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 WOLCZUK
NORMAN
AN INTRODUCTION TO
LINEAR ALGEBRA

AN INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR ALGEBRA

FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
DANIEL NORMAN • DAN WOLCZUK

ENGINEERING
FOR SCIENCE AND
www.pearson.com

THIRD
EDITION

THIRD EDITION
 An Introduction to
Linear Algebra for
Science and
Engineering
Daniel Norman Dan Wolczuk
University of Waterloo

Third Edition

00_norman_fm.indd 1 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 Pearson Canada Inc., 26 Prince Andrew Place, North York, Ontario M3C 2H4.
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9780134682631
1 20
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Norman, Daniel, 1938-, author
Introduction to linear algebra for science and engineering / Daniel
Norman, Dan Wolczuk, University of Waterloo. – Third edition.
ISBN 978-0-13-468263-1 (softcover)
1. Algebras, Linear–Textbooks. 2. Textbooks. I. Wolczuk, Dan,
1972-, author II. Title.
QA184.2.N67 2018 512’.5 C2018-906600-8

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 Table of Contents

A Note to Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

A Note to Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
A Personal Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

CHAPTER 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Spanning and Linear Independence in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Length and Angles in R2 and R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4 Vectors in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.5 Dot Products and Projections in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

CHAPTER 2 Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2.1 Systems of Linear Equations and Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.2 Reduced Row Echelon Form, Rank, and Homogeneous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3 Application to Spanning and Linear Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.4 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

CHAPTER 3 Matrices, Linear Mappings, and Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

3.1 Operations on Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2 Matrix Mappings and Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.3 Geometrical Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.4 Special Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.5 Inverse Matrices and Inverse Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.6 Elementary Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.7 LU-Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

CHAPTER 4 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

4.1 Spaces of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.2 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.3 Bases and Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.4 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

iii

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 iv Table of Contents

4.5 General Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

4.6 Matrix of a Linear Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
4.7 Isomorphisms of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

CHAPTER 5 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

5.1 Determinants in Terms of Cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.2 Properties of the Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.3 Inverse by Cofactors, Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
5.4 Area, Volume, and the Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

CHAPTER 6 Eigenvectors and Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

6.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.2 Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
6.3 Applications of Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

CHAPTER 7 Inner Products and Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

7.1 Orthogonal Bases in Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
7.2 Projections and the Gram-Schmidt Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
7.3 Method of Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
7.4 Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
7.5 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

CHAPTER 8 Symmetric Matrices and Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

8.1 Diagonalization of Symmetric Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
8.2 Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
8.3 Graphs of Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
8.4 Applications of Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
8.5 Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462

CHAPTER 9 Complex Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

9.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
9.2 Systems with Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
9.3 Complex Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
9.4 Complex Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
9.5 Unitary Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

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 Table of Contents v

APPENDIX A Answers to Mid-Section Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

APPENDIX B Answers to Practice Problems and Chapter Quizzes . . 519

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Index of Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

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 A Note to Students
Linear Algebra – What Is It?
Welcome to the third edition of An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering! Linear alge-
bra is essentially the study of vectors, matrices, and linear mappings, and is now an extremely important topic
in mathematics. Its application and usefulness in a variety of different areas is undeniable. It encompasses
technological innovation, economic decision making, industry development, and scientific research. We are
literally surrounded by applications of linear algebra.
Most people who have learned linear algebra and calculus believe that the ideas of elementary calculus
(such as limits and integrals) are more difficult than those of introductory linear algebra, and that most prob-
lems encountered in calculus courses are harder than those found in linear algebra courses. So, at least by this
comparison, linear algebra is not hard. Still, some students find learning linear algebra challenging. We think
two factors contribute to the difficulty some students have.
First, students do not always see what linear algebra is good for. This is why it is important to read the
applications in the text–even if you do not understand them completely. They will give you some sense of
where linear algebra fits into the broader picture.
Second, mathematics is often mistakenly seen as a collection of recipes for solving standard problems.
Students are often uncomfortable with the fact that linear algebra is “abstract” and includes a lot of “theory.”
However, students need to realize that there will be no long-term payoff in simply memorizing the recipes–
computers carry them out far faster and more accurately than any human. That being said, practicing the
procedures on specific examples is often an important step towards a much more important goal: understand-
ing the concepts used in linear algebra to formulate and solve problems, and learning to interpret the results of
calculations. Such understanding requires us to come to terms with some theory. In this text, when working
through the examples and exercises – which are often small – keep in mind that when you do apply these
ideas later, you may very well have a million variables and a million equations, but the theory and methods
remain constant. For example, Google’s PageRank system uses a matrix that has thirty billion columns and
thirty billion rows – you do not want to do that by hand! When you are solving computational problems,
always try to observe how your work relates to the theory you have learned.
Mathematics is useful in so many areas because it is abstract: the same good idea can unlock the prob-
lems of control engineers, civil engineers, physicists, social scientists, and mathematicians because the idea
has been abstracted from a particular setting. One technique solves many problems because someone has
established a theory of how to deal with these kinds of problems. Definitions are the way we try to capture
important ideas, and theorems are how we summarize useful general facts about the kind of problems we are
studying. Proofs not only show us that a statement is true; they can help us understand the statement, give us
practice using important ideas, and make it easier to learn a given subject. In particular, proofs show us how
ideas are tied together, so we do not have to memorize too many disconnected facts.
Many of the concepts introduced in linear algebra are natural and easy, but some may seem unnatural and
“technical” to beginners. Do not avoid these seemingly more difficult ideas; use examples and theorems to see
how these ideas are an essential part of the story of linear algebra. By learning the “vocabulary” and “gram-
mar” of linear algebra, you will be equipping yourself with concepts and techniques that mathematicians,
engineers, and scientists find invaluable for tackling an extraordinarily rich variety of problems.

