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BASIC CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (PART – B) MATERIAL
UNIT – II NOTES
UNIT-II SYLLABUS

Manufacturing Processes: Principles of Casting, Forming, joining processes, Machining, Introduction to

CNC machines, 3D printing, and Smart manufacturing

Thermal Engineering – working principle of Boilers, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Refrigeration and airc
conditioning cycles, IC engines, 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke engines, SI/CI Engines, Components of Electric and
Hybrid Vehicles.

UNIT-II NOTES
1. Principles of Casting: The casting process is a manufacturing technique where a liquid material,
typically metal or plastic, is poured into a mold and allowed to cool and solidify, resulting in a finished
product.

Parts Involved In Casting Process:

o Cores: Used to create complex shapes and hollow sections in the mold.
o Gating System: Channels and gates control molten material flow.
o Risers: Additional cavities compensate for shrinkage during solidification.
o Venting System: Allows air and gases to escape from the mold cavity.
o Molding Flasks: Rigid frames support the mold during casting.
o Molding Tools: Used for packing, shaping, and smoothing the mold.
o Pouring Equipment: Transfers molten material into the mold.
o Cooling and Heating Elements: Control solidification and maintain temperature.

Some of Types of Casting Process

o Now that we have learned about types of mould, let’s learn about different types of casting
processes:

Sand Casting Process

o In the industrial process known as sand casting, liquid metal is poured into a sand mould that
has a hollow cavity in it and is then left to solidify. A liquid substance is poured into a mould
during casting, and the solidified material takes on the intended shape.
o Non-ferrous alloy casts are frequently made through the process of sand casting. This
procedure was created over 6,000 years ago but is still being updated. There are three types
of sand used in casting, green sand, water glass or sodium silicate, and resin sand.
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Die Casting Process

 Die casting is a process that involves melting metals and injecting them into already-
made mould. The metals used in die casting have low melting points. A mould or
tools are made of steel that has been specifically manufactured for a given job using
manufacturing techniques like CNC machining. Die cast sheet metal components
have high levels of accuracy, precision, and repeatability as a result. The two die
casting processes used industrially are hot chamber, and cold chamber dies casting.
 When dealing with materials with low melting points, such as zinc, tin, lead, and
magnesium alloys, the hot chamber die casting process is ideal. It is inappropriate for
alloys with higher melting points because doing so would harm the pump because the
metal would come into direct contact with it. It entails using pressure from a
hydraulic system to pour the metal into the die after it has been melted.
 Working with materials that have a high melting point, such as aluminium, demands
the cold chamber die casting technique. Since the high melting temperature required
for such metals can harm the pumping system, this method is perfect for them.
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Centrifugal Casting

 Centrifugal casting is a process that delivers components of high material soundness. As a result, it is
the technology of choice for applications like jet engine compressor cases, hydro wear rings, many
military products, and other high-reliability applications. It has also proven to be a cost-effective
means of providing complex shapes with reduced machining requirements and lower manufacturing
costs as compared to forgings and fabrications.
 The centrifugal casting process steps begin with molten metal being poured into a preheated,
spinning die. The die may be oriented either on a vertical or horizontal axis depending on the
configuration of the desired part.
 By spinning a mold while the molten metal is poured into it, centrifugal force acts to distribute the
molten metal in the mold at pressures approaching 100 times the force of gravity. The combination
of this applied pressure and the engineering mechanics of controlled solidification and secondary
refining produces components of superior quality.
 As the die begins to fill, the more dense molten metal is forced to the wall of the spinning die.
Directional solidification of sound metal progresses from the O.D. towards the bore, while the less
dense material, including impurities, “floats” to the I.D.
 Once the casting has solidified, the part is removed from the die and residual impurities in the I.D.
are machined away, resulting in a defect-free structure without cavities or gas pockets.
 Some centrifugal casters produce only horizontal castings where the die rotates about the horizontal
axis. This is a cost-effective method for producing high-quality tubular components.
 This process is especially suited for long cylindrical parts where the casting length is significantly
longer than its outside diameter. This includes straight tube sections, long cylinders with end flanges,
or short parts such as rings or flanges where multiple parts can be machined effectively from a
straight cylinder.

 A long steel casting mold is spun at high speed while positioned horizontally. The rotational speed
of the mold is high, to offset gravitational forces. Covers are fixed at each end of the mold to contain
the molten metal and a pour funnel is used to deliver a specified weight of metal inside the mold.
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 Just as in vertical casting, the interior dimension of the mold determines the O.D. size of the part,
while the amount of metal poured into the mold determines the I.D. size.

Advantages of casting process:

 Molten metal flows into small ant section in the molten cavity. Hence any complex shape can be
easily produced.
 Practically any material can be casted.
 Ideal method is by producing small quantities
 Due to small cooling rate from all directions, the properties of casting are same in all directions.
 Any size of casting can be produced up to 200 tons.
 Casting is the often cheapest and most direct way of producing a shape with certain desired
mechanical properties.
 Certain metals and alloys such as highly creep resistant metal-based alloys for gas turbines cannot
be worked mechanically and can be cast only.
 Heavy equipment like machine leads, ship’s propeller, etc. can be thrown easily in the required size
rather than fabricating them by joining several small pieces.
 Casting is best suited for composite components requiring different properties in various direction.
These are made by incorporating preferable inserts in a casting. For example, aluminum
conductors into slots in iron armature for electric motors, wear resistant skins onto shock resistant
components.

Limitations of casting process:

 With normal sand casting process, the dimensional accuracies and surface finish is less.
 Defects are unavoidable.
 Sand casting is labor intensive.

