METAL CASTING

 Metal casting is defined as the process in which molten metal is poured into a mould that contains a
hollow cavity of a desired geometrical shape and allowed to cool down to form a solidified part. Term
casting is also used to describe the part made by the casting process which dates back 6000 years.
Historically it is used to make complex and/or large parts, which would have been difficult or
expensive to manufacture using other manufacturing processes.
 Primarily casting produces ingots and shapes. An Ingot is a casting produced into a simple shape and
intended for further processing such as metal extrusion, forging etc. Shape casting is for near or net
shape castings to produce complex geometries which are closer to the final part.

Elements of the Gating System

Mould (or mold) is made out of two halves. Contained inside a box called flask, the upper half is
called the cope and the drag is the bottom half. As shown in the image above the flask is also divided into
two halves. The line that separates the two halves is called the parting line.

The gating system is the channel or the path by which the molten metal flows into the cavity. As
shown above, the gating system consists of a pouring cup and a down sprue through which the metal
enters the runner which leads into the main cavity. Pouring cup minimises the splash and turbulence when
the metal flows through the sprue which is tapered to aid the flow.

Types of Metal Casting

Metal casting can be divided into two groups by the basic nature of the mould design. ie Expendable
mould and permanent mould casting. It can also further subdivided into groups depending on its pattern
material. The Metal Casting or just Casting process may be divided into two groups:

Hot Forming Process - Hot forming is a range of processes developed specifically for the forming of high
temperature alloys
.
Hot draw forming
The hot forming process is similar to traditional cold forming but involves heating the tool and component.
Temperatures range from 600˚C to 980˚C depending on customer specifications and the material used.
The hot sheet metal is brought into contact with the hot die whilst the hot punch descends into the die
and shapes the part. The part is then held under forming pressure for a period.

Hot die quenching

The sheet metal is heated in an oven and then formed in a cold die/punch tool.

Hot brake pressing

Hot brake pressing is similar to traditional cold brake pressing but the blanks are preheated in the oven
before pressing in the brake press.

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TYPES OF HOT FORMING PROCESS

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING - Centrifugal casting or rotocasting is a casting technique that is typically used to
cast thin-walled cylinders. It is typically used to cast materials such as metals, glass, and concrete. A high
quality is attainable by control of metallurgy and crystal structure. Unlike most other casting techniques,
centrifugal casting is chiefly used to manufacture rotationally symmetric stock materials in standard sizes
for further machining, rather than shaped parts tailored to a particular end-use.

Centrifugal casting is a process that delivers components of high material soundness. As a result, it
is the technology of choice for applications like jet engine compressor cases, hydro wear rings, many
military products, and other high-reliability applications. It has also proven to be a cost-effective means
of providing complex shapes with reduced machining requirements and lower manufacturing costs as
compared to forgings and fabrications.

In the centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a preheated, spinning die. The die
may be oriented either on a vertical or horizontal axis depending on the configuration of the desired part.
By spinning a mold while molten metal is poured into it, centrifugal force acts to distribute the molten
metal in the mold at pressures approaching 100 times the force of gravity. The combination of this applied
pressure and the engineering mechanics of controlled solidification and secondary refining produces
components of superior quality.

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EXTRUSION CASTING - Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A
material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process
over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work
materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also
forms parts with an excellent surface finish.

Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous

(producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly
extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, modelling clay, and foodstuffs. The
products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates".

Also referred to as "hole flanging", hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced
using a simple flat extrusion die, because there would be no way to support the centre barrier of the die.
Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth, beginning first with a shape profile that supports
the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its length into the final shape, with the
suspended center pieces supported from the back of the die. The material flows around the supports and
fuses together to create the desired closed shape.

The extrusion process in metals may also increase the strength of the material.

