause fear and create an inability to concentrate on the activity at hand. It
also has physiological consequences, such as shortness of breath, sweating, a racing heart,
shakiness and dizziness.

• Somatic Anxiety in Sport

Somatic (relating to the body, especially as distinct from the mind) anxiety is anxiety provoked
by bodily symptoms of tension such as butterflies in the stomach. It is commonly contrasted with
cognitive anxiety which is that provoked by mental concerns or worry.
Common symptoms of somatic anxiety include, experiencing butterflies, sweating, heavy
breathing or a elevated heart rate. Common symptoms of cognitive anxiety include negative
thoughts, feelings of apprehension or nervousness.

• Activation
Activation refers to the energy levels you experience in your body and mind prior to your
performance.
Your level of activation can vary from low (deep sleep) to high (extreme excitement).
Activation involves both a physiological response (for example, increased heart rate) and
cognitive/psychological processes (for example, appraisal of a situation).
Activation levels fall into one of three categories: over-activated, optimal activation and under-
activated.
Activation levels can have both positive and negative effects on your performance if they are not
managed effectively.

• Stress
Stress: a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or demanding
circumstances; an imbalance between that demands that someone feels and his or her feelings of
capability to meet that demand; a stimulus resulting in arousal or a response to a specific
situation.
There are 2 types of stress in sport: Eustress - A positive reaction of a performer to stress,
leading to optimal arousal (good stress) and Distress- When stress becomes too much to bear or
cope with (bad stress).

• Symptoms of Stress
Physiological – Increased Heart Rate, Sweaty Hands, Muscle Tension
Cognitive – Perceptual Changes, Decision Making, Memory, Response Selection
Emotional – Violence, Withdrawal from the sporting situation, Anger

• Theories of Arousal and Performance

The Inverted U Theory suggests that optimal performance occurs at an intermediate level of
arousal while both low and high levels of arousal will result in impaired performance.
In sport, this means that a little excitement and stress associated with competition can have a
positive effect, but a situation that is too stressful is detrimental.
In general one could expect that athletes may perform badly because they are over-or under-
aroused. In addition, the optimum arousal levels tend to be lower for more complicated tasks.

Drive Theory (Hull 1943 and Spence 1966). Drive refers to increased arousal and internal
motivation to reach a particular goal. We have primary drivers (basic needs) and secondary
drivers (money, intimacy, or social approval)
Drive Theory is the relationship between arousal and performance. Increase in arousal is
proportional to increase the performance of the player.
This is a theory of arousal that proposes a linear relationship between arousal and performance
whereas arousal increases so does the quality of performance.

Multi-dimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that an increase in worry has a negative effect on
performance. The theory is based on the premise that anxiety is multidimensional with its two
components (cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety) influencing performance differently.
The theory makes a series of predictions:
i. There will be a negative but linear relationship between cognitive anxiety and
performance
ii. There will be an inverted U relationship between somatic anxiety and performance
 iii. Somatic anxiety should decline once performance begins but cognitive anxiety may
remain high if confidence is low

The cognitive component has been defined as the negative expectations and concerns about one's
ability to perform and the possible consequences of failure.
The somatic component is the physiological effects of the anxiety experience, such as an increase
in autonomic arousal with negative physiological effects, like palpitations, tense muscles,
shortness of breath, clammy hands and in some cases even nausea.

• The Control of Arousal

The Cognitive Approaches:
Concentration is the ability to maintain focus on relevant internal and external stimuli (e.g.,
cues) for a period of time.
Imagery is also called visualization or mental rehearsal. Imagery means using all of your senses
(e.g., see, feel, hear, taste, smell) to rehearse your sport in your mind.
Self-monitoring, or the capacity to observe (or measure) and evaluate one's behaviour, allows
athletes to measure their behavioural outcomes against a set of standards.

The Somatic Approaches:

Massage therapists can control arousal by reducing anxiety, improving moods, increasing
relaxation and promoting energy.
Engaging in a moderate amount of physical activity will result in improved mood and emotional
states; exercise promotes psychological well-being as well as improves quality of life.

• Learning
The major goal of instruction on the field should be to equip the athlete with the type of skills
that are durable and flexible.
Learning, however, must be distinguished from performance, which is what can be observed and
measured during instruction or training.
In sport, we are able to use major theories to better understand our athletes and to apply to
various learning situations. These major theories are: Behaviourism, Cognitive and Social
Learning theory.