Applications:

1. Versatility: Metal casting can be used to create parts of various sizes, shapes, and complexity.
It is suitable for producing both small and large parts, and it can be used to create parts with
intricate details and internal cavities that would be difficult or impossible to produce using
other methods.
2. Cost-effective: Casting can be more cost-effective than other manufacturing methods,
especially for producing large quantities of parts. The cost per unit decreases as the quantity
produced increases, and the molds used for casting can be reused multiple times, reducing
the cost of tooling.
3. Material selection: Metal casting can be used with a wide range of materials, including ferrous
and non-ferrous metals, alloys, and composites. This allows manufacturers to choose the
material that best suits the requirements of the part, such as strength, durability, and
resistance to corrosion.
4. Design flexibility: Casting allows designers to create complex shapes and features in the part,
including undercuts, thin walls, and hollow sections. This flexibility allows for greater
creativity and innovation in product design.
5. Efficiency: Metal casting is an efficient manufacturing process that can produce large
quantities of parts quickly and reliably. It also requires less labor compared to other methods,
reducing the cost of production.
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2. Principles of Forming: Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is deformed
plastically to take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such deformation are called die, punch
etc. depending on the type of process.
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3. Principles of Joining:

• Joining includes welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding of materials.

• They produce permanent joint between the parts to be assembled.
• They cannot be separated easily by application of forces.
• They are mainly used to assemble many parts to make a system

Welding: Welding is a metal joining process in which two or more parts are joined or coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by suitable application of heat or/and pressure.
• Sometimes, welding is done just by applying heat alone, with no pressure applied
• In some cases, both heat and pressure are applied; and in other cases, only pressure is applied, without any
external heat.
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate coalescence.
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Advantages of welding:
• Welding provides a permanent joint.
• Welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a proper filler metal is used that has strength
properties better than that of parent base material and if defect less welding is done.
• It is the economical way to join components in terms of material usage and fabrication costs. Other
methods of assembly require, for example, drilling of holes and usage of rivets or bolts which will produce a
heavier structure.

Disadvantages of welding:
• Labor costs are more since manual welding is done mostly.
• Dangerous to use because of presence of high heat and pressure.
• Disassembly is not possible as welding produces strong joints.
• Some of the welding defects cannot be identified which will reduce the strength.

Brazing: It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and distributed by capillary action between
the faying (contact) surfaces of the metal parts being joined.

• Base material does not melt in brazing, only the filler melts.

• In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature (liquidus) above 450°C, but below the melting point
(solidus) of base metals to be joined.

Advantages of brazing
• Brazing can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals.
• Pieces of different thickness can be easily joined by brazing
• Thin-walled tubes & light gauge sheet metal assemblies not joinable by welding can be joined by brazing.
• Complex & multi-component assemblies can be economically fabricated with the help of brazing.
• Inaccessible joint areas which could not be welded by gas metal or gas tungsten arc spot or seam welding
can be formed by brazing.

Soldering: Soldering is like brazing and can be defined as a joining process in which a filler metal with
melting point (liquidus) not exceeding 450°C is melted and distributed by capillary action between the
faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
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• As in brazing, no melting of the base metals occurs, but the filler metal wets and combines with the base
metal to form a metallurgical bond.

• Filler metal, called Solder, is added to the joint, which distributes itself between the closely fitting parts.

Solder: Alloys of Tin and Lead. Tin is chemically active at soldering temperatures and promotes the wetting
action required for successful joining.

4. Principles of Machining:

During the manufacturing of a part, a variety of machining operations and processes are needed to remove
excess material. These operations are usually mechanical and involve cutting tools, abrasive wheels, and
discs, etc. Machining operations may be performed on stock mill shapes such as bars and flats or they may
be executed upon parts made by previous manufacturing methods such as casting or welding. With the
recent advancement of additive manufacturing, machining has of late been labeled as a “subtractive”
process to describe its taking material away to make a finished part.

Different Types of Machining Operations

Two primary machining processes are turning and milling – descried below. Other processes sometimes
dovetail onto these processes or are performed with standalone equipment. A drill bit, for instance, may be
installed on a lathe used for turning or chucked in a drill press. At one time, a distinction could be made
between turning, where the part rotates, and milling, where the tool rotates. This has blurred somewhat with
the advent of machining centers and turning centers that are capable of performing all the operations of the
individual machines in a single machine.

Among the below we majorly focusses on Turning, Drilling and Milling in our discussion.
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Turning: Turning is a machining process performed by a lathe; the lathe spins the workpiece as the cutting
tools move across it. The cutting tools work along two axes of motion to create cuts with precise depth and
width. Lathes are available in two different types, the traditional, manual type, and the automated, computer
numerical controlled (CNC) type.

The turning process can be performed on either the exterior or interior of a material. When performed on the
inside, it is known as "boring”—this method (which can be either horizontal or vertical depending on the
orientation of the spindle) is most commonly applied to create tubular components. Another part of the
turning process is called "facing” and occurs when the cutting tool moves across the end of the workpiece –
it is typically performed during the first and last stages of the turning process. Facing can only be applied if
the lathe features a fitted cross-slide. It used to produce a datum on the face of a casting or stock shape that
is perpendicular to the rotational axis.

Lathes are generally identified as one of three different sub-types – turret lathes, engine lathes, and special
purpose lathes. Engine lathes are the most common type found in use by the general machinist or hobbyist.
Turret lathes and special purpose lathes are more commonly used for applications that require repeated
manufacturing of parts. A turret lathe features a tool holder that enables the machine to perform a number of
cutting operations in succession without interference from the operator. Special purpose lathes include, for
example, disc and drum lathes, which an automotive garage would use to reface the surfaces of brake
components.
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CNC mill-turning centers combine head and tail stocks of traditional lathes with additional spindle axes to
enable the efficient machining of parts that have rotational symmetry (pump impellers, for instance)
combined with the milling cutter’s ability to produce complex features. Complex curves can be created by
rotating the workpiece through an arc as the milling cutter moves along a separate path, a process known as
5-axis machining.