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CONTINUOUS CASTING - Continuous casting, also called strand casting, is the process whereby molten
metal is solidified into a "semifinished" billet, bloom, or slab for subsequent rolling in the finishing mills.
Prior to the introduction of continuous casting in the 1950s, steel was poured into stationary molds to
form ingots. Since then, "continuous casting" has evolved to achieve improved yield, quality, productivity
and cost efficiency. It allows lower-cost production of metal sections with better quality, due to the
inherently lower costs of continuous, standardised production of a product, as well as providing increased
control over the process through automation. This process is used most frequently to cast steel (in terms
of tonnage cast). Aluminium and copper are also continuously cast.

Continuous casting, also known as strand casting, is the process where a metal is heated until it
liquefies. The molten metal is then allowed to solidify until it becomes a semi-finished slab that is later
rolled in the finishing mill. It is used to cast metals of uninterrupted lengths. In this process, the molten
metal is continuously supplied to the mold. The mold has an indeterminate length. When the molten
metal is cast through a mold, it keeps travelling downward increasing in its length as the time passes by.
The molten metal is continuously passed through the mold, at the same rate to match the solidifying
casting. This results in casting of long strands of metal. The whole process of continuous casting is a
precisely deliberated process that can produce astounding results.

Continuous casting is a method that was invented to enhance the production of metals. The
continuity of the casting helps to lower the cost of the casted steel. Further, it helps in the standardized
production of steel cast. Further, the carefully controlled process also reduces errors leading to better
quality steel casts. They increase the productivity and produce better yields.

Continuous casting eliminates some of the problems of traditional casting methods. For example,
they eliminate piping, structural and chemical variations that are common problems of ingot casting
method. All the casting products manufactured by continuous casting possess uniform properties. The
solidification rate of the molten metal is also ten times faster than the solidification of the metal in ingot
casting

The process

Continuous casting has several advantages but it is also a process that needs distinct resources. This
is the reason why this process is employed only in industries that require high yield of steel cast. The metal
is first liquefied and poured into a tundish, which is a container that leads to the mold that will cast the
steel. The tundish is placed about 80-90 feet above the ground level and the whole process of casting sues
gravity to operate. The tundish is constantly supplied with molten steel to keep the process going. The
whole process is controlled to ensure there is smooth flow of molten steel through tundish. Further, the
impurities and slag are filtered in tundish before they move into the mold. The entrance of the mold is
filled with inert gases to prevent reaction of molten steel with the gases in the environment like oxygen.
The molten metal moves swiftly through
the mold and it does not completely
solidify in it.The entire mold is cooled with
water that flows along the outer surface.
Typically, steel casting solidifies along the
walls of the casting and then gradually
moves to the interior of the steel casting.
The metal casting moves outside the mold
with the help of different sets of rollers.
While one set of rollers bend the metal
cast, another set will straighten it. This
helps to change the direction of flow of
the steel slab from vertical to horizontal.

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FORGING - Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of a metal through hammering,
pressing, or rolling. These compressive forces are delivered with a hammer or die. Forging is often
categorized according to the temperature at which it is performed—cold, warm, or hot forging.

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FULL MOLD CASTING - Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination
of sand casting and lost-foam casting. It uses an expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then
surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold, which
vaporizes the foam upon contact.

First, a pattern is usually made from polystyrene foam, which can be done many different ways. For
small volume runs the pattern can be hand cut or machined from a solid block of foam; if the geometry is
simple enough it can even be cut using a hot-wire foam cutter.

If the volume is large, then the pattern can be mass-produced by a process similar to injection
molding. Pre-expanded beads of polystyrene are injected into a preheated aluminum mold at low
pressure. Steam is then applied to the polystyrene which causes it to expand more to fill the die. The final
pattern is approximately 97.5% air and 2.5% polystyrene.

The finished patterns can be hot glued to pre-made pouring basins, runners, and risers to form the
final pattern.

This casting process is advantageous for very complex castings, that would regularly require cores.
It is also dimensionally accurate, requires no draft, and has no parting lines so no flash is formed. As
compared to investment casting, it is cheaper because it is a simpler process and the foam is cheaper than
the wax. Risers are not usually required due to the nature of the process; because the molten metal
vaporizes the foam the first metal into the mold cools more quickly than the rest, which results in natural
directional solidification.