• Behaviourism
Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is
shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement.
Behavioristic approach is based on stimulus-response theories.
 Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new
behaviour based on environmental conditions.
In assuming that human behaviour is learned, behaviourists also hold that all behaviours
can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviours; that is, when a behaviour becomes
unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one.
A key element to this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response
must be rewarded in order for learning to take place.

• Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning (by Pavlov) and Operant conditioning (by Skinner) are central to
behaviourism. Classical conditioning is a process that involves creating an association between a
naturally existing stimulus (unconditioned) and a previously neutral one. Operant conditioning
utilizes reinforcement and punishment to create associations between behaviours and the
consequences for those behaviours.

NOTE: It can be difficult to find examples of Classical Conditioning within the sporting world.
Something like a referee blowing the whistle signifying that play should stop is a good example.
The athletes know what to do without having to think about it.

Examples of Operant Conditioning in sport can be situations such as a football shooting practice.
The coach may direct the players to strike the ball into the right side of the goal. If this is done
they are rewarded. The area is then reduced to the top half of the right side, and then maybe the
top right hand corner only. Rewarding this behaviour strengthens the link. In Operant
Conditioning the behaviour is shaped by the coach and the player need not understand why they
are performing like this, just that they will be rewarded if they do it correctly.

• Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive learning (by Wolfgang Kohler and Edward Tolman) is based on how a person
processes and reasons information. It revolves around many factors, including problem-solving
skills, memory retention, thinking skills and the perception of learned material.
The theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing mental processes and
how they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to produce learning in
individuals.
Cognitive learning also known as the Gestalt theory, The word Gestalt in German
language means ‘whole’, ‘total pattern’ or ‘configuration’.
The performer needs to understand the whole problem before performing the skill
correctly. They base their response on their previous experiences and the current situation.
Humans, especially, have the power to see the relationship between things and come up with a
solution.
 An example would be the times when we try our best to come up with a solution but are
trials would prove to be fruitless. But suddenly, out of nowhere, a solution would come to us.
This is what Kohler called as insight learning.
The cognitive processes are: observing, categorizing, and forming generalizations about
our environment.

• Social Learning Theory

Bandura's Social Learning Theory argues that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modelling. The theory has often been called a bridge between
behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation.
Bandura identified four requirements for learning—observation or attention
(environmental), retention (cognitive), reproduction (cognitive), and motivation (both).

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a
behaviour
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a
behaviour
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in
books, films, television programs, or online media
There are three core concepts of social learning theory:
i. People can learn through observation
ii. Mental states are an essential part of this process
iii. It will not necessarily result in a change of behaviour

Note: The social learning theory is clearly evident in sport when young athletes mimic their
sporting heroes in style of play, mannerisms, product consumption and dress.

• Learning Skills
There are three different phases in which we learn skills. They are the cognitive phase, the
associative phase and the autonomous phase.
• Cognitive Phase
When learning a new skill we all start at the cognitive phase. At this point we learn how
to perform the skill. We create a mental picture of how the skill is performed. Trainers and
coaches are heavily depended upon as it is difficult to correct your own actions. Trainers and
coaches will:
a. Give clear demonstrations
b. Provide simple instructions
c. Have short periods for practicing
d. Give praise for the correct action
 e. Emphasize the technique and not the outcome

• Associative Phase
During the associative stage, students improve their practice and get a feel for the skill.
The proper technique is learnt by this stage so concentration on practicing the skill is important.
Students make fewer errors and they are able to analyse their own movements and make
corrections. Internal feedback from our senses as well as external feedback from the coach is
used to help make corrections. Most athletes do not move beyond this stage.

• Autonomous Phase
Athletes perform the skill automatically during the autonomous stage. More
concentration is given to decisions about strategies and tactics. Watching Brian Lara skilfully and
repeatedly stroke a ball for four runs between fielders is the evidence of this phase. The use of
the coach becomes limited as they are able to detect and deal with their own errors. Coaches
assist with the finer details of the skill such as tactics and mental preparation.