Drilling/Boring/Reaming: Drilling produces cylindrical holes in solid materials using drill bits—it is one
of the most important machining processes as the holes that are created are often intended to aid in
assembly. A drill press is often used but bits can be chucked into lathes as well. In most manufacturing
operations, drilling is a preliminary step in producing finished holes, ones that are subsequently tapped,
reamed, bored, etc. to create threaded holes or to bring hole dimensions within acceptable tolerances. Drill
bits will usually cut holes larger than their nominal size and holes that are not necessarily straight or round
due to the flexibility of the bit and its tendency to take a path of least resistance. For this reason, drilling is
usually specified undersize and followed by another machining operation that takes the hole out to its
finished dimension.

The drill bits used feature two spiral channels that run up the shaft of the bit. Known as the "fluting," it
carries the chips, or swarf, out of the hole as the bit progresses into the material. For each type of material,
there is a recommended drill speed and feed.

Although drilling and boring are often confused, boring is used to refine the dimensions and accuracy of a
drilled hole. Boring machines come in several variations depending on the size of the work. A vertical
boring mill is used to machine very large, heavy castings where the work turns while the boring bar is held
stationary. Horizontal boring mills and jig borers hold the work stationary and rotate the cutting tool. Boring
is also done on a lathe or in a machining center. The boring cutter typically uses a single point to machine
the side of the hole, allowing the tool to act more rigidly than a drill bit. Cored holes in castings are usually
finished by boring.

Machine and hand reamers are also used to finish holes, often with a better surface roughness than can be
achieved through boring alone. Standard reamers are available in increments of 1/64 in. The reamers are
straight or helically fluted and cut on the periphery, removing only 0.004-0.008 in. of the bore. Reaming is
done in the same machine tools as boring is, and sometimes in a drill press as well.

Milling: Milling uses rotating cutters to remove material, unlike turning operations where the tool does not
spin. Traditional milling machines feature moveable tables on which the workpieces are mounted. On these
machines, the cutting tools are stationary and the table moves the material so that the desired cuts can be
made. Other types of milling machines feature both table and cutting tools as moveable implements.

Two principal milling operations are slab milling and face milling. Slab milling uses the peripheral edges of
the milling cutter to make planar cuts across the surface of a workpiece. Keyways in shafts can be cut using
a similar cutter though one that is narrower than the ordinary slab cutter. Face cutters instead use the end of
the milling cutter. Special cutters are available for a variety of tasks, such as ball-nose cutters which can be
used to mill curved-wall pockets.
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Some of the operations a milling machine is capable of performing include planing, cutting, rabbeting,
routing, die-sinking, and so on, making the milling machine one of the more flexible pieces of equipment in
a machine shop.

There are four types of milling machines – hand milling machines, plain milling machines, universal milling
machines, and omniversal milling machines – and they feature either horizontal cutters or cutters installed
on a vertical axis. As expected, the universal milling machine allows for both vertical and horizontal
mounted cutting tools, making it one of the most complex and flexible milling machines available.

As with turning centers, milling machines capable of producing a series of operations on a part without
operator intervention are commonplace and are often simply called vertical or horizontal machining centers.
They are invariably CNC based.

5. Introduction to CNC Machines:

Computer numerical control (CNC) is a manufacturing method that automates the control, movement and
precision of machine tools through the use of preprogrammed computer software, which is embedded inside
the tools.

CNC is commonly used in manufacturing for machining metal and plastic parts. Mills, lathes, routers, drills,
grinders, water jets and lasers are common cutting tools whose operations can also be automated with CNC.
It can also be used to control nonmachine tools, such as welding, electronic assembly and filament-winding
machines.

How computer numerical control works

With CNC, each object to be manufactured gets a custom computer program, usually written in an
international standard language called G-code, stored in and executed by the machine control unit (MCU),
a microcomputer attached to the machine. The M-code language is also used in conjunction with G-code in
CNC operations.

While G-code controls the movement and functioning of the machine, M-code controls the operation's
external movements. The program also contains the instructions and parameters the machine tool follows,
such as the feed rate of materials and the positioning and speed of the tool's components.

Early in the process, engineers create a computer-aided design (CAD) drawing of the part to be
manufactured and then translate the drawing into G-code. The program is loaded onto the MCU, and a
machine operator performs a test run without the raw material in place to ensure proper positioning and
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performance. This step is important because incorrect speed or positioning can damage both the machine
and the part.

When everything is ready, the CNC machine runs its program and completes jobs with precision as
instructed. The jobs could involve anything from creating something from scratch to cutting a workpiece or
printing anything.

Why is computer numerical control important?

Numerical control enables machines to produce items more quickly and with better surface finishes without
the need for manual machining or extensive human participation.

The following are some benefits of CNC systems:

 Cost reduction. CNC machines are cost-effective and bring down the cost of production due to
precision manufacturing. Energy consumption is decreased as a result of increased production
efficiency, scalability and less material waste, which also lowers operating expenses. The weight
of potential financial obligations related to worker safety is also lessened, which helps with cost-
cutting.

 Waste reduction. The software used to run various kinds of CNC machines results in little to no
waste during the manufacturing process due to simulations and repeated optimizations.

 Improved worker safety. CNC machines minimize the chance of accidents and guarantee
worker safety because there is less need for human interaction. Most modern CNC machines are
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self-sufficient and can be handled remotely by people for software upgrades, design changes or
other preventative maintenance.

 Human error reduction. Since human error is eliminated in the manufacturing process with
CNC, it is thought to offer greater precision, complexity, speed, flexibility and repeatability. This
ultimately results in fewer defects in the manufactured products.

 Contour machining. CNC provides capabilities such as contour machining, which enables
milling of contoured shapes, including those produced in 3D printing and designs.

 Faster MCU programming. Some CNC systems are integrated with CAD software and
computer-aided manufacturing software, which can speed the process of programming the MCU.