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INVESTMENT CASTING - Investment casting derives its name from the pattern being invested
(surrounded) with a refractory material. Many materials are suitable for investment casting; examples are
stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminium, carbon steel and glass. The material is poured into a cavity in a
refractory material that is an exact duplicate of the desired part. Due to the hardness of refractory
materials used, investment casting can produce products with exceptional surface qualities, which can
reduce the need for secondary machine processes.

The process can be used for both small castings of a few ounces and large castings weighing several
hundred pounds. It can be more expensive than die casting or sand casting, but per-unit costs decrease
with large volumes. Investment casting can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or
impossible with other casting methods. It can also produce products with exceptional surface qualities
and low tolerances with minimal surface finishing or machining required.

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PERMANENT DIE CASTING - Permanent
mold casting is a metal casting process
that employs reusable molds
("permanent molds"), usually made
from metal. The most common process
uses gravity to fill the mold, however gas
pressure or a vacuum are also used. A
variation on the typical gravity casting
process, called slush casting, produces
hollow castings. Common casting metals
are aluminium, magnesium, and copper
alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc,
and lead alloys and iron and steel are
also cast in graphite molds.

Typical products are components

such as gears, splines, wheels, gear
housings, pipe fittings, fuel injection
housings, and automotive engine pistons.

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PLASTER MOLD CASTING - Plaster mold casting is a metalworking casting process similar to sand casting
except the molding material is plaster of Paris instead of sand. Like sand casting, plaster mold casting is
an expendable mold process, however it can only be used with non-ferrous materials. It is used for
castings as small as 30 g (1 oz) to as large as 45 kg (99 lb). Generally, the form takes less than a week to
prepare. Production rates of 1–10 units/hr can be achieved with plaster molds.

First, the parting line is determined - either simple two part or more complex (3 or more). Then
plaster is mixed and the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting compound to prevent the plaster
from sticking to the pattern. The plaster is then poured over the pattern and the unit shaken so that the
plaster fills any small features. The plaster sets, usually in about 15 minutes, and the pattern is removed.
The mold is then baked, between 120 °C (248 °F) and 260 °C (500 °F), to remove any excess water. The
dried mold is then assembled, preheated, and the metal poured. Finally, after the metal has solidified, the
plaster is broken from the cast part. The used plaster cannot be rreused.

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SAND CASTING - Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized
by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the
sand casting process. Sand castings are
produced in specialized factories called
foundries. Over 60% of all metal castings are
produced via sand casting process.

Molds made of sand are relatively cheap,

and sufficiently refractory even for steel
foundry use. In addition to the sand, a suitable
bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs
with the sand. The mixture is moistened,
typically with water, but sometimes with other
substances, to develop the strength and
plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate
suitable for molding. The sand is typically
contained in a system of frames or mold boxes
known as a flask. The mold cavities and gate
system are created by compacting the sand
around models called patterns, by carving
directly into the sand, or by 3D printing.

SHELL MOLD CASTING - an expendable mold casting process that uses a resin covered sand to form the
mold. As compared to sand casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity
rate, and lower labor requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.[2]
Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into
an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying
a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is
reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the
disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal
pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using cast
iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical parts are small-
to-medium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and
lever arms.

The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:

Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically from iron
or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume production or graphite
for casting reactive materials.

Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370 °C (350-700 °F) and coated with a lubricant
to facilitate removal. Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains a mixture of sand

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and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The
heated pattern partially cures the mixture, which now forms a shell around the pattern. Each pattern half
and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.

Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the complete shell
mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The shell mold is then placed
into a flask and supported by a backing material.

Pouring - The mold is securely

clamped together while the
molten metal is poured from a
ladle into the gating system and
fills the mold cavity.

Cooling - After the mold has been

filled, the molten metal is allowed
to cool and solidify into the shape
of the final casting.

Casting removal - After the

molten metal has cooled, the
mold can be broken and the
casting removed. Trimming and
cleaning processes are required
to remove any excess metal from
the feed system and any sand
from the mold.