• Factors that influence motor skill learning:

i. Individual differences – Readiness, Motivation, Experience, Age, Gender, Social and

economic background, Intelligence and skill level, Personality – introverts and extroverts,
Genetics, Culture and environment , Emotions, Race, Body type, Muscle-fiber
composition
ii. Psychosocial aspects - - Psychosocial is relating to the interrelation of social factors and
individual thought and behavior. Factors such as better concentration, higher confidence,
more task-oriented thoughts, lower anxiety, more positive thoughts and images, and more
determination or commitment enable motor learning.
iii. Task complexity - The complexity of a skill to be learnt is obviously important in the
acquisition of the skill
iv. Type of skill taught (open/ closed) - Open skills are performed in a changing,
unpredictable environment. Close skills are performed in environments that are stable and
predictable as possible.
v. Task complexity - refers to how many parts or component parts are present, and the
intellectual demands of the task.
vi. Styles of instruction – teaching methods Different situations require different styles.
vii. Presentation style - If you cannot communicate in a way that is both comprehensible and
interesting to your team, their learning will be greatly reduced.
viii. Type of practice – Massed practice is a continuous form of practice which is best for
simple skills.
ix. Types of practice – Distributed practice occurs where attempts at the skill are divided up
with intervals in between to allow for rest and mental rehearsal.
• Leadership Influencing Others

One of the most important aspects of being an effective leader is the ability to influence
others to believe in the mission and the results you want to achieve.
A team can’t win unless there is buy-in on the strategic plan, and it’s the leader’s job to
ensure this happens.
Here are the Seven I’s for influencing others and building a winning team:
1. Identify the results you want.
2. Illustrate your credibility. In order to truly influence others you must demonstrate some
level of credibility so the team is more likely to believe in what you are saying.
3. Invest the time in getting to know the people you wish to influence.
4. Invite them to share their ideas.
5. Investigate options that lead you to common ground, good leaders always find ways to
achieve common ground between team members.
6. Intend an outcome that meets everyone’s needs.
7. Improvise as needed.

• Sources of Power
Power refers to the capacity to influence others. It is a force of influence and authority.
Most leaders wield power, but how power is manifested and used often differs between
leaders.
Downward power occurs when a superior influences subordinates, upward power occurs
when subordinates influence the decisions of the leader.

• Sources of Power according to French and Raven (1959)

i. Reward Power involves the ability to reward others such as verbal praise, positive body
language, and more playing time.
ii. Coercive Power concerns the ability to control access to one or more punishments for
example verbal reprimands, negative gesture, giving less playing time, making players
run laps or perform sit ups and push-ups.
iii. Legitimate Power involves the ability to use one’s position and authority within the
organization, group or team, for example, being an authority figure, possessing official
status, ownership of the organization, being the head coach etc.
iv. Expert Power is derived from perception that one is knowledgeable, skillful, or talented
in a specific domain. For example, Expert Power consists of being a former star in that
sport, having specific education and experience, awarded many titles or medals.
v. Referent Power involves the ability to be liked and respected by the group members. For
example, athletes respect and admire their coaches, and follow their decisions.
• The Abuse of Power
Abuse involves using excessive, unfair and improper methods of managing something or
someone.
Abuse in the sports context ranges from sexual abuse, psychological abuse, to emotional
and physical abuse.
Coaches are not Gods, but rather, fallible humans, and they can be vicious, racist bullies,
or the facilitators of players’ bad behavior.

• Ways to eliminate the abuse of power in Sports

a. A Model Code of Conduct for Coaches and Athletes
b. Criminal background checks
c. Training of all coaches and staff on identifying the signs of abuse
d. Exclusion of coaches who have been identified as sexual abusers
e. Toll-free hotlines for reporting abuse are an absolute minimum.
f. Highlighting and emphasis must be placed on Good Sportsmanship.

• Effective leadership
Effective leadership is one key element in the success of a group and virtually anyone can
learn to be an effective leader. It is generally believed that leaders are made, not born.