 Improved operational intelligence. Integration with enterprise resource planning software and
related applications, such as enterprise asset management software, can facilitate operational
and business intelligence processes and help improve plant performance and maintenance.

 No bottlenecks. With the higher level of automation used, CNC systems reduce production and
manufacturing bottlenecks and improve the outcome.

Along with the wonderful benefits that CNC machines offer, they do tend to be more expensive, require
more maintenance than other production methods and compel companies to hire a skilled CNC programmer.

6. Introduction to 3D Printing:
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3D printing (3DP) is a type of rapid prototyping technology. It is based on digital model files, using
powdery metal or plastics and other adhesive materials to construct objects by layer-by-layer printing. It is
widely used in rapid prototyping services and product development.
But do you really know what 3D printing can do and what types of 3D printing are suitable for your rapid
prototyping work? In this article, you will know all the useful and essential information about 3D printing.
Here are some points you will know:

How does 3d printing work?

1. The 3D printing principle
The working principle of 3D printing is the same as that of traditional printers. It’s just that 3D print does
not spray ink, but printing materials such as liquid or powder.
The rapid prototyping device that uses light curing and paper stacking technology superimposes the printing
materials layer by layer through computer control and finally becomes real.

2. 3D printing process
What is the process of 3d printing? The 3d printing process steps generally include the following main
steps: modeling, slicing, printing, and post-processing.
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6. Introduction to Smart Manufacturing:

The Smart Manufacturing Leadership Consortium (SMLC) defines smart manufacturing as “the ability to
solve existing and future problems via an open infrastructure that allows solutions to be implemented at the
speed of business while creating advantaged value.”

“Smart manufacturing is becoming the focus of manufacturing globally,” according to an Infiniti

Research expert. “As it permeates the manufacturing process in the form of smart factories and the adoption
of Industry 4.0, it is transforming traditional manufacturing for the better.”
The rapid evolution of technology is leading this new industrial revolution. According to MIT Professional
Education “This revolution, based on cyber physical production systems, challenges the traditional methods
of completing operations in the manufacturing sector, making it increasingly dynamic.”
“Smart manufacturing consists of the convergence between techniques used in modern data science and
artificial intelligence to create processes that can be used in the factory of the future. But why is it necessary
today?”

“Smart manufacturing technology increases efficiency and eliminates points of weakness in the system. It’s
characterized by a highly connected, knowledge-enabled industrial enterprise where all organizations and
operating systems are linked, leading to enhanced productivity, sustainability, and economic performance.”

Smart manufacturing also makes it possible for manufacturers to use cloud technology to store and use
important amounts of data. This data becomes available to be further used in manufacturing applications
within a factory or across an entire supply chain.

In the past, this type of data was very hard to get access to or analyze effectively. Today, it allows
manufacturers to see the whole picture, make better, informed decisions, and act accordingly.
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Advantages of a smart manufacturing approach

 Increased quality: The digitization of processes reduces the chance of human error and failure. It
allows you to monitor process and performance to help you increase yield and use resources more
effectively.
 Lower operational costs with predictive maintenance: Smart factories can predict and resolve
maintenance issues better and faster, which can help reduce expensive equipment repairs and avoid
disruptions in production.
 Higher customer satisfaction: Smart manufacturing provides managers with access to more-precise
data, giving them the ability to measure key performance indicators more efficiently and to serve
customers better, aligning to their needs in real time.
 Significant cost reductions: Better access to supply chain and production data and analytics
increases forecast accuracy and reduces waste, helping to reduce costs through proper demand
management.
 Enhanced productivity: Autonomous machines communicate with each other, generating a lot of
data and making new analytics scenarios possible. This data provides real-time insight into
production processes, which helps managers adjust efficiency planning and enhance productivity.
 Higher employee satisfaction: Access to the most modern technology can attract and retain new
talent. Modern technology also reduces human error, which can mean employees have to deal with
fewer issues related to dissatisfied customers.
 Energy efficiency: All manufacturers can reduce their carbon footprint by reducing waste. However,
energy-intensive industries have the most to gain in terms of energy savings, which will not only
reduce energy waste but also help make products more affordable as a result.
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Thermal Engineering – working principle of Boilers, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Refrigeration and air
conditioning cycles, IC engines, 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke engines, SI/CI Engines, Components of Electric and
Hybrid Vehicles.
1. Working principle of Boilers:

Definition: A boiler is defined as a closed vessel which is used to heat liquid usually water or to generate
vapor or steam or any of such combination under pressure for external use by combustion of fossil fuels.

Working Principle: Understanding the working of the boiler is very simple. The boiler is a closed vessel in
which the water is stored. Hot gases are produced by burning fuel in the furnace. These hot gases are made
to come in contact with the water vessel where the heat transfer takes place between the water and the
steam. Therefore, the basic principle of the boiler is to convert water into steam by using heat energy. There
are different types of boilers used for different purposes.

Boilers are basically classified in to TWO Types:

a. Water Tube boiler: A water tube boiler can be defined as a Steam boiler in which the flow of water
in the tubes, as well as hot gases, enclose the tubes. Not like fire tube boilers, this boiler attains high-
pressures, as well as high-steam capabilities, can be achieved.
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b. Fire Tube boiler: Smoke Tube Boilers are another name for Fire Tube Boilers. To create steam or
simply raise the temperature of the water or other sources like oils, it is made up of one or more fire
tubes inside of a sealed container called a boiler.

 A fire tube boiler's function is as straightforward as its design. Fuel is burned inside a burner in a
fire tube boiler. The furnace's hot gases then travel through the fire tubes. The fire tubes are
submerged in water inside the boiler's primary vessel. The heat energy of the hot gases is
transmitted to the water encircling them as they are passed through these tubes. As a result,
steam is produced in the water and easily rises to the surface of the water, where it is stored
alongside the fire tube boiler.

