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Encyclopedia of
Aluminum and
Its Alloys
Encyclopedia of
Aluminum and
Its Alloys
Edited by
George E. Totten, Murat Tiryakioğlu, and
Olaf Kessler
CRC Press
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Brief Contents
Volume I Corrosion-Induced Hydrogen Embrittlement in

AA2024 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
6XXX Alloys: Chemical Composition and Heat Creation of Master Alloys for Aluminum . . . . . . . 468
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Crystallography of Aluminum and Its
Additive Manufacturing of Aluminum Alloys . . . 15 Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Aerospace Fasteners: Use in Structural Defects in Aluminum Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . 587
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Design of Aluminum Rolling Processes for Foil,
Aircraft Structural Integrity: Corrosion Effects . 46 Sheet, and Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Al-Mg-Si: Microstructural Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Design of Forming Processes: Sheet Metal
Analytical Techniques for Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . 74 Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Anisotropic Yield Criteria for Aluminum Alloy Designing for Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Designing with Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Anodic Oxides: Applications and Trends in Die Casting Process Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Nanofabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Diesel Engine: Applications of Aluminum
Arc-Welding: Lithium-Containing Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Diffusion Bonding of A2017 Aluminum Alloys . . . 763
As-Cast Grain Size of Aluminum Alloys Refined Dispersoid Precipitation in Aluminum Alloys . . . . 770
by Al-Ti-B Master Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Ductility–Fatigue Life Relationships in
Atom Probe Characterization of Nanoscale Aluminum Alloy Castings: Role of Structural
Precipitates in Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Bayer Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum Alloy
Brazing Aluminum in Low Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . 168 A2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
Brazing of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Electrical Resistivity of Al-Cast Alloys in the
Bulk Metallic Glasses: Aluminum-Based . . . . . . 183 Range of Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Calcium-Containing Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . 192 Electrochemical Study of Potassium Fluoride in
a Cryolite-Aluminum Oxide Molten Salt . . . . . 801
Carbothermic Reduction Methods for Alumina . . . 207
Electrodeposition of Aluminum in Ionic
Cast Al-Si-Cu Alloys: Effect of Modification on
Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
Thermal and Electrical Conductivities . . . . . . 220
Electron Backscatter Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Casting Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Electron Beam Welding of Aluminum Alloys . . . 859
Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Electron-Beam Welding of Thick Components of
Castings: Ten Rules for Good Castings . . . . . . . . 275
Steels, Aluminum, and Titanium Alloys . . . . . 870
Chemical Milling of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Entrainment Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
Computer Vision for Fault Detection in
Extractive Metallurgy of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Aluminum Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Extrudable Al-Si-Mg Alloys: Simulation of
Control Principle of Thermal Spray Process . . . . 378
Microsegregation and Homogenization . . . . . . 919
Corrosion and Wear Protection through Micro
Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
Arc Oxidation Coatings in Aluminum and Its
Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Fatigue Endurance under Torsion Testing:
6061-T6 and 6063-T5 Aluminum Alloys . . . . . 992
Corrosion Inhibitors: Effect on Aluminum
Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Fatigue Lifetime Improvement of Aluminum
Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
Corrosion of Aluminum and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . 410
Field Trials of Aerospace Fasteners in
Corrosion Protective Coatings: Fabrication
Mechanical and Structural Applications . . . . . 1007
of Sputtered CeO2-La2O3 and La2O3 -CeO2
Bilayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
v
vi Brief Contents
Volume I (cont’d.)
Friction Stir Processing: Effect on Melt-Stirring Method: Influence on Ingot Purity
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in During Ohno Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . 1446
Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037 Metal Casting Research: Application to
Friction Welding of Al2O3P/6061 Aluminum Aluminum Alloy Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1456
Alloy Composite to 5052 Aluminum Alloy . . . 1049 Metallic Coatings for Brazing Aluminum
Grain Refinement and Strengthening of Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461
Aluminum Alloys: Cold Severe Plastic
Deformation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
Grain Refinement of Cast Aluminum by Volume II
Heterogeneous Nucleation Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Graphene-Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Metallography of Aluminum Alloys: Atlas of
Nanocomposites: Structure and Properties . . . 1085 Microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465
Hall–Heroult Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099 Metallurgy of Continuous Hot Dip
Hall–Petch Relationship in Aluminum and Aluminizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486
Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104 Metallurgy of Quenching Aluminum Alloys . . . . 1511
Hardening, Annealing, and Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123 Microgravity Crystallization for High-Tech
Hardness–Yield Strength Relationships in Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1535
Al-Zn-Mg(-Cu) Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149 Micromachining of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . 1557
Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys: Three-Point Microstructural Changes During Annealing of
Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155 Aluminum Alloy: Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592
High-Pressure Die-Cast AlSi9Cu3 (Fe) Alloys: Microstructural Evolution During Solution
Models for Casting Defects and Mechanical Treatment of ADC12 (A383) Alloy Die
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162 Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605
High-Speed Computer Tomography: Pressure Microstructure and Microhardness of
Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173 AlZnMnMg Alloys during Heat Treatment . . 1613
Hipping Evaluation in Cast Aluminum Alloys: Microstructure and Properties of Friction Stir
Quality Index-Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186 Welded Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621
Early History of Aluminum Metallurgy . . . . . . . . 1194 Microstructure and Yield Strength Evolution of
Homogeneous Modifier-Treated AlSi10Mg Alloy: Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties . . . 1206 Microstructure Imaging, Precipitation
Honeycomb Composite Structures of Aluminum: Formation and Mechanical Properties: Al–Li
Aerospace Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213 and Al–Mg–Zn Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648
Hot Stamping of Complex-Shaped High- Microstructure of Al-Cu, Al-Zn, Al-Ag-Zn,
Strength Aluminum Components . . . . . . . . . . . 1244 and Al-Zn-Mg Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659
Hot Tear Nucleation During Solidification of Microstructure of Aluminum Alloys: Effect of
Aluminum and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263 Hardening Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1675
Hypoeutectic Al–Fe Alloys: Formation and MIG Welding of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 1685
Characterization of Intermetallics by Molten Aluminum: Inductive Technique for
Dissolution of the Al Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270 Electrical Conductivity Measurements . . . . . . 1689
Image Processing for Fault Detection in Molten Metal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1698
Aluminum Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287 Nanocomposites with Aluminum Matrix:
Intermetallics of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312 Preparation and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
Introduction to Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327 Nanoparticle Aluminum Preparation . . . . . . . . . . 1738
Ionic Liquids in Surface Protection of Aluminum Nanostructured Aluminum Films: Deep
and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1346 Ultraviolet Absorption from Glancing Angle
Iron: Removal from Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356 Physical Vapor Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1390 Nanostructured Ni/Al2O3 Interlayer: Transient
Master Alloys for Grain Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . 1417 Liquid Phase Diffusion Bonding of
Al6061-MMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
Melt Quality Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
Brief Contents vii
Nodular Silicon Al–(12–30)% Si Alloys: Recycling of EN AW 2011 Aluminum Chips

Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and without Remelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2361
Fracture Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779 Residual Stress during Stamping-Forging of
Non-Heat Treatable Al-Alloys: Development of 2024 Aluminum Alloy Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2370
Intermetallic Particles during Solidification Retrogression and Re-aging Heat Treatment:
and Homogenization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1797 AA7XXX Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2379
Open-Cell Foam Metal Production and Rheoprocessing of Semisolid Aluminum
Characterization by Aluminum Solid Mold Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2395
Investment Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816 Rolling of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2407
Optical Microstructures of Aluminum Alloys . . . 1822 SEM Microstructures and Fractographs of
Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) Coatings Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2427
on Aluminum Alloys: Kinetics and Formation Shielding Gas: Performance Improvement of
Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903 MIG and TIG Welding of Aluminum Alloys . . . 2471
Plasma Surface Treatment: Effects on Sintering Behavior: Al–SiC Compacts in
Mechanical and Corrosion Protection Different Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2483
Properties of Hybrid Sol–Gel Coatings . . . . . . 1922
Smelting of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2490
Plastic Flow of Aluminum in Explosive Welding . 1929
Solidification of Aluminum Alloy Weld Metal . . . 2510
Polyphase Eutectics of Aluminum Alloys: Effect
Steel: Aluminum Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2519
of Phase Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1932
Stellite Superalloy Powder Deposition on 7075
Porosity Development and Modification in Al-Si
Aluminum Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2523
Alloys: Effect of P and Sr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1951
Strain Rate Sensitivity of Commercial
Porosity in Aluminum Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . 1959
Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2528
Porosity in Aluminum Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1973
Strength and Intergranular Corrosion of
Powder Metallurgy Aluminum Alloys: Structure Aluminum Alloys: Effect of Cooling Rate . . . . 2543
and Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977
Superplastic Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2549
Precipitation in AA2195 by Atom Probe
Surface Chemistry of Adhesion to Aluminum . . . 2578
Tomography and Transmission Electron
Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1996 Surface Modification of Aluminum and Its
Alloys Using Conversion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . 2589
Precipitation in Al–Mg–Si Alloys: Modeling . . . . 2005
Texture–Property Relationships in Aluminum
Production Levels of Bauxite and Aluminum:
Alloys: Simulations and Experiments . . . . . . . 2599
Global Historical Survey (1850–2015) . . . . . . . 2013
Thermal Analysis of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . 2625
Production Methods for Aluminum:
Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040 Thermal Analysis of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . 2649
Properties of Pure Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2060 Thermal Spray Coatings: Aluminum Alloy
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2680
Pulsed TIG Welding of Al–SiC Composite:
Welding Parameter Optimization . . . . . . . . . . 2090 Thin Aluminum Sheets: Continuous Casting
and Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2696
Pulsed TIG Welding of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142
Transmission Electron Micrographs of
Quality Parameters for High-Pressure
Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2706
Diecastings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2153
Tube Bending Forming Technologies: Advances
Quench Factor Analysis: An Overview . . . . . . . . 2173
and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2732
Quench Sensitivity and Continuous Cooling
Twist Compression Welding of Aluminum . . . . . . 2751
Precipitation Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2189
Uphill Quenching of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . 2757
Quench Sensitivity of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . 2218
Vacuum Carbothermic Reduction of Alumina . . . . 2771
Quenching of Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2224
Wear Behavior of Aluminum Alloys at Slow
Quenching of Aluminum Solid Cylinder:
Sliding Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2778
Numerical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2286
Weldability: Effect of Alloying Element Sc, Mn,
Reaction Kinetics during Molten Aluminum
and Zr on Alloys of the Al-Mg-Sc-Mn-Zr
Refining Using Electron Backscatter
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2789
Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2294
Weldable Aluminum Alloys in Aerospace and
Recrystallization and Grain Growth . . . . . . . . . . 2314
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2792
Recycling of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2341
Welding aluminium Die Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2829
viii Brief Contents
Welding Parameters for Aluminum Alloys . . . . . 2835 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of the
Welding Technology: Gas Chromatography in . . . 2856 Microstructure of Precipitating Aluminum-
Welding: Particulate and Gaseous Emissions . . . 2860 Based Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2883
Wrought Aluminum Alloy: Reinforcement,
Alloy Addition, and Deformation Effects on
Mechanical Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2871
Encyclopedia of Aluminum and Its Alloys
Editor-in-Chief
George Totten
Portland State University
Murat Tiryakioğlu
University of North Florida
Olaf Kessler
Materials Science, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Marine Technology
Universitat Rostock
Editorial Advisory Board