• The Qualities of an Effective Leader

Vision, ambition, motivation, charisma, experience, understanding needs of others, empathy

Sport management as effective leaders require traits such as; motivation, direction, organization,
planning, patience, flexibility, vision, energy, integrity, and people skills.
Coaches are expected to manage, motivate, be positive role models, teach safe and ethical
behaviors and implement a positive learning.
Team Captains as effective leaders require traits such as Interpersonal Relationships skills,
Mentoring and Support skills, Knowledge of Sport, Communication skills, dedication, respect,
decision making skills, self-esteem and confidence.
• Becoming a Leader
Prescribed leaders are those who are given the role of a leader by a higher authority, in
football for example; this could be a coach who is appointed by the FA to coach the England
team.
An emergent leader is an individual who has worked their way up into leadership by
gaining respect and support from the group. An example of an emergent leader is David
Beckham who became a leader of the England team before he was appointed captain; this is
because of his impressive performances and respect he earned from the group.
• Three Traditional Types of Leadership
Autocratic:
The Autocratic coach takes on an authoritative approach where you are "told" rather than "asked.
These types of coaches believe their way of doing things is the only way to succeed.
Democratic:
Democratic leadership, also known as participative leadership, is a type of leadership style in
which members of the group take a more participative role in the decision-making process.
Laissez-Faire:
Laissez-faire leadership, also known as delegative leadership, is a type of leadership style in
which leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make the decisions.

• Great Man Theory

Have you ever heard the phrase, "Great leaders are born, not made"? This quote sums up the
basic tenant of the great man theory of leadership, which suggests that the capacity for leadership
is inborn.
According to this theory, you're either a natural born leader or you're not.
The theory suggests that great leaders can arise when there is a great need
The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a
male quality.
Thomas Carlyle (1841) had a major influence on this theory of leadership, at one point stating
that, "The history of the world is but the biography of great men."

• Theories of Leadership
Multi- dimensional theory:
According to Chelladurai (1984, 1990) there are five types of leadership behaviour:
1. Training and instruction: behaviour is aimed at improving performance
2. Democratic: allows decisions to be made collectively
3. Autocratic: gives the leader personal authority
4. Social support: shows concern for the well-being of others
5. Rewarding: provides team members with positive reinforcement

These behaviours can be measured using the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS) developed by
Chelladurai and Saleh (1980)

Chelladurai states that there are three factors that affect leader behaviour:
i. Situational characteristics- for example, whether the opposition is weak or strong
ii. Leader characteristics- such as experience, personality, etc.
iii. Group member characteristics- including age, gender and experience of the members.
There are also three types of leader behaviour:
1. Required behaviour: what the situation requires the leader to do
2. Actual behaviour: what the leader actually does, which depends upon the above
characteristics
3. Preferred behaviour: what the team members want the leader to do.

• Group Dynamics
A group is defined as “two or more people who are interacting with one another in such a manner
that each person influences and is influenced by each other person” (M.E. Shaw 1976).
Team is defined as a group of people with different skills and different tasks, who work together
on a common project, service, or goal, with a meshing of functions and mutual support.

• The difference between a Group and a Team

Although the words 'group' and 'team' are, for the most part, interchangeable, a group is a
collection of individuals who coordinate their individual efforts while a team is a group of people
who share a common team purpose and a number of team challenging goals.
A team's strength or focus depends on the commonality of their purpose and how the
individuals are connected to one another. On the other hand, a group can come from having a
large number of people or a cohesive willingness to carry out a focused action like a political
party.
For example, we have a football team, not a football group - or we have a church group,
not a church team.

• Social Cohesion
Cohesion acts as glue that binds and bonds individuals to a group identity and cause. Cohesion is
defined as the total field of forces that cause members to remain in a group. Cohesion comprises
both task cohesion and social cohesion:

Task Cohesion: refers to the degree to which members of a group work together to achieve
common goals, for example, to win a specific game.
Social Cohesion: reflects the degree to which members of a team like each other and interact
accordingly.

• Group Dynamics
The dynamic within the group is also an important consideration in building group
cohesion. Group cohesion is defined as “a measure of the extent to which a group works together
socially or to complete a task”. Group dynamics describes the processes within a group and
between the members of the group. This can also be described as the energy the group exhibits.
Successful groups with a dynamic have "chemistry”.
Group dynamics depends on individual personalities, but can be the product of leadership
and cohesion within a group. A clear goal and the nurturing of personalities all contribute to the
dynamic within a group.

• Understanding the Stages of Team Formation in Sport (Tuckman 1965)

Forming:
The “forming” stage takes place when the team first meets each other. Team members are
introduced; they share information about their backgrounds, interests and experience and form
first impressions of each other.
As leader, you play a dominant role at this stage, because team members' roles and
responsibilities aren't clear.
This stage can last for some time, as people start to work together, and as they make an
effort to get to know their new colleagues.