Cold Forming Process - Cold working or cold forming is any metalworking process in which metal is shaped
below its recrystallization temperature, usually at the ambient temperature. Such processes are
contrasted with hot working techniques like hot rolling, forging, welding, etc.

Cold forming techniques are usually classified into four major groups: squeezing, bending, drawing,
and shearing. They generally have the advantage of being simpler to carry out than hot working
techniques.

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 Unlike hot working, cold working causes the crystal grains and inclusions to distort following the
flow of the metal; which may cause work hardening and anisotropic material properties. Work hardening
makes the metal harder, stiffer, and stronger, but less plastic, and may cause cracks of the piece.

The possible uses of cold forming are extremely varied, including large flat sheets, complex folded
shapes, metal tubes, screw heads and threads, riveted joints, and much more.

TYPES OF COLD FORMING PROCESSES

SQUEEZE CASTING - Squeeze casting is a hybrid of low pressure casting and high pressure casting, and it
has the potential to completely eliminate the gas defects associated with high pressure die casting, and
to enable heat treatment of the castings. In squeeze casting, the die is filled slowly with metal to maintain
laminar flow. Once the
cavity is full, the pressure
on the melt is increased
to over 100 MPa and
maintained to feed the
casting to compensate for
shrinkage until the
casting has solidified. Die
design for squeeze
casting is different from
that for die casting, and
includes thick gates and a
large shot end biscuit to
ensure that the gates do
not freeze before the
casting in the cavity has
solidified and to ensure
feeding the shrink during
solidification.

PRESSURE DIE CASTING - is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under
high pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have
been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process. Most die castings
are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter, and
tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.

The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process
to high-volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only four

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main steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is especially suited for a large quantity of
small- to medium-sized castings, which is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting
process. Die castings are characterized by a very good surface finish (by casting standards) and
dimensional consistency.

GRAVITY DIE CASTING - is a permanent mould casting process, where the molten metal is poured from a
vessel or ladle into the mould. The mould cavity fills with no force other than gravity, filling can be
controlled by tilting the die. Undercuts, and cavities can be incorporated into the component form with
the use of sand cores. This process gives a better surface finish than sand casting as well as better
mechanical properties, both due to rapid solidification.

Additionally, this process has a higher casting rate than aluminium sand casting, however, the metal
moulds are a higher cost than sand. Advantages of this process include the possibility of low gas porosity,
and fine grain sizes can be achieved.

Compared to sand casting, this process requires less finishing and fettling and gravity die casting
tends to produce a higher quality product. The Gravity die casting production method is generally less
cost effective in the manufacture of tooling compared with sand casting.

Gravity die casting production method is generally less cost effective in the manufacture of tooling
compared with sand casting.

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Gravity Die Casting Process

Gravity die casting is often a manual process, with the molten metal added with the use of a ladle.
However, for some high volume applications it is also possible to use an automated ladle to pour the
molten metal. The speed and the direction of the filling can also be controlled by tilting the die.

Apart from the method by which the molten metal is poured into the die cavity, and the gravity die
material, the casting process is essentially the same as sand casting. It involves four steps:

1. The die is heated and then sprayed with a refractory coating, and closed. The coating both helps
control the temperature of the die during manufacture and it also assists in the removal of the
casting.

2. Molten metal is then

manually poured into the die,
(although in some cases a
machine can be used) and
allowed to solidify.

3. The die is then opened and

the cast parts either removed
by hand or in some cases
ejector pins are used on the
mechanised machines.

4. Finally, the scrap, which

includes the gate, runners,
sprues and flash, is removed
from the casting(s). The
castings are then processed to remove sharp edges and excess material, then blast cleaned (if
required) prior to despatch to the customer.

Gravity die casting is a natural partner to sand casting, and allows us to offer the customer the most
cost effective route for casting mmanufacture.

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BURNISHING - Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface due to sliding contact with another
object. It smooths the surface and makes it shinier. Burnishing may occur on any sliding surface if the
contact stress locally exceeds the yield strength of the material. The phenomenon can occur both
unintentionally as a failure mode, and intentionally as part of a manufacturing process. It is a squeezing
operation under cold working.