vii

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 viii A Note to Students

Linear Algebra – Who Needs It?

Mathematicians
Linear algebra and its applications are a subject of continuing research. Linear algebra is vital to mathematics
because it provides essential ideas and tools in areas as diverse as abstract algebra, differential equations,
calculus of functions of several variables, differential geometry, functional analysis, and numerical analysis.

Engineers
Suppose you become a control engineer and have to design or upgrade an automatic control system. The
system may be controlling a manufacturing process, or perhaps an airplane landing system. You will probably
start with a linear model of the system, requiring linear algebra for its solution. To include feedback control,
your system must take account of many measurements (for the example of the airplane, position, velocity,
pitch, etc.), and it will have to assess this information very rapidly in order to determine the correct control
responses. A standard part of such a control system is a Kalman-Bucy filter, which is not so much a piece
of hardware as a piece of mathematical machinery for doing the required calculations. Linear algebra is an
essential part of the Kalman-Bucy filter.
If you become a structural engineer or a mechanical engineer, you may be concerned with the problem
of vibrations in structures or machinery. To understand the problem, you will have to know about eigenvalues
and eigenvectors and how they determine the normal modes of oscillation. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are
some of the central topics in linear algebra.
An electrical engineer will need linear algebra to analyze circuits and systems; a civil engineer will need
linear algebra to determine internal forces in static structures and to understand principal axes of strain.
In addition to these fairly specific uses, engineers will also find that they need to know linear algebra to
understand systems of differential equations and some aspects of the calculus of functions of two or more
variables. Moreover, the ideas and techniques of linear algebra are central to numerical techniques for solving
problems of heat and fluid flow, which are major concerns in mechanical engineering. Also, the ideas of linear
algebra underlie advanced techniques such as Laplace transforms and Fourier analysis.

Physicists
Linear algebra is important in physics, partly for the reasons described above. In addition, it is vital in appli-
cations such as the inertia tensor in general rotating motion. Linear algebra is an absolutely essential tool in
quantum physics (where, for example, energy levels may be determined as eigenvalues of linear operators)
and relativity (where understanding change of coordinates is one of the central issues).

Life and Social Scientists

Input-output models, described by matrices, are often used in economics and other social sciences. Similar
ideas can be used in modeling populations where one needs to keep track of sub-populations (generations, for
example, or genotypes). In all sciences, statistical analysis of data is of a great importance, and much of this
analysis uses linear algebra. For example, the method of least squares (for regression) can be understood in
terms of projections in linear algebra.

Managers and Other Professionals

All managers need to make decisions about the best allocation of resources. Enormous amounts of computer
time around the world are devoted to linear programming algorithms that solve such allocation problems. In
industry, the same sorts of techniques are used in production, networking, and many other areas.
Who needs linear algebra? Almost every mathematician, engineer, scientist, economist, manager, or pro-
fessional will find linear algebra an important and useful. So, who needs linear algebra? You do!

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 A Note to Students ix

Will these applications be explained in this book?

Unfortunately, most of these applications require too much specialized background to be included in a first-
year linear algebra book. To give you an idea of how some of these concepts are applied, a wide variety of
applications are mentioned throughout the text. You will get to see many more applications of linear algebra
in your future courses.