Storming:
This stage is not avoidable. At this stage the team members compete with each other for
status and for acceptance of their ideas. They have different opinions on what should be done and
how it should be done – which will often cause conflict within the team.
The Coach and team leader needs to be adept at facilitating the team through this stage
ensuring the team members learn to listen to each other and respect differences and ideas.
Norming:
Gradually, the team moves into the norming stage. This is when people start to resolve
their differences, appreciate colleagues' strengths, and respect your authority as a leader.
Now that your team members know one another better, they may socialize together, and
they are able to ask one another for help and provide constructive feedback. People develop a
stronger commitment to the team goal, and you start to see good progress towards it.

Performing:
The team reaches the performing stage, when hard work leads, without friction, to the
achievement of the team's goal. The structures and processes that you have set up support this
well.
 As leader, you can delegate much of your work, and you can concentrate on developing
team members. It feels easy to be part of the team at this stage, and people who join or leave
won't disrupt performance.

Adjourning:
Many teams will reach this stage eventually. For example, project teams exist for only a
fixed period, and even permanent teams may be disbanded through organizational restructuring.
Team members who like routine, or who have developed close working relationships
with colleagues, may find this stage difficult, particularly if their future now looks uncertain.

• Productivity and groups

In additive tasks the contributions of each member are combined into the final group
product. For example, pulling a tug of war rope involves the efforts of everyone, and the group is
more effective than an individual puller.
In disjunctive tasks, there is a single problem for the group/ team to solve. The leader
usually finds the solution. A group/ team of people working collectively will be more likely to
find success than one person working alone. For example, a badminton team is more likely to
win a tournament than a single player by himself/ herself.
• Steiner Model of Productivity
Actual productivity = Potential productivity − Faulty group processes.

Potential productivity refers to the team's best possible performance if all members perform to
their full potential.

• The Influence of Cohesion on Team Performance

Research studies indicate that highly cohesive teams are likely to be highly successful
teams. It is certain that a highly cohesive team would be more likely to achieve more than a team
whose members’ exhibit discontent, conflict and disruption.
Therefore, a coach and the team must be concerned with both task cohesion and social
cohesion. This is because increase in both task and social cohesion will ultimately lead to
success.
Success is an important aspect of task cohesion, therefore, the more success a team
experiences, the higher the cohesion. Investigations on the influence of team composition on
team performance, often assume that this relationship is promoted by the strength or intensity of
the social cohesion among team members.

• Carron identifies 4 factors that affect the development of cohesion:

1. Environmental factors: that binds players together are age, club membership, location etc
2. Personal factors: belief in the group, a desire to win, the social relationships within a
community etc.
3. Leadership factors: the influence of the coach or manager in building identity and affiliation
through task and social cohesion factors
4. Team factors: in relation to the group as a whole, its identity, targets set, the ability and role
of each member of the group.

• Social Facilitation
Social facilitation (Triplett 1898), or the audience effect, is the tendency for people to
perform better when in the presence of others than when alone. Compared to their performance
when alone, when in the presence of others, they tend to perform better on simple or well-
rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones.
It can be defined as ‘an increase in performance produced by the mere presence of
others’. There are two types of social facilitation: co-action effects and audience effect.

• The Co-action Effect

Co-action effect is a phenomenon whereby increased task performance comes about by
the mere presence of others doing the same task. A runner on the treadmill in the gym can run
further when there are other treadmill runners around him/ her.

• The Audience effect

The audience effect is a change in sporting performance in the presence of a passive
spectator/audience. For example playing better in a football game in front of thousands of on
looking spectators.

Beliefs are convictions that are held as true by an individual or group, and these convictions often
influence the actions of the person that holds them.
A value is about what a person finds to be important and wants to be doing with his or her life.
Values refer to the ideologies that specific individuals and communities feel are the most
important. Values are chosen consequences that can never be fulfilled. Rather, they serve as
motivation for certain behavioural directions.
Morals are codes of conduct that has been established and agreed upon by the majority of a
society. They are standards of behaviour; principles of right and wrong.
Ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make decisions and lead their
lives. Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as
moral philosophy.

BELIEFS are those things you hold to be true. Given those beliefs your estimation of the
relative importance of the "true things" are your VALUES. MORALS are a generalized feeling,
based on your values, of what is 'right' and 'wrong'. ETHICS arise when you try to codify
(organize) your morals in concrete terms.