Joseph Benedyk Rafael Colas
Illinois Institute of Technology Universidad Autó noma de Nuevo León
Leonid B. Ber Leszek Dobrzanski

Susarla Murty Silesian University of Technology
Materials and Metallurgy Group Institute of Engineering Materials and
Vikram Sarabhai Space Center Biomaterials
All-Russia Institute of Light Alloys (OAO
“VILS”)
Michael M. Gasik
Department of Chemical and Metallurgical
John Campbell Engineering
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Aalto University
University of Birmingham
I.S. Jawahir
Xinjin Cao James F. Hardymon Chair in Manufacturing
Structures, Materials and Manufacturing Systems
Laboratory Director, Institute for Sustainable Manufacturing
National Research Council Canada – (ISM)
Aerospace
Laurens Katgerman
Namas Chandra Materials Science & Engineering (MSE)
Department of Biomedical Engineering Delft University of Technology
Newark College of Engineering
Joseph W. Newkirk
X. Grant Chen Missouri University of Science and Technology
University of Quebec at Chicoutimi
ix
x Editor-in-Chief
Mihriban Pekguleryuz Alexey Sverdlin

Light Metals and Advanced Magnesium Materials Bradley University
Mining & Materials Engineering
McGill University
Sybrand van der Zwaag
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering
Barbara Rivolta Delft University of Technology
Dipartimento di Meccanica
Politecnico di Milano
George Vander Voort
Vander Voort Consulting L.L.C.
Jeremy Robinson
University of Limerick
Valery Rudnev
Director, Science and Technology
Inductoheat, Inc
Contributors xi
Contributors
Feyisayo Victoria Adams / Petroleum Chemistry, American University of Nigeria, Yola,

Nigeria
Samson Oluropo Adeosun / Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, University of
Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria
Arvind Agarwal / Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Florida International
University, Miami, Florida, U.S.A.
Torgom Akopyan / Beikov Institute of Metallurgy and Materials Science, Moscow,
Russian Federation
E. I. Akpan / Department of Materials and Production Engineering, Ambrose Alli
University, Ekpoma, Nigeria
Eberhard Ambos / University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
Seyyed Hashem Mousavi Anijdan / Mining and Materials Engineering, McGill
University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
V. Anil Kumar / MPA/MME, RFF Area, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Trivandrum,
Kerala, India
Joaquin Arias-Pardilla / Department of Materials Engineering and Manufacturing,
Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Spain
Ronald W. Armstrong / Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park,
Maryland, U.S.A.
Jorge L. Avila Ambriz / Faculty of Medical Engineering, University of Michoacan
(UMSNH), Morelia, Mexico
L. Anicai / Center for Surface Science and Nanotechnology CSSNT, Universitatea
Politehnica din Bucuresti, Bucharest, Romania
S. Arjun / National Institute of Technology, Calicut, Kerala, India
K. Asai / Musashi Institute of Technology, Japan
Pitchuka Suresh Babu / Centre for Engineered Coatings, International Advanced
Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad, Telangana,
India
Aruna Bahadur / National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur, Bihar, India
Abbas Bahrami / Department of Materials Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology,
Isfahan, Iran
Sayavur Bakhtiyarov / Mechanical Engineering, New Mexico Institute of Mining and
Technology, Socorro, New Mexico, U.S.A.
Tudor Balan / Arts et Métiers ParisTech—Centre de Metz, Metz, France
A. K. Balaji / The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.A.
Efthymios Balomenos / Laboratory of Metallurgy, National Technical University of
Athens, Athens, Greece
Dorel Banabic / Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania
Juraj Belan / Department of Materials Engineering, University of Žilina, Žilina, Slovakia
Nikolay Belov / National University of Science and Technology MISiS, Moscow, Russian
Federation
xii Contributors
María Dolores Bérmudez / Department of Materials Engineering and Manufacturing,

Felipe Bertelli / Universidade Santa Cecilia, São Paulo, Brazil
Miguel Bocanegra / Universidad de Monterrey, San Pedro Garza García, Mexico
Ghasem Eisaabadi Bozchaloei / Materials Engineering, Arak University, Arak, Iran
Silvia Brachetti-Sibaja / CICATA-Altamira, IPN, Altamira, Mexico
G. A. Brooks / HTP Research Group, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn,
Victoria, Australia
Marcello Cabibbo / DIISM, Universita Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
M. Cailler / Ecole Nationale Supérieure Maritime (ENSM), France
J. Campbell / Department of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham,
Birmingham, U.K.
John Campbell / Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K.
B. Campillo / Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Instituto de Ciencias Fisicas,
Morelos, Mexico
Lauralice Canale / Department of Materials, Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering,
University of Sao Paulo, Sao Carlos, Brazil
Riccardo Casati / Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
L. C. Casteletti / University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
Y. S. Chao / College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
Xiang Chen / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
Noé Cheung / Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
Yee Ling Chok / Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
H. Clarke / Division of Materials and Minerals Engineering, School of Engineering,
University of Wales, Cardiff, U.K.
P. D. Clements / British Steel pic, Uanwern Works, Gwent, U.K.
Rafael Colás / Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Universidad Autónoma
de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, México
Kavian Cooke / Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford,
Bradford, U.K.; University of Technology, Jamaica, West Indies
Homer Cole / Alcoa Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
A. Conde / Department of Surface Engineering, Corrosion and Durability, National
Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
Erasmo Correa Gómez / Faculty of Medical Engineering, University of Michoacan
Norman C. Craig / Chemistry and Biochemistry, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, U.S.A.
Bruce Crawford / Defence Science and Technology, Fishermans Bend, Australia
L. B. Cruvinel / University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
Wellington da Silva Mattos / Industry Area—Aircraft Maintenance Technology, Federal
Institute of Education, Science and Technology of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
Shenglong Dai / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
Lucas Nana Wiredu Damoah / Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.
T. David Burleigh / New Mexico Tech, Socorro, New Mexico, U.S.A.
J. de Damborenea / Department of Surface Engineering, Corrosion and Durability,
National Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
D. T. de Macedo / University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
Contributors xiii
Hülya Demirören / Faculty of Technology, University of Fırat, Elazığ, Turkey

Lei Deng / Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
Alexis Deschamps / Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble, Domain e Universitaire,
Saint Martin d’He’res, France
M. A. Dewan / CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering, Lindfield, New South Wales,
Australia
G. Dhineshbabu / R&D, LAP-Ross Engineering Limited, Tamil Nadu, India
Yuezhong Di / School of Metallurgy and Materials, Northeastern University, Shenyan,
China
Derya Dispinar / Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Istanbul University-
Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
Julian H. Driver / Ecole des Mines de Saint Etienne, St. Etienne, France
L. D. Dobrushin / E 0 Paton Welding Institute, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian
SSR, Ukraine
Aymeric E. Dominguez / GMPP, INSA Lyon, Villeurbanne, France
Gonzalo M. Dominguez Almaraz / Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universidad
Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo, Morelia, Mexico
Miguel Antonio Domínguez-Crespo / Materials, CICATA-IPN, México, Tamaulipas,
Mexico
Yong Du / State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University,
Changsha, China
Stanisław Dymek / Academy of Mining and Metallurgy, Krakow, Poland
Mark Easton / RMIT University, Carlton, Australia
Zuhair Elseddig / Sudanese Armed Forces, Khortoum, Sudan
Olaf Engler / Hydro Aluminium Deutschland, Bonn, Germany
Michael Epstein / Solar Technology Laboratory, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
Seymour Epstein / The Aluminum Association, Inc., Arlington, Virginia, U.S.A.
D. Eskin / Netherlands Institute for Metals Research, Delft, The Netherlands
Tulia Espinosa / Department of Materials Engineering and Manufacturing, Universidad
Politécnica de Cartagena, Cartagena, Spain
Amir Rezaei Farkoosh / Materials Science and Engineering Department, Robert R.
McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Illinois, U.S.A.
Simbarashe Fashu / Harare Institute of Technology, Harare, Zimbabwe
V. A. Fedoseev / Research Institute of Aviation Technology, Moscow, Russia
Naixiang Feng / School of Metallurgy and Materials, Northeastern University, Shenyan,
China
David P. Field / Industrial Systems Engineering, October University for Modern Sciences
and Arts, 6 October City, Egypt
Dieter Filbert / Max-Planck-Institut fur Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany
Jacopo Fiocchi / Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Alfredo Flores Valdés / Metallurgical Engineering, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios
Avanzados del Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila, Mexico
J. M. Fortain / Air Liquide, CTAS, Cergy-Pontoise, France
Georg Frommeyer / Max-Planck-Institut fur Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf,
Germany
Masahiro Fukumoto / Mechanical Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology,
Toyohashi, Japan
xiv Contributors
S. Gadrey / Air Liquide, CTAS, Cergy-Pontoise, France