COINING - Coining is a closed die forging process, in which pressure is applied on the surface of the forging
in order to obtain closer tolerances, smoother surfaces and eliminate draft. Closed die forging is a process
in which forging is done by placing the work piece between two shaped dies. This process may be done in
hot or cold working conditions, but is predominantly a cold work process.

In coining, pressure is applied to a portion or the entire surface of a forging. The surface of the metal
work piece is positioned parallel to the dividing line of the forging. This process is considered a method of
precision stamping, in which the metal work piece is subjected to high stress to induce plastic deformation
in the shape of the die.

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HUBBING - Hubbing is a metalworking process that is used to make dies. It is a cold-working process,
which means that it occurs well below the melting temperature of the metal being worked.

IMPACT EXTRUSION - Impact extrusion is a manufacturing process similar to extrusion and drawing by
which products are made with a metal slug. The slug is pressed at a high velocity with extreme force into
a die or mold by a punch.IMPACT EXTRUSION - Impact extrusion is a manufacturing process similar to
extrusion and drawing by which products are made with a metal slug. The slug is pressed at a high velocity
with extreme force into a die or mold by a ppunch.

PEENING - Peening is the process of working a metal's surface to improve its material properties, usually
by mechanical means, such as hammer blows, by blasting with shot (shot peening) or blasts of light beams
with laser peening. Peening is normally a cold work process, with laser peening being a notable exception.
It tends to expand the surface of the cold metal, thereby inducing compressive stresses or relieving tensile
stresses already present. Peening can also encourage strain hardening of the surface metal.

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SIZING - The sizing operation is a squeezing operation that minimizes the thickness of the metal. Sizing is
performed in an open die and only the surface where the die and workpiece touch will be sized. Many
ferrous metal castings are sized to sharpen corners and flatten holes around piercings. Sizing pressure is
determined by area to be sized, the metal used, and the change in metal thickness from the operation.
Sizing is usually performed on semi-finished parts or parts that require an accurate finish. Stop blocks are
used to ensure close tolerances.

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THREAD ROLLING - Thread rolling is a cold forging process that can be performed on any ductile metal.
The forming process can be used to produce other special forms, such as knurls. For the best quality
threads, the process is performed on precision centerless ground blanks. The blank diameter of a rolled
thread is at the pitch diameter, a theoretical point between the major diameter and minor diameter.

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METAL FORMING

 Forming, metal forming, is the metalworking process of fashioning metal parts and objects through
mechanical deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without adding or removing material, and its
mass remains unchanged. Forming operates on the materials science principle of plastic deformation,
where the physical shape of a material is permanently deformed.
 Metal forming involves the reshaping of metals while still in the solid state. By taking advantage of
the plasticity of certain metals, the forming process makes it possible to move a metal solid from its
current shape into the desired form. Further, it accomplishes this without melting, thereby avoiding
any potential difficulties in the handling of molten metal or in the integrity of molded products.
 Generally, metal forming operations can be categorized as hot, cold or warm working processes. The
temperatures involved in these processes are not static, but vary from metal to metal; in some cases,
room temperature may mean hot-working conditions. Hot-working involves deforming a metal under
conditions above its recrystallization temperature, usually at temperatures higher than 60% of its
melting point (Kelvin). For most metals, cold working is typically performed at room temperature or
slightly higher temperatures; as long as the temperature of the operation is below the metals
recrystallization temperature, it qualifies as cold working. Warm working is performed at intermediate
temperatures between those of recrystallization and cold-working.
 Hot-working processes include rolling, forging and extrusion. Rolling is also performed as a cold
working process, and involves sending metal stock through a set of rollers. The rollers deform the
original stock and output it in the preset shape. Sheets, strips, rails and other similar shapes can be
produced by rolling. Forging uses presses, hammers and other compressing devices to shape metal
stock, and can also be performed cold. Parts made by the cold forging process are often referred to
as cold-headed parts. Extrusion is a process whereby stock is forced through a die and emerges as a
tube with a nearly identical cross-section.
 In addition to forging and cold rolling metal, cold working processes include shearing, drawing and
bending. Bending involves the reshaping of metal around a linear axis, while shearing is a chip-free
cutting process. Blanking and piercing are both forms of shearing that consist of cutting shapes out of
the metal workpiece. Drawing resembles extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled, not pushed
through the dieit is also performed as a hot working process.
 Metal forming is used to create all manner of products, including tubes, pipes, metal sheets, fasteners,
wire and much more. Many of the metal objects we encounter in everyday life, from thumbtacks to
file drawers, were likely produced by one or more metal forming operations.