 Then, the steam is removed from the outlet and used for the specified reason. The feed water
inlet is used to supply water to the furnace. Creating steam at extremely high pressures is very
challenging because the steam and water are kept in the same vessel. This style of boiler
typically has a maximum capacity of 17.5 kg/cm2 and can produce 9 metric tons of steam per
hour. The primary boiler vessel in a fire tube boiler is under pressure, so if it were to burst, an
explosion could cause a significant accident.

Fire-tube boilers have the advantage of being easy to install and operate. They are frequently used in
small installations to power industrial operations and heat buildings. Steam trains also employ fire tube
boilers.

Advantages of Fire Tube Boilers:

The advantages of Fire Tube Boilers are as follows.

o When compared to water tube boilers, fire tube boilers are easier to construct.
o It can be used in small- to medium-sized industries because it is a low-pressure boiler.
o There is no need to worry about the cost because it needs less maintenance than a water tube
boiler does.
o The Fire Tube Boiler has an efficiency of between 75% and 80%.
o It is simple to run.
o Feed water purification may not even be necessary, saving time and resources.
o It doesn't need any highly skilled operators because of its straightforward building and
maintenance.
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o In comparison to a water tube boiler, the boiler's possibility of exploding or bursting will be
lower.

Disadvantages of Fire Tube Boiler

The disadvantages of Fire Tube Boilers are as follows.

o The Fire Tube Boiler can only be run at low pressures due to its design and operating
principle.
o In comparison to a water tube boiler, a fire tube boiler will not produce dry steam.
o Since water surrounds the fire tubes, the time required to turn the water into steam will be
comparatively longer, necessitating the use of more fire tubes.
o The efficiency of 80% is less compared to Water Tube Boiler.
o Steam is produced at a low pace of about 9000 kg per hour.
o It needs more ground area because of the way its horizontal tubes are constructed.

Application of Boiler: The boiler has a diverse applications in the following industries:
 Food processing industries
 Chemical industries
 Refineries and distilleries
 Thermal power plants
 Sugar plants
 Textile industries
 Health care industries
 Paper industries
 Pharmaceutical industries

2. IC ENGINES: Combustion, also known as burning, is the basic chemical process of releasing
energy from a fuel and air mixture. In an internal combustion engine (ICE), the ignition and
combustion of the fuel occurs within the engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy
from the combustion to work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving piston. The
expanding combustion gases push the piston, which in turn rotates the crankshaft. Ultimately,
through a system of gears in the powertrain, this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.

IC Engines are classified in to many types:

(AS PER THE SYLLABUS IS CONCERNED, WE ARE CONCERNING WITH ONLY 3 CLASSIFICATIONS)

1. According to the Number of strokes

2. According to the Combustion process
3. According to the Cycle of Operation
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2.1 TWO STROKE Vs FOUR STROKE ENGINES:

The difference between the two-stroke and four-stroke engine cycles lies in the movement of the crankshaft
and piston. In the below concept, let us learn more differences between two-stroke and four-stroke.

2 Stroke Engine: A two-stroke engine is an engine that completes a power cycle with two strokes of the
piston during only one crankshaft revolution.

4 Stroke Engine: A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four
separate strokes while turning the crankshaft.
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Two Strokes Four Strokes

It has one revolution of the crankshaft during one
power stroke.
It generates high torque.
It uses a port for the fuel’s outlet and inlet.
Its engines result in lesser thermal efficiency.
It has a larger ratio in terms of power to weight.
It generates more smoke and shows less efficiency.
Requires more lubricating oil as some oil burns
with the fuel.
Due to poor lubrication, more wear and tear occurs.
Engines are cheaper and are simple to manufacture.
Engines are basically lighter and noisier.
It has two revolutions of the crankshaft during one power stroke.
It generates less torque.
It uses valves for the fuel’s outlet and inlet.
Its engines result in higher thermal efficiency.
It has a lesser ratio in terms of power to weight.
It generates less smoke and shows more efficiency.
Requires less lubricating oil.
Less wear and tear occurs.
Engines are expensive due to lubrication and valves and are tough
to manufacture.
Engines are basically heavier because their flywheel is heavy and
less noisy.

2.2 SI AND CI ENGINES:

Engines are the heart of any vehicle, and there are two main types of engines: SI (Spark Ignition) and CI
(Compression Ignition) engines. Both engines have their unique features, advantages, and disadvantages.
Understanding the difference between SI and CI engines is crucial to choose the right engine for a vehicle.
In this article, we will discuss the differences between SI and CI engines in detail.

SI ENGINES: SI engine, also known as gasoline or petrol engine, works on the principle of spark ignition.
The fuel, which is usually gasoline or petrol, is mixed with air and ignited by an electric spark. The ignition
of the fuel-air mixture causes a controlled explosion in the engine's combustion chamber, which generates
power that drives the vehicle.

Advantages of SI Engine:

 High Performance: SI engines offer high performance due to their ability to burn fuel more
efficiently, producing more power per liter of fuel.
 Lower Fuel Cost: Gasoline is generally cheaper than diesel, which makes SI engines more
economical.
 Better Cold Starting: SI engines start quickly and smoothly, even in cold weather conditions.
 Low Emissions: SI engines emit less smoke and particulate matter, making them more
environmentally friendly.
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Disadvantages of SI Engine:

 Lower Fuel Efficiency: SI engines have lower fuel efficiency compared to CI engines.
 Higher Maintenance Cost: SI engines require more maintenance due to their complex design,
which can be expensive.
 Limited Torque: SI engines have limited torque at lower speeds, which can affect their
performance.

CI ENGINES: CI engine, also known as diesel engine, works on the principle of compression ignition. The
air is compressed to a high pressure, which raises the air temperature to the point where diesel fuel injected
into the combustion chamber ignites spontaneously. The heat generated by this process causes a controlled
explosion, which generates power that drives the vehicle.