How To Make the Most of This Book: SQ3R

The SQ3R reading technique was developed by Francis Robinson to help students read textbooks more effec-
tively. Here is a brief summary of this powerful method for learning. It is easy to learn more about this and
other similar strategies online.

Survey: Quickly skim over the section. Make note of any heading or boldface words. Read over the defini-
tions, the statement of theorems, and the statement of examples or exercises (do not read proofs or solutions
at this time). Also, briefly examine the figures.

Question: Make a purpose for your reading by writing down general questions about the headings, bold-
face words, definitions, or theorems that you surveyed. For example, a couple of questions for Section 1.1
could be:
How do we use vectors in R2 and R3 ?
How does this material relate to what I have previously learned?
What is the relationship between vectors in R2 and directed line segments?
What are the similarities and differences between vectors and lines in R2 and in R3 ?

Read: Read the material in chunks of about one to two pages. Read carefully and look for the answers to
your questions as well as key concepts and supporting details. Take the time to solve the mid-section exercises
before reading past them. Also, try to solve examples before reading the solutions, and try to figure out the
proofs before you read them. If you are not able to solve them, look carefully through the provided solution
to figure out the step where you got stuck.

Recall: As you finish each chunk, put the book aside and summarize the important details of what you
have just read. Write down the answers to any questions that you made and write down any further questions
that you have. Think critically about how well you have understood the concepts, and if necessary, go back
and reread a part or do some relevant end of section problems.

Review: This is an ongoing process. Once you complete an entire section, go back and review your notes
and questions from the entire section. Test your understanding by trying to solve the end-of-section problems
without referring to the book or your notes. Repeat this again when you finish an entire chapter and then again
in the future as necessary.

Yes, you are going to find that this makes the reading go much slower for the first couple of chapters. However,
students who use this technique consistently report that they feel that they end up spending a lot less time
studying for the course as they learn the material so much better at the beginning, which makes future concepts
much easier to learn.

00_norman_fm.indd 9 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 A Note to Instructors
Welcome to the third edition of An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering! Thanks to
the feedback I have received from students and instructors as well as my own research into the science of
teaching and learning, I am very excited to present to you this new and improved version of the text. Overall,
I believe the modifications I have made complement my overall approach to teaching. I believe in introducing
the students slowly to difficult concepts and helping students learn these concepts more deeply by exposing
them to the same concepts multiple times over spaced intervals.
One aspect of teaching linear algebra that I find fascinating is that so many different approaches can be
used effectively. Typically, the biggest difference between most calculus textbooks is whether they have early
or late transcendentals. However, linear algebra textbooks and courses can be done in a wide variety of orders.
For example, in China it is not uncommon to begin an introductory linear algebra course with determinants
and not cover solving systems of linear equations until after matrices and general vector spaces. Examination
of the advantages and disadvantages of a variety of these methods has led me to my current approach.
It is well known that students of linear algebra typically find the computational problems easy but have
great difficulty in understanding or applying the abstract concepts and the theory. However, with my approach,
I find not only that very few students have trouble with concepts like general vector spaces but that they also
retain their mastery of the linear algebra content in their upper year courses.
Although I have found my approach to be very successful with my students, I see the value in a multitude
of other ways of organizing an introductory linear algebra course. Therefore, I have tried to write this book
to accommodate a variety of orders. See Using This Text To Teach Linear Algebra below.

Changes to the Third Edition

• Some of the content has been reordered to make even better use of the spacing effect. The spacing
effect is a well known and extensively studied effect from psychology, which states that students learn
concepts better if they are exposed to the same concept multiple times over spaced intervals as opposed
to learning it all at once. See:

Dempster, F.N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of
psychological research. American Psychologist, 43(8), 627–634.
Fain, R. J., Hieb, J. L., Ralston, P. A., Lyle, K. B. (2015, June), Can the Spacing
Effect Improve the Effectiveness of a Math Intervention Course for Engineering Students?
Paper presented at 2015 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Seattle, Washington.

• The number and type of applications has been greatly increased and are used either to motivate the
need for certain concepts or definitions in linear algebra, or to demonstrate how some linear algebra
concepts are used in applications.

00_norman_fm.indd 10 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 A Note to Instructors xi

• A greater emphasis has been placed on the geometry of many concepts. In particular, Chapter 1 has
been reorganized to focus on the geometry of linear algebra in R2 and R3 before exploring Rn .

• Numerous small changes have been made to improve student comprehension.