COMPRESSIVE FORMING
Compressive Forming is a pressure forming process. In this process, a solid Material is passed
through a tool (die) or a gap between a frame and ram so the material undergoes massive plastic
deformation. This process is applied primarily, but not exclusively, to soft and pliable materials.

Compressive forming processes include:

 Extrusion for the production of semi-finished products, bars, wires, tubes (hollow strand when using
a mandrel) and profiles in complex shapes.
 Flow pressing/cold extrusion, in which materials are made to flow by applying pressure and are
pressed through a forming mould opening for more complex parts into a die.
 Tapering (reducing), when a material is pressed through a tapered die.

ROLLING - In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one
or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The concept is similar to
the rolling of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the
temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is known as hot
rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known as
cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process,
and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes. Roll stands holding pairs of

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rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel, into products
such as structural steel (I-beams, angle stock, channel stock), bar stock, and rails. Most steel mills have
rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished casting products into finished products.
There are many types of rolling processes, including ring rolling, roll bending, roll forming, profile
rolling, and controlled rolling.

EXTRUSION - Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is
pushed through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other
manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work materials that
are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts with
an excellent surface finish.
Drawing is a similar process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the
die. This limits the amount of change which can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes,
and multiple stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes
are also often drawn.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous
(producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly
extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, modelling clay, and foodstuffs. The
products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates".

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DIE FORMING - Forming dies were typically made by tool and die makers and put into production after
mounting into a press. The die was a metal block that was used for forming materials like sheet metal and
plastic. For the vacuum forming of plastic sheet only a single form was used, typically to form transparent
plastic containers (called blister packs) for merchandise. Vacuum forming was considered a simple
molding thermoforming process but uses the same principles as die forming. For the forming of sheet
metal, such as automobile body parts, two parts may be used: one, called the punch, performed the
stretching, bending, and/or blanking operation, while another part that was called the die block securely
clamps the workpiece and provided similar stretching, bending, and/or blanking operation. The workpiece
may pass through several stages using different tools or operations to obtain the final form. In the case of
an automotive component there was usually be a shearing operation after the main forming was done
and then additional crimping or rolling operations to ensure that all sharp edges were hidden and to add
rigidity to the panel.

FORGING - Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive
forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or a die. Forging is often classified
according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold forging (a type of cold working), warm forging,
or hot forging (a type of hot working). For the latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged
parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons.[1][2] Forging has been
done by smiths for millennia; the traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged
weapons, cymbals, and jewellery. Since the Industrial Revolution, forged parts are widely used in
mechanisms and machines wherever a component requires high strength; such forgings usually require
further processing (such as machining) to achieve a finished part. Today, forging is a major worldwide
industry.

INDENTING - Indenting, where a tool is pressed into the workpiece.

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TENSILE FORMING
Tensile forming involves those processes where the primary means of plastic deformation is uni- or
multiaxial tensile stress.
A process where the primary means of deformation is multiaxial or uni- tensile stress.

Expanding - The hollow parts circumference is increased by tangential loading.

Recessing - Holes and depressions are formed by tensile loading.

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Stretching - The application of a tensile load to the longitudinal axis of the product.

COMBINED TENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE FORMING

This category of forming processes involves those operations where the primary means of plastic
deformation involves both tensile stresses and compressive loads.