Advantages of CI Engine:

 High Fuel Efficiency: CI engines have higher fuel efficiency compared to SI engines, which makes
them more economical.
 High Torque: CI engines offer high torque at low speeds, making them suitable for heavy-duty
applications.
 Longer Life: CI engines have a simpler design, which makes them more durable and longer lasting.

Disadvantages of CI Engine:

 Higher Emissions: CI engines emit more smoke and particulate matter, making them less
environmentally friendly.
 Higher Initial Cost: CI engines are more expensive than SI engines, which makes them less
affordable.
 Noisier: CI engines are generally noisier than SI engines due to their combustion process.

Applications:

 SI engines are used in applications that require high power output, such as sports cars and
motorcycles. They are also used in light-duty applications, such as passenger cars and small trucks.
 CI engines are used in applications that require high torque output, such as heavy-duty trucks, buses,
and construction equipment. They are also used in stationary applications, such as generators and
industrial equipment.
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Sr. No. Spark Ignition Engine (S.I Engine) Compression-Ignition Engine(C.I

1 S.I. engine is called the spark-ignition
engine.
2 S.I. engine fuel is used as petrol, so
this engine is also called the petrol
engine.
3 In si engine inlet valve, suction of air
and petrol mixture
4 The ignition of the S.I. engine is due to
the spark plug.
5 The combustion of a petrol engine is
smooth.
6 The maintenance problem is less in
the S.I. engine.
7 The space required for the S.I. engine
is small.
8 Construction of si engine is lighter and
cheaper than ci engine
9 The vibration creates in si engine is
low
10 The cost of the S.I. engine is less.
Engine)
C.I. engine is called a compression
ignition engine
The fuel used in C.I. engines is diesel,
so it is also called a diesel engine.
The Inlet valve of the ci engine is the
suction of only air.
Ignition produces in a diesel engine is
auto-ignite. Fuel is injected into the
cylinder under high pressure.
Combustion of C.I. engine not smooth it
is noisy.
Maintenance is high required.
More space required of ci engine
compared to S.I. engine.
The construction of the C.I. engine is
heavier and bulky.
Vibration in the C.I. engine is more.
The cost of the C.I. engine is high.
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2.3 OTTO CYCLE (PETROL ENGINE) AND DIESEL CYCLE (DIESEL ENGINE):

Otto cycle: The Otto cycle, also referred to as the spark-ignition cycle, is the fundamental thermodynamic
cycle used in petrol engines. It operates on the principle of constant volume combustion and consists of four
processes: intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust.

 1-2 (Adiabatic process): In this process compression takes place, as the piston moves from BDC to
TDC increasing its temperature

 2-3 (Isochoric process): In this process, ignition is taking place, combustion happens when the piston
is at TDC and pressure increases at a constant volume.

 3-4 (Adiabatic process): In this process expansion is taking place, the heat produced due to the
combustion pushes the piston down which rotates the crankshaft.

 4-1 (Isochoric process): In this process, heat rejection is taking place at constant volume.

WORKING OF OTTO CYCLE:

Otto Cycle works on four processes, which commences with intake stroke where the mass of air is pushed
into the piston at unvarying pressure.
The second step is compression stroke, where isentropic compression takes place. It is the actual time when
the mixture of fuel and air is compressed.
At this point, the cylinder will move from the bottom dead center to the top.
Then comes the ignition phase where the piston respites at the top dead center, for a while. Heat is now
pushed into the system that burns the mixture of air and fuel already present there.
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It leads to acceleration in the pressure, keeping volume steady. It proceeds to expansion stroke, and heat
rejection phase later on, which is followed up by the exhaust stroke in the end.

Diesel Cycle: The Diesel cycle is a thermodynamic process that is commonly used in diesel
engines for internal combustion. It operates on the principle of constant pressure combustion and consists of
four distinct processes: intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust.

 1-2 In this process suction takes place

 2-3 (Adiabatic process) In this process compression takes place. Both the inlet and exhaust
valves are closed and the compression takes place which is much higher than that of an otto cycle.
This increases the pressure and temperature.

 3-4 (Isobaric process) In this process, fuel is added, and combustion occurs due to high temperature,
while maintaining a constant pressure because the volume is also increasing.

 4-5 (Adiabatic process) In this process expansion takes place, due to combustion the piston moves
from TDC to BDC and power is generated.

 5-2 (Isochoric process) In this process, heat rejection is taking place at constant volume.

WORKING OF DIESEL CYCLE:

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 The diesel cycle works on different processes, which contain four steps in total. It starts with
adiabatic compression and moves to the next step called heat addition at constant pressure.
 Then it follows the adiabatic expansion and finally gets into the process where the heat is rejected at
constant volume.
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Otto cycle Diesel cycle

1. Otto cycle has low thermal efficiency 1. Diesel cycle has high thermal efficiency

2.It has low compression ratio 2. It has high compression ratio

3. It is also called constant volume cycle 3. It has constant pressure cycle

4. Explosion takes place at a constant volume 4. Explosion takes place at a constant pressure

5. Fuel used is petrol 5. Fuel used is diesel

6. The mixture of air and fuel is entered during the

6. There is only air entering
suction stroke

7.Fuel and air mixture enters via carburettor 7.Fuel enters via fuel injector

8.Spark plug is used for ignition 8. Auto-ignition takes place

3. REFREGIRATION AND AIR CONDITIONING CYCLES:

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning systems works under Reverse Brayton Cycle also called Bell-Coleman
Cycle also known as Joule Cycle.

This cycle is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle or the Bell Coleman cycle. This type of cycle is
widely used in jet aircraft for air conditioning systems using air from the engine compressors. It is also
widely used in the LNG industry.