Jianwei Gao / Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Missouri University
of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.; Shanghai Institute of Quality
Inspection and Technical Research, Shanghai, China
Nong Gao / Materials Research Group, School of Engineering Sciences, University of
Southampton, Southampton, U.K.
Amauri Garcia / Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
I. García / Department of Surface Engineering, Corrosion and Durability, National
Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
Consuelo García-Cordovilla / Centre for Engineered Coatings, International Advanced
Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad, Telangana,
India
Michael I. Gasik / National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
Michael M. Gasik / Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
Dimitrios Gerogiorgis / School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh,
Scotland
R. Gerosa / Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Toyosaku Gonda / Production Division, Toyohashi Works, Kyoto Die Casting Co Ltd,
Japan
Frank E. Goodwin / International Lead Zinc Research Organization, Inc., Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Pedro Goulart / Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia de São Paulo,
Itapetininga, Brazil
Bruce M. Griffin / The Boeing Company, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.
Gaute Gruben / SINTEF Industry, Trondheim, Norway
Hans-Joachim Gudladt / Institute of Materials Science, Universitat der Bundeswehr
Munchen, Neubiberg, Germany
Kerem Altug Guler / Metallurgical and Material Engineering, Yildiz Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey
R. K. Gupta / MPA/MME, RFF Area, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Trivandrum,
Kerala, India
Fathi Habashi / Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
Meysam Haghshenas / Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of North
Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota, U.S.A.
G. N. Haidemenopoulos / Mechanical Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece
Martin Halmann / Department of Environmental Sciences and Energy Research,
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
Timothy J. Harrison / Defence Science and Technology, Fishermans Bend, Australia
Jochen Hasenclever / Metallurgical and Material Engineering, Yildiz Technical
University, Istanbul, Turkey
T. Hashimoto / Shibaura Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Christian Heikel / Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Applied Science –
Ostfalia, Wolfenbuettel, Germany
Qihu Hong / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
K. Hono / División de Extensión, Consultoría e Investigación, Universidad de Monterrey,
San Pedro Garza García, Mexico
Carlos Huitrón / Metal Mechanics Department, Instituto Tecnológico de Saltillo, Saltillo,
Mexico
Contributors xv
Margaret M. Hyland / University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Soong-Keun Hyun / Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
Sriram Praneeth Isanaka / Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.
Abubakar Ishak / Petroleum Chemistry, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
J. Islas / Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Instituto de Investigaciones en
Materiales, Coyoacan, México
Thomas Jaeger / Max-Planck-Institut fur Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany
Muhammad Jahan / Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Miami University,
Oxford, Ohio, U.S.A.
Shahriar Jahanian / Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Penn State
University—Altoona Campus, Altoona, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
I. S. Jawahir / University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.
Ana Eva Jiménez / Department of Materials Engineering and Manufacturing,
R. D. Jones / Faculty of Technology, North East Wales Institute, Wrexham, U.K.
Will Judge / Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
Patiphan Juijerm / Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
Izabela Kalemba / Academy of Mining and Metallurgy, Krakow, Poland
Helen J. Kamoutsi / Mechanical Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece
Kai F. Karhausen / VAW Aluminium AG, Bonn, Germany
Sreekar Karnati / Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Missouri
University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.
Sebastjan Kastelic / Department of Materials and Metallurgy, University of Ljubljana,
Ljubljana, Slovenia
K. Kato / College of Industrial Technology, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
S. Katoh / Nippon Aluminium Mfg Co Ltd, Japan
Patricia Mariane Kavalco / Department of Materials Engineering, University of São
Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil; Department of Materials, Aeronautical and Automobile
Engineering, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
Olaf Kessler / Chair of Materials Science, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Marine
Technology, Rostock University, Rostock, Germany; Competence Center °CALOR,
Rostock University, Rostock, Germany
Laurens Ketgerman / Netherlands Institute for Metals Research, Delft, The Netherlands
Rajwali Khan / Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan, Pakistan
Tahir Khan / Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford,
U.K.
A. S. Khokhlovskii / Moscow Energy Institute, Technical University, Moscow, Russia
Muna Khushaim / Physical Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of
Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; Physics Department, Faculty of Science,
Taibah University, Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia
Nack J. Kim / Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Korea
Shae Kwang Kim / Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon, Republic of Korea
Georges Kipouros / Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
Sven Knippscheer / Max-Planck-Institut fur Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf,
Germany
Antti S. Korhonen / Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
xvi Contributors
Pramod Koshy / School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South
Wales, Sydney, Australia
Jure Krolo / Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval
Architecture, University of Split, Split, Croatia
Lenka Kuchariková / Department of Materials Engineering, University of Žilina, Žilina,
Slovakia
Howard A. Kuhn / Scienda Building Sciences, Orangeburg, South Carolina, U.S.A.
Katrin Kuhnke / Metallurgical and Material Engineering, Yildiz Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey
Mukul Kumar / Industrial Systems Engineering, October University for Modern Sciences
and Arts, 6 October City, Egypt
Daniel Larouche / Department of Mining, Metallurgy and Materials Engineering,
Université Laval, Québec, Canada
T. Latouche / Ecole Nationale Supérieure Maritime (ENSM), France
Branimir Lela / Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval
Architecture, University of Split, Split, Croatia
Janos Lendvai / Department of Materials Physics, Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest,
Hungary
Xiuhui Li / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
Jinbo Li / Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
Heng Li / Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
Kai Li / State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha,
China
Hyun-Kyu Lim / Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon, Republic of Korea
Jianguo Lin / Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, London,
U.K.
Zuoming Lin / Aviation Industry Corporation of China, Beijing, China
Frank Liou / Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Missouri University
of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.
Tomasz Lipiński / Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in
Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
Jun Liu / Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, London,
U.K.
Kejia Liu / School of Metallurgy and Materials, Northeastern University, Shenyan, China
Alsten Clyde Livingstone / School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Technology Sydney, Ultimo, Australia; Perfect Engineering Pty. Ltd., Henley, Australia
Chris Loader / Defence Science and Technology, Fishermans Bend, Australia
Ana López-Oyama / CICATA-Altamira, IPN, Altamira, Mexico
Enrique Louis / Centre for Engineered Coatings, International Advanced Research Centre
for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Diego Lozano / División de Extensión, Consultoría e Investigación, Universidad de
Monterrey, San Pedro Garza García, Mexico
Wei Hua Lu / Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University
Yan’anlu Campus, Shanghai, China
Xingmei Lu / Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process, CAS Key
Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Multiphase
Complex Systems, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, China
Contributors xvii
Alex Lugovskoy / Chemical Engineering, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel

V. I. Lukin / Research Institute of Aviation Materials
Roger Lumley / Engineering, LaTrobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
E. Ma / Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.
Jun Ma / Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
Nor Hafizah Manan / Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Sushant K. Manwatkar / Material Characterisation Division, Materials and Metallurgy
Group, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Weimin Mao / University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
D. L. Majid / Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University
Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
Nor Hafizah Manan / Department of Aerospace Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Gabriela M. Martínez-Cázares / División de Ingeniería y Tecnologías, Universidad de
Monterrey, San Pedro Garza García, Mexico
Ginés Martínez-Nicolás / Department of Materials Engineering and Manufacturing,
V. N. Martynov / Moscow Energy Institute, Technical University, Moscow, Russia
S. K. Marya / Institut des Sciences de l’Ingénieur en Thermique-Energétique et Matériaux
(ISITEM), France
M. Mazur / Department of Welding, Polytechnic of Slask
Vladislav I. Mazur / National Metallurgical Academy of Ukraine, Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
Jožef Medved / Department of Materials and Metallurgy, University of Ljubljana,
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Lemmy Meekisho / Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Portland
State University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Maryam Yazdan Mehr / EEMCS Faculty, Delft University of Technology, Delft,
Netherlands
George Nadim Melhem / School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Perfect Engineering Pty. Ltd., Henley, Australia
Domingo Mery / Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile;
Max-Planck-Institut fur Eisenforschung GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany
Benjamin Milkereit / Chair of Materials Science, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
and Marine Technology, Rostock University, Rostock, Germany; Competence Center
°CALOR, Rostock University, Rostock, Germany
E. J. Mittemeijer
Kazuho Miyamoto / Miyamoto Industry Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
Per Thomas Moe / Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim,
Norway
Mbali Mokgatla / Petroleum Chemistry, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
B. J. Monaghan / PYRO Research Group, University of Wollongong, Wollongong,
New South Wales, Australia
Pwafureino Reuel Moses / Petroleum Chemistry, American University of Nigeria, Yola,
Nigeria
Grażyna Mrówka-Nowotnik / Department of Materials Science, Rzeszow University of
Technology, Rzeszow, Poland
xviii Contributors
Primož Mrvar / Department of Materials and Metallurgy, University of Ljubljana,