Approach and Organization

Students of linear algebra typically have little trouble with computational questions, but they often struggle
with abstract concepts and proofs. This is problematic because computers perform the computations in the
vast majority of real world applications of linear algebra. Human users, meanwhile, must apply the theory
to transform a given problem into a linear algebra context, input the data properly, and interpret the result
correctly.
The approach of this book is both to use the spacing effect and to mix theory and computations throughout
the course. Additionally, it uses real world applications to both motivate and explain the usefulness of some
of the seemingly abstract concepts, and it uses the geometry of linear algebra in R2 and R3 to help students
visualize many of the concepts. The benefits of this approach are as follows:

• It prevents students from mistaking linear algebra as very easy and very computational early in the
course, and then getting overwhelmed by abstract concepts and theories later.

• It allows important linear algebra concepts to be developed and extended more slowly.

• It encourages students to use computational problems to help them understand the theory of linear
algebra rather than blindly memorize algorithms.

• It helps students understand the concepts and why they are useful.

One example of this approach is our treatment of the concepts of spanning and linear independence. They
are both introduced in Section 1.2 in R2 and R3 , where they are motivated in a geometrical context. They are
expanded to vectors in Rn in Section 1.4, and used again for matrices in Section 3.1 and polynomials in
Section 4.1, before they are finally extended to general vector spaces in Section 4.2.
Other features of the text’s organization include

• The idea of linear mappings is introduced early in a geometrical context, and is used to explain aspects
of matrix multiplication, matrix inversion, features of systems of linear equations, and the geometry of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Geometrical transformations provide intuitively satisfying illustrations
of important concepts.

• Topics are ordered to give students a chance to work with concepts in a simpler setting before using
them in a much more involved or abstract setting. For example, before reaching the definition of a
vector space in Section 4.2, students will have seen the ten vector space axioms and the concepts of
linear independence and spanning for three different vectors spaces, and will have had some experience
in working with bases and dimensions. Thus, instead of being bombarded with new concepts at the
introduction of general vector spaces, students will just be generalizing concepts with which they are
already familiar.

00_norman_fm.indd 11 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 xii A Note to Instructors

Pedagogical Features
Since mathematics is best learned by doing, the following pedagogical elements are included in the text:

• A selection of routine mid-section exercises are provided, with answers included in the back of the
book. These allow students to use and test their understanding of one concept before moving onto
other concepts in the section.

• Practice problems are provided for students at the end of each section. See “A Note on the Exercises
and Problems” below.

Applications
Often the applications of linear algebra are not as transparent, concise, or approachable as those of elemen-
tary calculus. Most convincing applications of linear algebra require a fairly lengthy buildup of background,
which would be inappropriate in a linear algebra text. However, without some of these applications, many
students would find it difficult to remain motivated to learn linear algebra. An additional difficultly is that the
applications of linear algebra are so varied that there is very little agreement on which applications should be
covered.
In this text we briefly discuss a few applications to give students some exposure to how linear algebra is
applied.

List of Applications
• Force vectors in physics (Sections 1.1, 1.3)
• Bravais lattice (Section 1.2)
• Graphing quadratic forms (Sections 1.2, 6.2, 8.3)
• Acceleration due to forces (Section 1.3)
• Area and volume (Sections 1.3, 1.5, 5.4)
• Minimum distance from a point to a plane (Section 1.5)
• Best approximation (Section 1.5)
• Forces and moments (Section 2.1)
• Flow through a network (Sections 2.1, 2.4, 3.1)
• Spring-mass systems (Sections 2.4, 3.1, 3.5, 6.1 )
• Electrical circuits (Sections 2.4, 9.2)
• Partial fraction decompositions (Section 2.4)
• Balancing chemical equations (Section 2.4)
• Planar trusses (Section 2.4)
• Linear programming (Section 2.4)
• Magic squares (Chapter 4 Review)
• Systems of Linear Difference Equations (Section 6.2)
• Markov processes (Section 6.3)
• Differential equations (Section 6.3)
• Curve of best fit (Section 7.3)

00_norman_fm.indd 12 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 A Note to Instructors xiii

• Overdetermined systems (Section 7.3)

• Fourier series (Section 7.5)
• Small deformations (Sections 6.2, 8.4)
• Inertia tensor (Section 8.4)
• Effective rank (Section 8.5)
• Image compression (Section 8.5)

A wide variety of additional applications are mentioned throughout the text.