• Moral Development
Morality - Recognition of the distinction between good and evil or between right and wrong;
respect for and obedience to the rules of right conduct; the mental disposition or characteristic of
behaving in a manner intended to produce good results
Sports are one arena in which moral development can occur. Such development happens by way
of both imitation and initiation.
A child learns how to play soccer by imitating those who are good at the sport. Similarly,
a child can learn how to be virtuous by imitating those who are morally good.

Initiation is important as well. The experienced practitioner, whether of soccer or

morality, will provide an example of what it is to excel and initiate the young into the proper
habits of the practice. Children need to be encouraged to be committed to sports as moral
practices, which mean that they will play the sport as it ought to be played rather than in immoral
ways.

• Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological
theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. The six stages of moral
development according to Kohlberg are grouped into three levels: pre-conventional morality,
conventional morality, and post-conventional morality.
Kohlberg demonstrated through studies that people progress in their moral reasoning through a
series of stages. Kohlberg asserted that moral reasoning could only proceeded with intellectual
development and exposure to socialization. He classified the stages in 3 levels, placing 2 stages
in each level:

Pre-conventional morality:

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation - focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and
avoid being punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the
perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation - expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right
behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. It shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s
own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but
rather a “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” mentality.

Conventional morality:

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation - children want the approval of others and act in ways
to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation - the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of
their importance in maintaining a functioning society.
Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is
“supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important.
Post-conventional morality:

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation - the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights,
and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people.
Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principle Orientation - moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning

using universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles focus on ideas such as
equality, dignity, or respect.
Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who
consistently operated at that level.

• Sport and Character Development

When building character development through sports, the qualities of sportsmanship must be
addressed. Sportsmanship is fair and generous behaviour or treatment of others, especially in a
sporting contest. Some specific practical suggestions for building character through sports are:
a. Be a good role model: Actions speak louder than words. A coach should seek to embody
sportsmanship and respect for opponents, officials, team members, and the sport. When a
coach fails to live up to these ideals, they should admit this to their players
b. Emphasize sportsmanship from the beginning: Explain your expectations, what
sportsmanship is, and why you value this trait
c. Talk about combining seriousness and playfulness: Explain to your players that sport is
serious fun. It is competitive play. Don't take it too seriously, but don't treat it too lightly,
either
d. Regularly use the language of sportsmanship: One thing that this means is that players
often hear the language of "respect" from the coach
e. Expect sportsmanship in practice and games: Encourage and expect respect in both
situations
f. Reinforce good sportsmanship: This can be done through words of praise, granting more
playing time on this basis, and including a sportsmanship award after the game or season.
• Ethics In Sports
What factors contribute to a decline in ethical behaviour?
i. Pressure to win at any cost. Players, coaches and managers jobs rely on producing
results, not on producing narrow defeats.
ii. Huge contracts and fame available to elite players.
iii. Unrealistic expectations from the fans, coaches and club owners put added pressure
onto the players to perform at a higher level.
iv. Ethical issues and the athlete
v. Cheating- Receiving a reward for ability or finding an easy way out of an unpleasant
situation by dishonest means. It is generally used for the breaking of rules to gain
unfair advantage in a competitive situation.
vi. Doping- The use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic
competitors, where the term doping is widely used by organizations that regulate
sporting competitions. It also refers to infusing, injecting or the use of any banned
foreign particle with the sole/ major aim of increasing sporting performance
vii. Gamesmanship- The use of aggressive or dubious tactics, such as psychological
intimidation or disruption of concentration, to gain an advantage over one's opponent
while still observing the rules in a sport or game. The use of expedients or morally
questionable acts to gain an advantage.
viii. Deviance- Behaviour that falls outside the norms or outside what is deemed to be
acceptable. Positive deviance is behaviour that is outside the norm but with no
intention to harm or break the rules (overtraining, sacrificing family life
playing when injured). Negative deviance is behaviour that goes against the norm and
has a detrimental effect on individuals and on society in general (Drugs, cheating,
bribery, hooliganism, illegal betting, corruption/ bungs and player violence.
ix. Commercialisation- That aspect of the sports enterprise that involves the sale, display,
or use of sport or some aspect of sport so as to produce income, in course to make the
sport better or more world class.