Ljubljana, Slovenia
Lynette Mudzingwa / Harare Institute of Technology, Harare, Zimbabwe
Aaron Mukuya / Harare Institute of Technology, Harare, Zimbabwe
Paul Richard Munroe / School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New
South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Krishnamurthi Muralidharan / School of Chemistry, University of Hyderabad,
Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
S. V. S. Narayana Murty / Material Characterisation Division, Materials and Metallurgy
Group, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Philip N. H. Nakashima / Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash
University, Victoria, Australia
Wenzheng Nan / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
P. Ramesh Narayanan / Material Charecterisation Division, Materials and Metallurgy
Group, Vikram Sarabhai Space Center, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Evgenia Naumova / Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russian
Federation
A. Lombardi Neto / University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
Nelson Netto / University of North Florida, Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.A.
M. Nobutoki / Shibaura Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Rocío Ochoa / Metallurgy, Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto
Politecnico Nacional, Saltillo, Mexico
Utseoritselaju Okorodudu / Petroleum Chemistry, American University of Nigeria, Yola,
Nigeria
Edgar Onofre / CICATA-Altamira, IPN, Altamira, Mexico
Chukwuma Valentine Onwujiuba / Petroleum Chemistry, American University of
Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
S. Ota / Musashi Institute of Technology, Japan
Rosa L. Simencio Otero / Department of Materials Engineering, University of São Paulo,
São Carlos, Brazil
M. Otsuka / Shibaura Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Ryotatsu Otsuka / Showa Aluminum Corporation, Sakai-shi, Osaka, Japan
Ruel Overfelt / Mechanical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, U.S.A.
S. Oya / Musashi Institute of Technology, Japan
Erol Ozbakir / New Products, Ipex Management, Oakville, Canada
Hüseyin Özdeş / School of Engineering, University of North Florida, Jacksonville,
Florida, U.S.A.; Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, U.S.A.
Jon Peace / Alcoa Inc., EHS Services, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Mihriban Pekguleryuz / Department of Mining and Materials Engineering, McGill
University, Montreal, Canada
Jianping Peng / School of Metallurgy and Materials, Northeastern University, Shenyan,
China
B. N. Perevezentsev / Tolyatti Polytechnic, Togliatti, Russia
Ildiko Peter / DISAT, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
Mitja Petri / Department of Materials and Metallurgy, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
V. G. Petushkov / E 0 Paton Welding Institute, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR,
Ukraine
Contributors xix
R. C. Picu / Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, Michigan, U.S.A.

Tadeusz Pieczonka / AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków, Poland
Stanko Popović / Department for Mathematical, Physical and Chemical Sciences,
Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb, Croatia
Arvind Prasad / University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
L. Prentice / CSIRO Process Science and Engineering, Clayton South, Victoria, Australia
R. Probst / Alcoa Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Xiao Guang Qiao / Materials Research Group, School of Engineering Sciences, University
of Southampton, Southampton, U.K.
Dierk Raabe / Max Planck Institute for Iron Research, Düsseldorf, Germany
Ligamaneni Rama Krishna / Centre for Engineered Coatings, International Advanced
Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Venkatraman Ramamoorthy / Shanmugha Arts Science Technology and Research
Academy School of Mechanical Engineering, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Nageswara Rao / School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Tamil
Nadu, India
D. Srinivasa Rao / Centre for Engineered Coatings, International Advanced Research
Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
M. A. Rhamdhani / HTP Research Group, Swinburne University of Technology,
Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
R. W. Richards / Division of Materials and Minerals Engineering, School of Engineering,
University of Wales, Cardiff, U.K.
Norman Ridley / University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K.
Barbara Rivolta / Dipartimento di Meccanica, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
David G. Robertson / Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Missouri
University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A.
Joseph D. Robson / School of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester, U.K.
Sandra Rodil / IIM-UNAM, México
Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa / University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Mario Rosso / DISAT, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
M. Ruiz-Andrés / Department of Surface Engineering, Corrosion and Durability,
National Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
Ann Rumsey / Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Miami University, Oxford,
Ohio, U.S.A.
V. I. Ryazantsev / Research Institute of Aviation Technology, Moscow, Russia
José Sanes / Department of Materials Engineering and Manufacturing, Universidad
Hisashi Sato / Department of Physical Science and Engineering, Nagoya Institute of
Technology, Nagoya, Japan
B. Sander / Ecole Nationale Supérieure Maritime (ENSM), France
José Sanes / Department of Materials Engineering and Manufacturing, Universidad
Panagiota Sarafoglou / Mechanical Engineering, University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece
Ryan Scherzer / Mechanical Engineering, University of North Florida, Jacksonville,
Florida, U.S.A.
Christoph Schick / Chair of Materials Science, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
and Marine Technology, Rostock University, Rostock, Germany; Competence Center
°CALOR, Rostock University, Rostock, Germany
xx Contributors
Berthold Scholtes / Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical

Engineering, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
S. Serajzadeh / Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran
Soheila Shabaniverki / Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Kichitaro Shinozaki / National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology,
Tsukuba, Japan
Ralph T. Shuey / Department of Engineering, Robert Morris University, Moon Township,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Prateek Sibal / School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, VIT University, Tamil Nadu,
India
Dennis A. Siginer / Centro de Investigación en Creatividad y Educación Superior &
Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago,
Chile; Department of Mathematics and Statistical Sciences & Department of
Mechanical, Energy and Industrial Engineering, Botswana International University of
Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana
P. Sivachidambaram / School of Mechanical Engineering, SASTRA University,
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
Željko Skoko / Department of Physics, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Science, Zagreb,
Croatia
A. P. Sliva / Moscow Energy Institute, Technical University, Moscow, Russia
Lyubov Snizhko / Fuel Technology, Ukrainian State University of Chemical Technology,
Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine
Jorge Alberto Soares Tenório / University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Mohamed Sobih / Industrial Systems Engineering, October University for Modern
Sciences and Arts, 6 October City, Egypt
N. M. Sokolova / Tolyatti Polytechnic, Togliatti, Russia
Min Song / Central South University, Changsha, China
Dan-Sorin Comsa / Universitatea Tehnica din Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania
Charles Christopher Sorrell / School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
José Spinelli / Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
K. Splitt / Alcoa Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Raghuraman Srinivasan / Shanmugha Arts Science Technology and Research Academy
School of Mechanical Engineering, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
David St John / University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Stephen Stagon / Mechanical Engineering, University of North Florida, Jacksonville,
Florida, U.S.A.
Marco Starink / Materials Research Group, School of Engineering Sciences, University of
Southampton, Southampton, U.K.
Aldo Steinfeld / Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland; Solar Technology Laboratory, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen,
Switzerland
W.J. Stępniowski / Department of Advanced Materials and Technologies, Faculty of
Advanced Technology and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
Henry W. Stoll / Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, U.S.A.
Contributors xxi
Sigurd Stvren / Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

R. Subasri / International Advanced Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New
Materials, Hyderabad, India
Y. Sugiyama / Technical Laboratory, Sumitomo Metal Industries, Osaka, Japan
Govindan Sundararajan / Centre for Engineered Coatings, International Advanced
Research Centre for Powder Metallurgy and New Materials, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
A. A. Suslov / Tekhnomash Scientific and Production Association, Russia
Alexey Sverdlin / IMET, Bradley University, Mequon, Wisconsin, U.S.A.; Bradley
University, Peoria, Illinois, U.S.A.
Shaohu Tao / School of Metallurgy and Materials, Northeastern University, Shenyan,
China
G. A. Telitsyna / Tolyatti Polytechnic, Togliatti, Russia
Hans M. Tensi / Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
Eva Tillová / Department of Materials Engineering, University of Žilina, Žilina, Slovakia
Giulio Timelli / Department of Management and Engineering, University of Padova,
Vicenza, Italy
Murat Tiryakioğlu / Department of Engineering, Robert Morris University, Moon
Township, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; School of Engineering, University of North Florida,
Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.A.
H. Tokisue / College of Industrial Technology, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
Jesús Torres / Metallurgy, Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto
Politecnico Nacional, Saltillo, Mexico
Aidé Torres-Huerta / CICATA-Altamira, IPN, Altamira, Mexico
George Totten / Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Portland State
University, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Macdonald Tozvireva / Materials Engineering and Technology, Harare Institute of
Technology, Harare, Zimbabwe
T. Ueki / Shibaura Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Milan Uhríčik / Department of Materials Engineering, University of Žilina, Žilina,
Slovakia
Eduardo Valdés / Metal Mechanics Department, Instituto Tecnológico de Saltillo, Saltillo,
Mexico
S. Valdez Rodríguez / Materials Science and Biophysics, Universidad Nacional Autonoma
de Mexico Instituto de Ciencias Fisicas, Morelos, Mexico
Salvador Valtierra / Process Technology, García, México
Anuj A. Vargeese / Advanced Centre of Research in High Energy Materials (ACRHEM),
University of Hyderabad, Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Telengana, India
Maurizio Vedani / Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Eulogio Velasco / Nemak Corporation, Monterrey, Mexico
P. V. Venkitakrishnan / MPA/MME, RFF Area, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre,
Trivandrum, Kerala, India
Soma Venugopal Rao / Advanced Centre of Research in High Energy Materials
(ACRHEM), University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telengana, India
Julio C. Verduzco Juárez / Faculty of Medical Engineering, University of Michoacan
Teodor Visan / Inorganic Chemistry, Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry,
Universitatea Politehnica din Bucuresti, Bucharest, Romania
xxii Contributors
Irina Vishnevetsky / Solar Research Facilities Unit, Weizmann Institute of Science,