In general, the Brayton cycle describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat In general, the Brayton
cycle describes the workings of a constant-pressure heat engine. Today, modern gas turbine engines and
airbreathing jet engines are also constant-pressure heat engines.
A Brayton cycle that is driven in the reverse direction is known as the reverse Brayton cycle. Its purpose is
to move heat from the colder to the hotter body rather than produce work. In compliance with the second
law of thermodynamics, heat cannot spontaneously flow from cold system to hot system without external
work being performed on the system. Heat can flow from colder to the hotter body, but only when forced by
external work. This is exactly what refrigerators and heat pumps accomplish. These are driven by electric
motors requiring work from their surroundings to operate. One of the possible cycles is a reverse Brayton
cycle, which is similar to the ordinary Brayton cycle, but it is driven in reverse via net work input. This
cycle is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle or the Bell Coleman cycle. This type of cycle is widely
used in jet aircraft for air conditioning systems using air from the engine compressors. It is also widely used
in the LNG industry, where the largest reverse Brayton cycle is for subcooling LNG using 86 MW of power
from a gas turbine-driven compressor and nitrogen refrigerant.
28 | P a g e

REFREGIRATION PROCESS:

In simple terms, a refrigeration cycle's mission is heat absorption and heat rejection. As any HVAC
instructor will tell you (emphatically), you can't make cold, you can just remove heat. The refrigeration
cycle, sometimes called a heat pump cycle, is a means of routing heat away from the area you want to cool.
This is accomplished by manipulating the pressure of the working refrigerant (air, water, synthetic
refrigerants, etc.) through a cycle of compression and expansion.

 The compressor
 The condenser
 The expansion device
 The evaporator
 29 | P a g e

THIS DIAGRAMS IS FOR

UNDERSTANDING
PURPOSE ONLY. NO NEED
TO DRAW FOR EXAMS

The compressor: Compression is the first step in the refrigeration cycle, and a compressor is the piece of
equipment that increases the pressure of the working gas. Refrigerant enters the compressor as low-pressure,
low-temperature gas, and leaves the compressor as a high-pressure, high-temperature gas.

The condenser: The condenser, or condenser coil, is one of two types of heat exchangers used in a basic
refrigeration loop. This component is supplied with high-temperature high-pressure,
vaporized refrigerant coming off the compressor. The condenser removes heat from the hot refrigerant
vapor gas vapor until it condenses into a saturated liquid state, a.k.a. condensation.

After condensing, the refrigerant is a high-pressure, low-temperature liquid, at which point it’s routed to the
loop’s expansion device.

The expansion device: These components come in a few different designs. Popular configurations include
fixed orifices, thermostatic expansion valves (TXV) or thermal expansion valves (pictured above), and the
more advanced electronic expansion valves (EEVs). But regardless of configuration, the job of a system’s
expansion device is the same - create a drop in pressure after the refrigerant leaves the condenser. This
pressure drop will cause some of that refrigerant to quickly boil, creating a two-phase mixture.

This rapid phase change is called flashing, and it helps tee up the next piece of equipment in the circuit, the
evaporator, to perform its intended function.

The evaporator: The evaporator is the second heat exchanger in a standard refrigeration circuit, and like
the condenser, it’s named for its basic function. It serves as the “business end” of a refrigeration cycle, given
that it does what we expect air conditioning to do – absorb heat.
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This happens when refrigerant enters the evaporator as a low temperature liquid at low pressure, and a fan
forces air across the evaporator’s fins, cooling the air by absorbing the heat from the space in question into
the refrigerant.

After doing so, the refrigerant is sent back to the compressor, where the process restarts. And that, in a
nutshell, is how a refrigeration loop works.

AIR CONDITIONER WORKING UNDER A REFREGIRATION PROCESS:

An air conditioner works using a thermodynamic cycle called the refrigeration cycle. It does this by
changing the pressure and state of the refrigerant to absorb or release heat.

The refrigerant (aka coolant) absorbs heat from inside of your home and then pumps it outside.

Most air conditioners are air-source, split systems. What this means is that there is one unit inside and one
unit outside, which is why it is called a split system.

The air-source part refers to the place where the thermal energy is dumped, the outside air. There are other
potential places where the heat can be transferred, such as water or ground, known as water-source,
or ground-source systems.

The inside unit is normally inside the house somewhere, in the attic, basement, closet or crawl space.
The outside unit is normally located on the side or back of the building.

Other kinds of air conditioning systems, such as ground-source and water-source, follow the refrigeration
cycle, but some of the specifics, such as location and parts may differ.

Here are the basic parts of the refrigeration cycle (the same process that your refrigerator used to keep food
cold):

Air flows over the indoor coils, which contain extremely cold refrigerant

When air flows over the cold coils, heat from the air gets transferred to the refrigerant inside the coils. After
the air flows over the coils, it gets cold, normally dropping around 20 degrees.

This process follows the 2nd law of thermodynamics, which says that heat naturally (spontaneously) flows
from a warmer body to a cooler body.

After the refrigerant absorbs the heat, its state changes from a liquid to a vapor. This warmer refrigerant gas
then gets transferred to the compressor (step 2 in the refrigeration cycle).

Warmer, vaporized refrigerant gets compressed (pressurized) to a hot temperature

Even though the refrigerant has absorbed heat from the indoor air, it is still fairly cool. The still cool, but
warmer vaporized gas enters the compressor (located in the outside unit) to increase its pressure and
temperature.

We increase the temperature of the refrigerant because it needs to be warmer than the outdoor air.
Remember the 2nd law of thermodynamics again—heat flows from warmer to cooler bodies.
31 | P a g e

If the refrigerant is 120 degrees and the outdoor air is 90 degrees, the outdoor air is cooler, which means the
heat from the refrigerant will flow in the direction we want—outside. If the temperature outside is 120
degrees, the compressor will have to work extra hard to increase the temperature of the refrigerant to a
higher temperature.

After the refrigerant’s temperature is increased above that of the outdoor air’s temperature, it then flows into
another set of coils, known as the condenser coils (also located outside).