Pulling through a die - Drawing is a metalworking process which uses tensile forces to stretch metal or
glass. As the metal is drawn (pulled), it stretches thinner, into a desired shape and thickness. Drawing is
classified in two types: sheet metal drawing and wire, bar, and tube drawing. The specific definition for
sheet metal drawing is that it involves plastic deformation over a curved axis. For wire, bar, and tube
drawing the starting stock is drawn through a die to reduce its diameter and increase its length. Drawing
is usually done at room temperature, thus classified a cold working process, however it may be performed
at elevated temperatures to hot work large wires, rods or hollow sections in order to reduce forces.

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Deep drawing - Drawing differs from rolling in that the pressure of drawing is not transmitted through
the turning action of the mill but instead depends on force applied locally near the area of compression.
This means the amount of possible drawing force is limited by the tensile strength of the material, a fact
that is particularly evident when drawing thin wires.

Spinning - Metal spinning, also known as spin forming or spinning or metal turning most commonly, is a
metalworking process by which a disc or tube of metal is rotated at high speed and formed into an axially
symmetric part. Spinning can be performed by hand or by a CNC lathe.

Metal spinning does not involve removal of material, as in conventional wood or metal turning, but
forming (moulding) of sheet material over an existing shape.

Metal spinning ranges from an artisan's specialty to the most advantageous way to form round metal
parts for commercial applications. Artisans use the process to produce architectural detail, specialty
lighting, decorative household goods and urns. Commercial applications include rocket nose cones,
cookware, gas cylinders, brass instrument bells, and public waste receptacles. Virtually any ductile metal
may be formed, from aluminum or stainless steel, to high-strength, high-temperature alloys including INX,
Inconel, Grade 50 / Corten, and Hastelloy. The diameter and depth of formed parts are limited only by the
size of the equipment available.

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Flange forming - Flange forming is a process which is wide spread in macro range for blanks with
thicknesses from less than 1 mm up to several millimeters. Flange formed geometries are used as
preforms for threads but also as device to give guidance and contact face to bolts and axles in sheet metal.
A great advantage of flange forming compared to other machining processes is low process cycle time
combined with high material utilization.

Upset bulging - Joining by upset bulging is a mechanical joining method where axial load is applied to a
tube to form two revolving bulges, which clamp the parts to be joined and create a force and form fit. It
can be used to join tubes with other structures such as sheets, plates, tubes or profiles of the same or
different materials.

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BENDING (METALWORKING)
This category of forming processes involves those operations where the primary means of plastic
deformation is a bending load. Bending is a manufacturing process that produces a V-shape, U-shape, or
channel shape along a straight axis in ductile materials, most commonly sheet metal. Commonly used
equipment include box and pan brakes, brake presses, and other specialized machine presses.

SHEAR FORMING
This category of forming processes involves those operations where the primary means of plastic
deformation is a shearing load.

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Explosive forming is a metalworking technique in which an explosive charge is used instead of a punch or
press. It can be used on materials for which a press setup would be prohibitively large or require an
unreasonably high pressure, and is generally much cheaper than building a large enough and sufficiently
high-pressure press; on the other hand, it is unavoidably an individual job production process, producing
one product at a time and with a long setup ti There are various approaches; one is to place metal plate
over a die, with the intervening space evacuated by a vacuum pump, place the whole assembly
underwater, and detonate a charge at an appropriate distance from the plate. For complicated shapes, a
segmented die can be used to produce in a single operation a shape that would require many
manufacturing steps, or to be manufactured in parts and welded together with an accompanying loss of
strength at the welds. There is often some degree of work hardening from the explosive-forming process,
particularly in mild steel.

Electromagnetic forming (EM forming or magneforming) is a type of high velocity, cold forming process
for electrically conductive metals, most commonly copper and aluminium. The workpiece is reshaped by
high intensity pulsed magnetic fields that induce a current in the workpiece and a corresponding repulsive
magnetic field, rapidly repelling portions of the workpiece. The workpiece can be reshaped without any
contact from a tool, although in some instances the piece may be pressed against a die or former. The
technique is sometimes called high velocity forming or electromagnetic pulse technology.

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28 | P a g e

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Submitted by:
Angel Chantey
Enriquez
BSEM - 2

Submitted to:
Engr. Victor Florece
Principles of Metallurgy Professor