Rehovot, Israel
Maja Vončina / Department of Materials and Metallurgy, University of Ljubljana,
Ljubljana, Slovenia
J. Q. Wang / Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal
Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China
Liliang Wang / Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London,
London, U.K.
Nan Wang / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
Qian Wang / Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process, CAS Key Laboratory
of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Complex Systems,
Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Ruyao Wang / Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University
Yan’anlu Campus, Shanghai, China
Xiaoming Wang / Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.A.
Xinyun Wang / State Key Laboratory of Materials Processing and Die & Mould
Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
T. Wanheim / Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
Malgorzata Warmuzek / Laboratory for Structure Analysis and Mechanical Testing,
Instytut Odlewnictwa w Krakowie (Foundry Research Institute), Kraków, Poland
Yoshimi Watanabe / Department of Physical Science and Engineering, Nagoya Institute
of Technology, Nagoya, Japan
Ida Westermann / Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
Wilfried Wunderlich / Tokai University, Hiratuska, Japan
S. J. Yan / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
B. J. Yang / College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China; Shenyang
National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China
He Yang / Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
J. H. Yao / Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal
Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China
K. Yasuda / Mechanical Engineering, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology,
Socorro, New Mexico, U.S.A.
Gil-Yong Yeom / Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon, Republic of Korea
T. Yokota / Shibaura Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Young-Ok Yoon / Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon, Republic of Korea
Pedram Yousefian / School of Engineering, University of North Florida, Jacksonville,
Florida, U.S.A.
Lifeng Zhang / School of Metallurgical and Ecological Engineering, University of
Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China; Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri,
U.S.A.
Suojiang Zhang / Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process, CAS Key
Beijing, China
Contributors xxiii
Xiangping Zhang / Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process, CAS Key
Beijing, China
Xiaoyan Zhang / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
Kun Zhao / School of Metallurgy and Materials, Northeastern University, Shenyan, China
Shuangzan Zhao / Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials, Beijing, China
M. I. Zotov / E 0 Paton Welding Institute, Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR,
Ukraine
Contents
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi
About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiii
Volume I
6XXX Alloys: Chemical Composition and Heat Treatment / Grażyna Mrówka-Nowotnik . . . . . . 1
Additive Manufacturing of Aluminum Alloys / Sriram Praneeth Isanaka, Sreekar Karnati, and
Frank Liou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Aerospace Fasteners: Use in Structural Applications / George Nadim Melhemt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Aircraft Structural Integrity: Corrosion Effects / Bruce Crawford, Chris Loader, and Timothy
J. Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Al-Mg-Si: Microstructural Analysis / Marcello Cabibbo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Analytical Techniques for Aluminum / Alexis Deschamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Anisotropic Yield Criteria for Aluminum Alloy Sheets / Dorel Banabic, Dan Sorin Comsa, and
Tudor Balan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Anodic Oxides: Applications and Trends in Nanofabrication / W.J. Stepniowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Arc-Welding: Lithium-Containing Aluminum Alloys / V. I. Ryazantsev and V. A. Fedoseev . . . . . 130
As-Cast Grain Size of Aluminum Alloys Refined by Al-Ti-B Master Alloys / Mark Easton,
David St John, and Arvind Prasad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Atom Probe Characterization of Nanoscale Precipitates in Aluminum Alloys / K. Hono . . . . . . . 146
Bayer Process / Diego Lozano, Gabriela M. Martínez-Cázares, and Miguel Bocanegra . . . . . . . . . . 163
Brazing Aluminum in Low Vacuum / B. N. Perevezentsev, N. M. Sokolova, and G. A. Telitsyna . . 168
Brazing of Aluminum Alloys / Y. Sugiyama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Bulk Metallic Glasses: Aluminum-Based / B.J. Yang, J.H. Yao, J.Q. Wang, Y.S. Chao, and E. Ma . . 183
Calcium-Containing Aluminum Alloys / Torgom Akopyan, Nikolay Belov, and Evgenia Naumova . . . 192
Carbothermic Reduction Methods for Alumina / Efthymios Balomenos and Dimitrios Gerogiorgis . . . 207
Cast Al-Si-Cu Alloys: Effect of Modification on Thermal and Electrical Conductivities / Carlos
Huitrón, Eduardo Valdés, Salvador Valtierra, and Rafael Colás . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Casting Designs / Henry W. Stoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Castings / Rafael Colás, Eulogio Velasco, and Salvador Valtierra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Castings: Ten Rules for Good Castings / John Campbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Chemical Milling of Aluminum / Bruce M. Griffin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Computer Vision for Fault Detection in Aluminum Castings / Domingo Mery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Control Principle of Thermal Spray Process / Masahiro Fukumoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Corrosion and Wear Protection through Micro Arc Oxidation Coatings in Aluminum and Its
Alloys / L. Rama Krishna and G. Sundararajan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Corrosion Inhibitors: Effect on Aluminum Alloys / Feyisayo Victoria Adams, Mbali Mokgatla,
Abubakar Ishak, Chukwuma Valentine Onwujiuba, Pwafureino Reuel Moses, and Utseoritselaju
Okorodudu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Corrosion of Aluminum and Its Alloys / T. David Burleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Corrosion Protective Coatings: Fabrication of Sputtered CeO2-La2O3 and La2O3 -CeO2
Bilayers / Miguel Antonio Dominguez-Crespo, Silvia Brachetti-Sibaja, Aide Torres-Huerta,
Edgar Onofre, Ana Lopez-Oyama, and Sandra Rodil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
xxv
xxvi Contents
Volume I (cont’d.)
Corrosion-Induced Hydrogen Embrittlement in AA2024 / G.N. Haidemenopoulos and Helen
J. Kamoutsi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Creation of Master Alloys for Aluminum / Michael M. Gasik and Vladislav I. Mazur . . . . . . . . . . 468
The Crystallography of Aluminum and Its Alloys / Philip N.H. Nakashima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Defects in Aluminum Alloy Castings / John Campbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Design of Aluminum Rolling Processes for Foil, Sheet, and Plate / Julian H. Driver and Olaf Engler . . . . 593
Design of Forming Processes: Sheet Metal Forming / T. Wanheim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Designing for Aluminum / Howard A. Kuhn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Designing with Aluminum Alloys / Nack J. Kim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Die Casting Process Design / Frank E. Goodwin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Diesel Engine: Applications of Aluminum Alloys / Mihriban Pekguleryuz, Erol Ozbakir, and
Amir Rezaei Farkoosh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Diffusion Bonding of A2017 Aluminum Alloys / T. Latouche, M. Cailler, B. Sander, and S.K. Marya . . . 763
Dispersoid Precipitation in Aluminum Alloys / Joseph D. Robson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
Ductility–Fatigue Life Relationships in Aluminum Alloy Castings: Role of Structural
Quality / Murat Tiryakioğlu and Hüseyin Özdeş . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum Alloy A2011 / Sayavur Bakhtiyarov and Ruel Overfelt . . . . 784
Electrical Resistivity of Al-Cast Alloys in the Range of Solidification / Mitja Petric, Jožef
Medved, Sebastjan Kastelic, Maja Vončina, and Primož Mrvar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Electrochemical Study of Potassium Fluoride in a Cryolite-Aluminum Oxide Molten
Salt / Shaohu Tao, Jianping Peng, Yuezhong Di, Kejia Liu, Kun Zhao, and Naixiang Feng . . . 801
Electrodeposition of Aluminum in Ionic Liquids / Qian Wang, Suojiang Zhang, Xingmei Lu, and
Xiangping Zhang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
Electron Backscatter Diffraction / David P. Field and Mukul Kumar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Electron Beam Welding of Aluminum Alloys / Mohamed Sobih and Zuhair Elseddig . . . . . . . . . . 859
Electron-Beam Welding of Thick Components of Steels, Aluminum, and Titanium
Alloys / V.N. Martynov, A.S. Khokhlovskii, and A.P. Sliva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
Entrainment Defects / J. Campbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
Extractive Metallurgy of Aluminum / Fathi Habashi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Extrudable Al-Si-Mg Alloys: Simulation of Microsegregation and Homogenization /
G.N. Haidemenopoulos and Panagiota Sarafoglou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
Extrusion / Sigurd Stvren and Per Thomas Moe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
Fatigue Endurance under Torsion Testing: 6061-T6 and 6063-T5 Aluminum Alloys / Jorge
L. Avila Ambriz, Erasmo Correa Gómez, Julio C. Verduzco Juárez, Gonzalo M. Dominguez
Almaraz, and Aymeric E. Dominguez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Fatigue Lifetime Improvement of Aluminum Alloys / Patiphan Juijerm and Berthold Scholtes . . 1000
Field Trials of Aerospace Fasteners in Mechanical and Structural Applications / George Nadim
Melhem, Paul Richard Munroe, Charles Christopher Sorrell, and Alsten Clyde Livingstone . . . . . 1007
Forging / Kichitaro Shinozaki and Kazuho Miyamoto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
Friction Stir Processing: Effect on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Cast Aluminum
Alloys / Murat Tiryakioglu and Nelson Netto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
Friction Welding of Al2O3P/6061 Aluminum Alloy Composite to 5052 Aluminum Alloy /
K. Kato and H. Tokisue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
Grain Refinement and Strengthening of Aluminum Alloys: Cold Severe Plastic Deformation
Model / Xiao Guang Qiao, Nong Gao, and Marco Starink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
Grain Refinement of Cast Aluminum by Heterogeneous Nucleation Sites / Yoshimi Watanabe
and Hisashi Sato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Contents xxvii
Graphene-Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Nanocomposites: Structure and Properties / S.J.