Very hot refrigerant flows into condenser coils where it loses heat to the outdoor air

Since the refrigerant has been compressed (pressurized), it is now hotter than the outdoor air. A condenser
fan blows hot outdoor air over the even hotter outdoor condenser coils.

As outdoor air flows over the outdoor coils, heat is removed from the refrigerant and released into the
outdoor air. Again, this is due to the 2nd law of thermodynamics.

After the refrigerant loses thermal energy to the outdoor air, it condenses back into a liquid and gets pumped
back inside.

The still warm refrigerant from the outdoor unit needs to get cold

When the refrigerant leaves your outdoor condenser unit, its temperature is still pretty high. The
refrigerant’s temperature will need to drop significantly before it can absorb more heat from the indoor air.

The metering device, usually a thermostatic expansion valve, is a special device that depressurizes the
refrigerant, causing a drop in temperature. It does this by expanding the refrigerant into a larger volume.

The refrigerant needs to be colder than the indoor air in order to absorb heat. Once the refrigerant gets
cooled down, it flows back into the evaporator coils where it begins the refrigeration cycle again.
32 | P a g e

THIS DIAGRAMS IS FOR

UNDERSTANDING
PURPOSE ONLY. NO
NEED TO DRAW FOR
EXAMS

3. COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Electric car or vehicle component and function depend on the car type. There are at least four types of
electric cars currently sold commercially and operates in the world. This topic will discuss various common
main electric car components or parts or elements and their function such as traction batteries, inverters
(DC-DC converters), traction motors, on-board chargers and controllers. The different types of electric car
components determines how the car works. Electric cars (vehicles) components and functions can be
explained by means of picture below.
 33 | P a g e

How Does An Electric Car Work?

When the car pedal is pressed, then:

 Controller [C] takes and regulates electrical energy from batteries [A] and inverters [B]
 With the controller set, the inverter then sends a certain amount of electrical energy to the
motor (according to the depth of pressure on the pedal)
 Electric motor [D] converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (rotation)
 Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission so the wheels turn and then the car
moves.

THIS DIAGRAMS IS FOR

UNDERSTANDING
PURPOSE ONLY. NO
NEED TO DRAW FOR
EXAMS

 Traction Battery Pack (A): The function of the battery in an electric car is as an electrical energy
storage system in the form of direct-current electricity (DC). If it gets a signal from the controller,
the battery will flow DC electrical energy to the inverter to then be used to drive the motor. The type
of battery used is a rechargeable battery that is arranged in such a way as to form what is called
a traction battery pack.
There are various types of electric car batteries. The most widely used is the type of lithium-ion
batteries.
34 | P a g e

 Power Inverter (B): The inverter functions to change the direct current (DC) on the battery into an
alternating current (AC) and then this alternating current is used by an electric motor. In addition, the
inverter on an electric car also has a function to change the AC current when regenerative braking to
DC current and then used to recharge the battery. The type of inverter used in some electric car
models is the bi-directional inverter category.
 Controller (C): The main function of the controller is as a regulator of electrical energy from
batteries and inverters that will be distributed to electric motors. While the controller itself gets the
main input from the car pedal (which is set by the driver). This pedal setting will determine the
frequency variation or voltage variation that will enter the motor, and at the same time determine the
car’s speed.
In brief, this unit manages the flow of electrical energy delivered by the traction battery, controlling
the speed of the electric traction motor and the torque it produces. This component will determine
how electric car work.

 Electric Traction Motor (D): Because the controller provides electrical power from the traction
battery, the electric traction motors will work turning the transmission and wheels. Some hybrid
electric cars use a type of generator-motor that performs the functions of propulsion and
regeneration. In general, the type of electric motor used is the BLDC (brushless DC) motor
Other Electric Car Components
 Charger (E) is a battery charging device. Chargers get electricity from outside sources, such as the
utility grid or solar power plants. AC electricity is converted into DC electricity and then stored in
the battery. There are 2 types of electric car chargers:
 On-board charger: the charger is located and installed in the car
 Off-board charger: the charger is not located or not installed in the car.
 Transmission (F): The transmission transfers mechanical power from the electric traction motor to
drive the wheels.
 DC/DC Converter (G): This one of electric car parts that to converts higher-voltage DC power
from the traction battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle accessories and
recharge the auxiliary battery.
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4. COMPONENTS OF HYBRID VEHICLES:

A hybrid vehicle is a great choice for eco-conscious drivers who want to save money on gas. But what
exactly makes up a hybrid? And how do all the different parts work together? In this blog post, we will
discuss the 5 main components of a hybrid and explain how they all work together to power your car. We
will also provide some additional tips for getting the most out of your hybrid vehicle.

WHAT IS A HYBRID VEHICLE?

A hybrid vehicle is a type of car that uses two or more different power sources to move the vehicle. The
most common type of hybrid vehicle is a gas-electric hybrid, which uses both gasoline and electricity to
power the car. Hybrid vehicles are becoming increasingly popular as people look for ways to save money on
fuel and reduce their environmental impact.

The hybrid car has five main components: the gas engine, the electric motor, the battery, the power control
unit, and the regenerative braking system. Let's take a closer look at each one:

The Gas Engine: The gas engine is responsible for providing power to the wheels when needed. It typically
runs on gasoline or diesel, but some hybrid cars also use alternative fuels such as natural gas or propane.

The Electric Motor: The electric motor is used to power the car at lower speeds and during start-up. It is
usually powered by a battery, but some hybrid cars also have an onboard generator that can recharge the
battery while you are driving.

The Battery: The battery is what powers the electric motor and is typically located under the hood of the car.
It is important to keep the battery charged in order to maintain optimal performance.
The Power Control Unit: The power control unit manages the flow of power between the gas engine, the
electric motor, and the battery. It ensures that the right amount of power is being used at the right time.

The Regenerative Braking System: The regenerative braking system captures energy from the brakes and
uses it to recharge the battery. This helps to improve fuel efficiency and extends the life of the battery.