Yan, Xiang Chen, Qihu Hong, Nan Wang, Xiuhui Li, Shuangzan Zhao, Wenzheng Nan, Xiaoyan
Zhang, Shenglong Dai, and Zuoming Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
Hall–Heroult Process / Gabriela M. Martínez-Cázares and Diego Lozano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Hall–Petch Relationship in Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys / Ronald W. Armstrong . . . . . . . . . 1104
Hardening, Annealing, and Aging / Laurens Ketgerman and D. Eskin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
Hardness–Yield Strength Relationships in Al-Zn-Mg(-Cu) Alloys / Murat Tiryakioglu . . . . . . . . 1149
Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys: Three-Point Bending / Ida Westermann and Gaute Gruben . . . 1155
High-Pressure Die-Cast AlSi9Cu3 (Fe) Alloys: Models for Casting Defects and Mechanical
Properties / Giulio Timelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
High-Speed Computer Tomography: Pressure Die Casting / Christian Heikel and Eberhard
Ambos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
Hipping Evaluation in Cast Aluminum Alloys: Quality Index-Based Approach / M. Nageswara
Rao, G. Dhineshbabu, and Prateek Sibal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
Early History of Aluminum Metallurgy / Norman C. Craig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
Homogeneous Modifier-Treated AlSi10Mg Alloy: Microstructure and Mechanical
Properties / Tomasz Lipiński . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
Honeycomb Composite Structures of Aluminum: Aerospace Applications / D. L. Majid,
Nor Hafizah Manan, and Yee Ling Chok . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
Hot Stamping of Complex-Shaped High-Strength Aluminum Components / Liliang Wang,
Jun Liu, and Jianguo Lin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244
Hot Tear Nucleation During Solidification of Aluminum and Its Alloys / Murat Tiryakioglu and
Pedram Yousefian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
Hypoeutectic Al–Fe Alloys: Formation and Characterization of Intermetallics by Dissolution
of the Al Matrix / Amauri Garcia, Pedro Goulart, Felipe Bertelli, Jose Spinelli, and
Noe Cheung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
Image Processing for Fault Detection in Aluminum Castings / Domingo Mery, Dieter Filbert,
and Thomas Jaeger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
Intermetallics of Aluminum / Georg Frommeyer and Sven Knippscheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312
Introduction to Aluminum / Alexey Sverdlin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327
Ionic Liquids in Surface Protection of Aluminum and Its Alloys / Joaquin Arias-Pardilla, Tulia
Espinosa, José Sanes, Ana Eva Jiménez, Ginés Martínez-Nicolás, and María Dolores Bérmudez . . . 1346
Iron: Removal from Aluminum / Lifeng Zhang, Jianwei Gao, Lucas Nana Wiredu Damoah, and
David G. Robertson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356
Machining / I. S. Jawahir and A. K. Balaji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1390
Master Alloys for Grain Refinement / Xiaoming Wang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417
Melt Quality Assessment / Derya Dispinar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
Melt-Stirring Method: Influence on Ingot Purity During Ohno Continuous
Casting / Simbarashe Fashu, Lynette Mudzingwa, Aaron Mukuya, Macdonald Tozvireva, and
Rajwali Khan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
Metal Casting Research: Application to Aluminum Alloy Casting / Murat Tiryakioğlu and
J. Campbell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1456
Metallic Coatings for Brazing Aluminum Alloys / A. A. Suslov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461
Volume II
Metallography of Aluminum Alloys: Atlas of Microstructures / S.V.S. Narayana Murty, Sushant
K. Manwatkar, and P. Ramesh Narayanan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465
Metallurgy of Continuous Hot Dip Aluminizing / R. W. Richards, H. Clarke, R. D. Jones, and
P. D. Clements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486
xxviii Contents
Volume II (cont’d.)
Metallurgy of Quenching Aluminum Alloys / Ralph T. Shuey and Murat Tiryakioğlu . . . . . . . . . . 1511
Microgravity Crystallization for High-Tech Castings / Hans M. Tensi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1535
Micromachining of Aluminum Alloys / Ann Rumsey and Muhammad Jahan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1557
Microstructural Changes During Annealing of Aluminum Alloy: Modeling / Soheila
Shabaniverki and S. Serajzadeh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592
Microstructural Evolution During Solution Treatment of ADC12 (A383) Alloy Die
Castings / Gil-Yong Yeom, Ghasem Eisaabadi Bozchaloei, Hyun-Kyu Lim, Shae Kwang Kim,
Young-Ok Yoon, Soong-Keun Hyun, Nelson Netto, and Murat Tiryakioğlu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1605
Microstructure and Microhardness of AlZnMnMg Alloys during Heat Treatment / S. Valdez-
Rodríguez, B. Campillo, and J. Islas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613
Microstructure and Properties of Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Alloys / Izabela Kalemba
and Stanisław Dymek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621
Microstructure and Yield Strength Evolution of Aluminum Alloys / Kai Li, Yong Du, and Min
Song . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627
Microstructure Imaging, Precipitation Formation and Mechanical Properties: Al–Li and Al–Mg–
Zn Alloys / Wilfried Wunderlich, Janos Lendvai, and Hans-Joachim Gudladt . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648
Microstructure of Al-Cu, Al-Zn, Al-Ag-Zn, and Al-Zn-Mg Alloys / Stanko Popović and Željko
Skoko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659
Microstructure of Aluminum Alloys: Effect of Hardening Conditions / Hülya Demirören . . . . . 1675
MIG Welding of Aluminum Alloys / K. Yasuda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1685
Molten Aluminum: Inductive Technique for Electrical Conductivity Measurements / Sayavur
Bakhtiyarov and Ruel Overfelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1689
Molten Metal Processing / Ryotatsu Otsuka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1698
Nanocomposites with Aluminum Matrix: Preparation and Properties / Jacopo Fiocchi,
Riccardo Casati, and Maurizio Vedani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
Nanoparticle Aluminum Preparation / Soma Venugopal Rao, Krishnamurthi Muralidharan, and
Anuj A. Vargeese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1738
Nanostructured Aluminum Films: Deep Ultraviolet Absorption from Glancing Angle Physical
Vapor Deposition / Stephen Stagon and Ryan Scherzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
Nanostructured Ni/Al2O3 Interlayer: Transient Liquid Phase Diffusion Bonding of Al6061-
MMC / Kavian Cooke and Tahir Khan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
Nodular Silicon Al–(12–30) % Si Alloys: Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Fracture
Behaviors / Ruyao Wang and Wei Hua Lu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
Non-Heat Treatable Al-Alloys: Development of Intermetallic Particles during Solidification and
Homogenization / Olaf Engler, Katrin Kuhnke, and Jochen Hasenclever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1797
Open-Cell Foam Metal Production and Characterization by Aluminum Solid Mold Investment
Casting / Kerem Altug Guler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
Optical Microstructures of Aluminum Alloys / S.V.S. Narayana Murty, Sushant Manwatkar, and
Ramesh Narayanan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822
Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) Coatings on Aluminum Alloys: Kinetics and Formation
Mechanism / Alex Lugovskoy and Lyubov Snizhko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903
Plasma Surface Treatment: Effects on Mechanical and Corrosion Protection Properties of Hybrid
Sol–Gel Coatings / R. Subasri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1922
Plastic Flow of Aluminum in Explosive Welding / V. G. Petushkov, M. I. Zotov, and L. D.
Dobrushin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929
Polyphase Eutectics of Aluminum Alloys: Effect of Phase Composition / Malgorzata Warmuzek . . 1932
Porosity Development and Modification in Al-Si Alloys: Effect of P and Sr / J. Campbell and
Murat Tiryakioğlu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1951
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Before the workmen from the United States arrived here a large
part of the bridge material was already in Mombasa. The Americans
left one man there to see that additional materials were forwarded
promptly, and came at once to the scene of action. They put up the
bridges at the rate of something like one a week, and constructed
the longest viaduct in sixty-nine and one half working hours.
What they did forms one of the wonders of civil and mechanical
engineering. The bridge material was so made that its pieces fitted
together like clockwork, notwithstanding the fact that it was put into
shape away off here, thousands of miles from the place of
construction and in one of the most uncivilized parts of the world.
The materials in the viaducts included about half a million feet of
southern pine lumber and over thirteen million pounds of steel. The
steel was in more than one hundred thousand pieces and the
heaviest piece weighed five tons. The average weight was about one
hundred pounds. The greatest care had to be taken to keep the parts
together and in their own places. Every piece was numbered and
those of different bridges were painted in different colours. At that, it
was hard to keep all the parts together, for, since most of the natives
here look upon steel as so much jewellery, it was all but impossible
to keep them from filching some of the smaller pieces for ear bobs
and telegraph wire to make into bracelets.
Besides all the other tremendous difficulties in building this road,
there were the wild beasts. There are a hundred places along it
where one might get off and start up a lion. Rhinoceroses have
butted the freight cars along the track, and infest much of the country
through which it goes. I was shown a station yesterday where
twenty-nine Hindus were carried off by two man-eating lions. Night
after night the man-eaters came, taking away each time one or two
of the workmen from the construction camp. They were finally killed
by an English overseer, who sat up with his gun and watched for
them.
It was not far from this station of Nairobi that a man was taken out
of a special car while it stopped overnight on the side track. The
windows and doors of the car had been left open for air, and the
three men who were its only inmates had gone to sleep. Two were in
the berths while the other, who had sat up to watch, was on the floor
with his gun on his knees. As the night went on he fell asleep, and
woke to find himself under the belly of a lion. The beast had slipped
in through the door, and, jumping over him, seized the man in the
lower berth and leaped out of the window, carrying him along. The
other two men followed, but they failed to discover the lion that night.
The bones of the man, picked clean, were found the next day.
An interesting “by-product” of the construction of the Uganda road
has been the development of the native labourer. Twenty years ago
the saying was: “Native labour is of little value, no dependence can
be placed upon it, and even famine fails to force the tribesmen to
seek work.” To-day that opinion has yielded to the belief that, if he is
properly trained and educated to it, the native can supply labour,
skilled and unskilled, for all manufacturing and industrial enterprises
of Kenya Colony. Remarkable progress in industrial education is
shown by the nine thousand African workers on the Uganda line.
CHAPTER XXXI
THE CAPITAL OF KENYA COLONY
Nairobi is the capital and administrative centre of Kenya Colony,

one of the most interesting and prosperous of Great Britain’s African
possessions. It lies three hundred and twenty-seven miles from the
sea in the very heart of British East Africa, about halfway between
the Indian Ocean and Lake Victoria. It is situated on a plateau at an
altitude higher than Denver, with mountains in sight far above any we
have in Colorado.
When the sun is just right at Nairobi, I can get a glimpse here of
Mt. Kilimanjaro and I can plainly see the peak of Mt. Kenya.
Kilimanjaro is about a hundred and fifty miles distant and Kenya, as
the crow flies, not more than one hundred miles. It is from Mt. Kenya
that Kenya Colony is named. Mt. Kenya is one of the giants of the
African continent, and is only three thousand feet lower than our own
Mt. McKinley. It is a dead volcano and is supposed to have once
been three thousand feet higher than it is now. The great peak,
seamed with no less than fifteen glaciers, is a mass of rocks covered
with snow, but the lower slopes are heavily wooded with forests of
cedar, camphor, and bamboo. Above the woods are pastures fit for
sheep, while in and below them are all sorts of wild game, including
lions and elephants, and even rhinoceroses and hippopotami.
In some respects Nairobi reminds one of our frontier towns of the
West. The high plain upon which it is situated has a climate in which
white men can live and work the year around, and farms are
springing up almost everywhere.
The city is comparatively new. Fifteen or more years ago it had
hardly a house. To-day streets have been laid out over an area ten
miles in circumference and hundreds of buildings of tin, wood, and
stone have been erected. The chief building material is galvanized
iron, which is so prevalent that Nairobi has been nicknamed the “tin
city.” There are no saw mills or planing mills worth mentioning, as the
forests have not been exploited, and about the only lumber available
is that brought from the United States and Norway and landed at
Mombasa. The ocean freight rates are heavy, and in addition there is
the cost of bringing the lumber to Nairobi by railroad. Hence the
galvanized iron, which comes here in sheets from England and
Belgium. Almost all the buildings are of iron, put up just as it comes
from the factory, giving the whole town a silver-gray colour. The post
office is of iron, the depot has an iron roof, and the same is true of
the governor’s offices. Many of the houses have iron ceilings and
iron walls, and the chief retail business section is a collection of one-
story iron booths, open at the front, in which Hindus stand or sit
surrounded by their goods. My hotel is half iron. The government
treasury near by, a shed not over fifteen feet square, is of tin and has
a tin roof. I could chop it to pieces with a butcher knife; and the only
sign of policing about it is the Negro who, gun in hand, stands
outside guarding the door. The office of the land surveyor is of tin,
and so are the police headquarters and the house where the
supreme court is held. The more fancy dwellings are now being
painted, and some stone and brick buildings are rising.
The Nairobi of to-day is largely cow pastures. It is a city of
magnificent distances. All the places of importance seem to be
several miles from each other and the patches between are often
grazing ground. The houses are of one and two stories, and are
scattered along wide streets which run for an indefinite distance out
into the prairie. The chief ways of getting about are on foot, on
horseback, or in jinrikishas, the last being by far the most popular.
The jinrikishas are much like those used in Japan, save that they are
larger and wider. I am told they are made in America. They are
pushed and pulled by black Africans, two to each vehicle. One man
goes in the shafts and the other pushes behind. They are each clad
in a single cotton cloth which flaps back and forth as they run,
exposing their nakedness. The streets are unpaved and frequently
masses of dust. Along many of them eucalyptus trees have been
planted and have grown so rapidly that most of the roads are now
shaded by this mournfully drooping foliage.
The population of Nairobi is about twenty thousand, of which only
a tenth are Europeans. Of the remainder, about a third are Asiatics
from Hindustan, and the others are the queerest Africans one can
imagine. I speak of them first, because they are everywhere; one
stumbles over them on the street; they wait upon him in the hotels;
they carry burdens for him and clog his footsteps when he goes
outside the town. Many of them wear dirty, greasy cloths not more
than a yard wide and two yards long. They hang them about their
shoulders and let them fall down on each side, so that they flap this
way and that in the breeze. Some wear breech cloths, and not a few
are bare to the waist. In the early morning, when the air is still sharp,
many of these people, clad in red flannel blankets, go stalking along
with their legs uncovered to the thighs. I have already spoken of the
ear plugs. Some have the holes in the lobes of their ears so
stretched that I can put my fist through them. The loops are so long
that when a man takes out his ear plug he hangs the loop of skin
over the top of his ear to prevent its catching on something and
tearing. The loop looks just like a leather strap about as wide as
one’s little finger nail. I have handled many of them, twisting them
this way and that to be sure they were genuine.
Nairobi, on a plateau higher than Denver, is the administrative centre of Kenya
Colony and a healthful place for white men. Farms are springing up about it, and
there are already 2,000 Europeans in this African outpost.
“My room at the Norfolk looks out on a stable yard where a baby lion as big as a
Newfoundland dog is tied up. He is much too playful to suit me and, besides, he
roars at night.”
In Nairobi the popular way to travel is in jinrikishas much like those of Japan but
sometimes made in America. Two good-natured Negroes man each one and sing
a monotonous song as they trot uphill and down.
The African smell is everywhere. It burdens the air of the market
places, and I verily think it might be chopped up into blocks and sold
as a new kind of phosphate. The natives cover themselves with hair
oil and body grease, and the combination of this when it turns rancid
with the natural effluvia which exhales from their persons is
indescribable. Some of the blacks smear their faces with a mixture of
grease and red clay, and cover their hair with the same material, so
that they look more like copper Indians than Africans.
These Africans do all the hard work of Nairobi. They are hewers of
wood and drawers of water. I see scores of them, carrying baskets of
dirt on their heads and bundles of wood on their backs and pushing
and pulling carts and wagons through the streets. Most of my trips
from one place to another are made in two-wheeled carts hauled by
wire-bedecked natives.
The retail business is done by East Indians, as is also the case at
Mombasa. I am told this is so in every settlement on this part of the
continent. The Hindus have made their way along all the travelled
routes, until their little stores may be found in every large African
village. They have trading stations upon Lakes Victoria and
Tanganyika. They are very enterprising, and as they live upon almost
nothing they can undersell the whites. They sell cotton of bright
colours and of the most gorgeous patterns, wire for jewellery, and all
sorts of knickknacks that the African wants. They deal also in
European goods, and one can buy of them almost anything from a
needle to a sewing machine. Here at Nairobi there is an Indian
bazaar covering nine acres which is quite as interesting as any
similar institution in Tunis, Cairo, Bombay, or Calcutta. The stores
are all open at the front, and the men squat in them with their gay
goods piled about them. These Hindus dress in a quaint costume not
unlike that of the English clergyman who wears a long black coat
buttoned up to the throat. The only difference is that the Hindu’s
trousers may be of bright-coloured calico, cut very tight, and his
head may be covered with a flat skullcap of velvet embroidered in
gold. Moreover, his feet are usually bare.
But Nairobi is a British city, notwithstanding its African and Asiatic
inhabitants; the English form the ruling class. They are divided into
castes, almost as much as are the East Indians. At the head are the
government officials, the swells of the town. They dress well and
spend a great deal of time out of office hours playing tennis and golf,
which have already been introduced into this part of the black
continent. They also ride about on horseback and in carriages, and
manage to make a good show upon very low salaries. Allied to them
are the sportsmen and the noble visitors from abroad. A scattering
element of dukes, lords, and second sons of noble families has
come out to invest, or to hunt big game. They are usually men of
means, for the prices of large tracts of land are high and it also costs
considerable money to fit out a game-shooting expedition. In
addition, there are land speculators, who are chiefly young men from
England or South Africa. Dressed in riding clothes, big helmet hats,
and top boots, they dash about the country on ponies, and are
especially in evidence around the bars of the hotels. There are but
few white women here. Some of the government officials have their
wives with them, and now and then a titled lady comes out to hunt
with her friends. I met three women who had themselves shot lions.
Nairobi has English doctors, dentists, and lawyers. It has one
photographer and two firms which advertise themselves as safari
outfitters. These men supply sportsmen with tents, provisions, and
other things for shooting trips, as well as porters to carry their stuff
and chase the lions out of the jungles so that the hunters may get a
shot at them.
It seems strange to have newspapers under the shadow of Mt.
Kenya, and within a half day’s ride on horseback to lion and
rhinoceros hunting. Nevertheless, Nairobi has three dailies, which
also issue weekly editions. They are all banking on the future of the
town and all claim to be prosperous. They are good-sized journals,
selling for from two to three annas, or from four to six cents each.
They have regular cable dispatches giving them the big news of the
world, and they furnish full reports of the local cricket, polo, tennis,
and golf matches. As for the advertisements, most of them come
from the local merchants and some are odd to an extreme. One of
to-day’s papers carries an advertisement signed by a well-known
American circus company which wants to buy a white rhinoceros, a
giant hog, some wild dogs, a wild-tailed mongoose, and a bongo.
Another advertisement, one made along farming lines, is that of the
Homestead Dairy, and others state that certain merchants will outfit
hunters for shooting. There are many land sales advertised, as well
as machinery, American wagons, and all sorts of agricultural
implements.
Nairobi has several hotels, the accommodations in which are
comfortable. I am stopping at the Norfolk at the upper end of the
town. It is a low one-story building with a wide porch in front,
separated from the dirt street by a picket fence, and shaded by
eucalyptus trees through which the wind seems to be ever sighing
and moaning. The charges are three dollars and thirty-three cents a
day, including meals, but I have to have my own servant to make my
bed and run my errands. I have a room at the back with a fine view
of the stable. A German sportsman next door has a little cub lion,
about as big as a Newfoundland dog, tied in a box outside his
window. During a part of the day he lets the baby lion out, and ties
him by a rope to one of the pillars of the porch. The animal seems
harmless, but its teeth are sharp, and it is entirely too playful to suit
me. Besides, it roars at night.
To be a Swahili, a professing Mohammedan, and boy to a white man give three
strong claims to distinction in African society. This chap is proud of his white men’s
clothes and will steal soap to wash them.
Many Europeans have taken up farms in the vicinity of Naivasha, where the flat,
grassy land is suitable for sheep. Though almost on the Equator, the altitude of
more than 6,000 feet makes the climate tolerable for white men.
John Bull designs his public buildings in Africa with a view to making an
impression on the native. His Majesty’s High Court of Kenya Colony, sitting at
Mombasa, administers both British and Koranic laws.
The horses are fairly good here, but the charges for them are
steep. When I ride out on horseback it costs me a dollar and sixty-
five cents an hour, and the carriage rates are still higher. The best
way to get about is in the jinrikishas, using the natives as beasts of
burden, but for a long ride over the plains horses are necessary.
The heavy hauling of this part of East Africa is done mostly by the
sacred cattle of India. I mean the clean-cut animals with great humps
on their backs. They are fine-looking and are apparently well-bred.
Some of these beasts are hitched to American wagons brought out
here from Wisconsin. I saw such a team hauling a Kentucky plough
through the streets of Nairobi yesterday.
Indeed, I find that American goods are slowly making their way
into these wilds. American axes and sewing machines, and
American sowers and planters are sold by the East Indians. The
drug stores carry our patent medicines and every market has more
or less American cottons. The wood cutters are using American
axes, but they complain of the flat or oval holes made for the
handles. They say that a round hole would be better, as the natives
who do the wood cutting are very clumsy and the handles snap off at
the axe. If round holes were used, heavier handles could be put in
and the Negroes could make them themselves.
Nairobi promises to become one of the railroad centres of this part
of the world. It is the chief station between the Indian Ocean and
Lake Victoria, and a road is now proposed from here to Mt. Kenya.
The Uganda Railway goes through some of the poorest country in
the colony, and the Mt. Kenya road will open up a rich agricultural
region which is thickly populated by tribes more than ordinarily
industrious. The railroad shops are here, and the employees have a
large collection of tin cottages for their homes. The headquarters of
the railroad, where the chief officers stay, are one-story tin buildings.
The telegraphic offices are connected with them.
Both railroad and telegraph are run by the government. The
telegraphic rates are comparatively low. Far off here in the jungles of
Africa one can send messages much more cheaply than in the
United States. A message of eight words from here to Uganda costs
thirty-three cents, and one can telegraph to London about as cheaply
as from New York to San Francisco. This is so notwithstanding the
difficulty which the linemen have to keep up the wires, which the
jewellery-loving natives steal. During the Nandi rebellion, forty-odd
miles of it were carried away and never recovered, and in one of the
provinces adjoining Uganda, above Lake Victoria, the natives are so
crazy after the copper wire there used that it is almost impossible to
keep the lines in shape.
Another serious danger to the telegraph is the big game. The
giraffes reach up and play with the brackets and pull the wire this
way and that. At Naivasha the hippopotami have once or twice
butted down the poles, and I hear they have been doing
considerable damage to the lines along the coast near the Tana
River. In the heart of Uganda the monkeys have a way of swinging
on the wires and twisting them together, which stops the
transmission of messages, so that the way of the lineman is indeed
hard.
CHAPTER XXXII
JOHN BULL IN EAST AFRICA
I have just had a long talk with Mr. Frederick J. Jackson, the acting
governor and commander-in-chief of this big territory which John Bull
owns in the heart of East Africa. Mr. Jackson came out here to hunt
big game years ago, and he has been on the ground from that time
to this. He has long been employed by the British Government in the
administration of Uganda and of the protectorate of East Africa, and
he is now lieutenant-governor in the absence of Colonel Sadler, the
acting governor of the country.
Let me give you some idea of this vast region which the British are
opening up in the midst of the black continent. This country
altogether is larger than the combined states of Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, and Wisconsin. It has a population of four million natives,
most of whom not so long ago were warring with one another. Some
of the tribes made their living by preying upon their neighbours.
Slavery was everywhere common, and one of the great slave routes
to the coast was not far from the line where the Uganda railway now
runs. To-day all these evils have been done away with. The warlike
tribes have been conquered, and are turning their attention to stock
raising and farming. Slavery has been practically abolished, and
peace prevails everywhere. The whole country is now kept in good
order by only about eighteen hundred police and less than two
thousand English and East Indian soldiers. A large part of the region
along the line of the railroad has been divided into ranches and
farms. Small towns are springing up here and there, and in time the
greater part of the plateau will be settled.
There is no doubt that white men can live here. The children I see
are rosy with health, and the farmers claim that, with care, they are
as well as they were when back home in England. There are some
Europeans here who have had their homes on the highlands for over
twelve years, and they report that the climate is healthful and
invigorating. They are able to work out of doors from six until ten
o’clock in the morning and from three to six o’clock in the afternoon,
and during a part of the year all the day through. As a rule, however,
the sun is so hot at midday that one should not go out unless his
head is well protected. The heat here is dry. The nights are usually
so cool that a blanket is needed. Notwithstanding the fact that we are
almost on the Equator, at any altitude above eight thousand feet ice
may be found in the early morning. Nearer the coast the land drops
and the climate is tropical. For two hundred miles back from the
Indian Ocean there are practically no white settlers, except at
Mombasa, for it is only on this high plateau that they are as yet
attempting to live.
But let me continue my description in the words of the man who
governs the country. My conversation took place in a long, blue, iron-
roofed building known as the Commissioner’s office, situated on the
hill above Nairobi. I had asked as to the colony’s future. Mr. Jackson
replied:
“It is all problematical. We have an enormous territory and millions
of people. We have not yet prospected the country, nor have we
dealt long enough with the natives to know what we can do with the
people. We have really no idea as yet as to just what our resources
are, or the labour we can secure to exploit them.”
Not long ago the great plateau of Kenya Colony was inaccessible and unknown
and its four million blacks were in continual war with one another. Now, besides the
railway, it is being opened up with roads permitting the use of motor transport.
Each group of huts is usually surrounded by a thatched wall, making an
inclosure into which cattle, sheep, and goats are driven at night. Some of the tribes
are practically vegetarians, living mostly on corn, beans, sweet potatoes, millet,
and milk.
“How many inhabitants have you?”

“We do not know. We can get some idea from the taxes, for most
of the provinces have to pay so much per hut. In other places the
natives have hardly been subdued, and of no province have we an
accurate census. The number has been estimated at from two to
four millions, but I believe it is nearer five millions, and possibly
more.”
“How about your white settlers? Will this country ever be inhabited
by Caucasians?”
“That, again, is difficult to say,” replied the conservative governor.
“We have a few European settlers already, but whether we can make
this colony a second South Africa remains to be seen. I have lived
here for over twenty years, and I am not sure as to how much hard
manual labour any white man can do in this latitude. It is true we are
more than a mile above the sea, but nevertheless we are on the
Equator, and the climate on the Equator is not suited to the white
man. The only Europeans who will succeed here will be those who
bring some money with them, and who will use the native labour in
their work. I don’t think any settler should come to East Africa without
as much as three thousand dollars, reckoning the amount in your
money. He should have enough to buy his land, stock it, build his
house, and then have something to go on. He should not start out
with a very small tract. Much of the grazing land is now being divided
up into tracts of five thousand acres. If a man takes the first
thousand and pays for it, the other four thousand are held for him
subject to certain improvements and developments upon the first
thousand. After these are completed he may buy the remaining tract
at the price of the first thousand acres.”
“I understand much of your land is being taken up in large
holdings.”
“That is so to a certain extent,” replied Mr. Jackson, “but we are
now discouraging such allotments, and would rather have the land
apportioned in tracts of from six hundred and forty acres to about five
thousand acres each. If the land is for grazing the larger area is
desirable. If it is for grain farming or dairying, it is better that it should
be small. As to our large landholders, the British East African
Company owns about five hundred square miles, Lord Delamere has
about one hundred thousand acres, and Lord Hindlip a little less.
There are a number of settlers who have twenty thousand acres or
more.”
“How about your ranching possibilities? I understand that your
stock growers expect to found a great meat industry here which will
crowd our Chicago packers out of the markets of England.”
“I do not think there is room for alarm about that matter as yet,”
replied the official. “This country is just in the making, and we know
practically nothing about it. We realize that we have some of the
richest grasses of the world—grasses which have supported vast
herds of game, and upon which cattle, sheep, goats, and hogs will
thrive. But we do not know whether we can conquer the diseases
and insect pests which attack all the animals we have so far
imported. We seem to have every disease to which cows, horses, or
sheep are subject in other parts of the world, and I believe we have
some peculiarly our own. We have ticks by the millions and flies by
the myriads. So far, however, our experiments with cattle are turning
out well, and we know that we can produce excellent beef and good
butter. We hope to find our first market for our meats and dairy
products in South Africa, and later on to ship such things to Europe.
The creation of an industry of that kind, though, is a matter of
gradual development. We shall have to arrange about proper
transportation, which means cold-storage cars and cold-storage
ships. We have not gone far enough as yet to be able to predict what
we can do.”
“What other possibilities have you?” I asked.
“I think we may eventually be able to raise coffee, and we are
already exploiting certain fibres which grow well between here and
the coast. The plant which produces the Sansivera fibre is
indigenous to this country and is being exploited by Americans who
are working not far from the station of Voi, about one hundred miles
from the Indian Ocean. I have no doubt we can raise sisal hemp, and
know that we can grow ramie without cultivation.

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