A Note on the Exercises and Problems

Most sections contain mid-section exercises. The purpose of these exercises is to give students a way of
checking their understanding of some concepts before proceeding to further concepts in the section. Thus,
when reading through a chapter, a student should always complete each exercise before continuing to read
the rest of the chapter.
At the end of each section, problems are divided into A, B, and C Problems.
The A Problems are practice problems and are intended to provide a sufficient variety and number of
standard computational problems and the odd theoretical problem for students to master the techniques of
the course; answers are provided at the back of the text. Full solutions are available in the Student Solutions
Manual.
The B Problems are homework problems. They are generally identical to the A Problems, with no answers
provided, and can be used by by instructors for homework. In a few cases, the B Problems are not exactly
parallel to the A Problems.
The C Problems usually require students to work with general cases, to write simple arguments, or to
invent examples. These are important aspects of mastering mathematical ideas, and all students should attempt
at least some of these–and not get discouraged if they make slow progress. With effort most students will
be able to solve many of these problems and will benefit greatly in the understanding of the concepts and
connections in doing so.
In addition to the mid-section exercises and end-of-section problems, there is a sample Chapter Quiz in
the Chapter Review at the end of each chapter. Students should be aware that their instructors may have a
different idea of what constitutes an appropriate test on this material.
At the end of each chapter, there are some Further Problems; these are similar to the C Problems and
provide an extended investigation of certain ideas or applications of linear algebra. Further Problems are
intended for advanced students who wish to challenge themselves and explore additional concepts.

00_norman_fm.indd 13 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 xiv A Note to Instructors

Using This Text To Teach Linear Algebra

There are many different approaches to teaching linear algebra. Although we suggest covering the chapters
in order, the text has been written to try to accommodate a variety of approaches.

Early Vector Spaces We believe that it is very beneficial to introduce general vector spaces immedi-
ately after students have gained some experience in working with a few specific examples of vector spaces.
Students find it easier to generalize the concepts of spanning, linear independence, bases, dimension, and
linear mappings while the earlier specific cases are still fresh in their minds. Additionally, we feel that it can
be unhelpful to students to have determinants available too soon. Some students are far too eager to latch
onto mindless algorithms involving determinants (for example, to check linear independence of three vectors
in three-dimensional space), rather than actually come to terms with the defining ideas. Lastly, this allows
eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and diagonalization to be focused on later in the course. I personally find that if
diagonalization is taught too soon, students will focus mainly on being able to diagonalize small matrices by
hand, which causes the importance of diagonalization to be lost.

Early Systems of Linear Equations For courses that begin with solving systems of linear ques-
tions, the first two sections of Chapter 2 may be covered prior to covering Chapter 1 content.

Early Determinants and Diagonalization Some reviewers have commented that they want to
be able to cover determinants and diagonalization before abstract vectors spaces and that in some introduc-
tory courses abstract vector spaces may be omitted entirely. Thus, this text has been written so that Chapter 5,
Chapter 6, most of Chapter 7, and Chapter 8 may be taught prior to Chapter 4 (note that all required informa-
tion about subspaces, bases, and dimension for diagonalization of matrices over R is covered in Chapters 1,
2, and 3). Moreover, we have made sure that there is a very natural flow from matrix inverses and elementary
matrices at the end of Chapter 3 to determinants in Chapter 5.

Early Complex Numbers Some introductory linear algebra courses include the use of complex num-
bers from the beginning. We have written Chapter 9 so that the sections of Chapter 9 may be covered imme-
diately after covering the relevant material over R.

A Matrix-Oriented Course For both options above, the text is organized so that sections or subsec-
tions involving linear mappings may be omitted without loss of continuity.

MyLab Math
MyLab Math and MathXL are online learning resources available to instructors and students using An Intro-
duction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering.
MyLab Math provides engaging experiences that personalize, stimulate, and measure learning for each
student. MyLab’s comprehensive online gradebook automatically tracks your students’ results on tests,
quizzes, homework, and in the study plan. The homework and practice exercises in MyLab Math are cor-
related to the exercises in the textbook, and MyLab provides immediate, helpful feedback when students
enter incorrect answers. The study plan can be assigned or used for individual practice and is personalized
to each student, tracking areas for improvement as students navigate problems. With over 100 questions (all
algorithmic) added to the third edition, MyLab Math for An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and
Engineering is a well-equipped resource that can help improve individual students’ performance.
To learn more about how MyLab combines proven learning applications with powerful assessment, visit
www.pearson.com/mylab or contact your Pearson representative.

00_norman_fm.indd 14 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 A Personal Note

The third edition of An Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering is meant to engage
students and pique their curiosity, as well as provide a template for instructors. I am constantly fascinated
by the countless potential applications of linear algebra in everyday life, and I intend for this textbook to
be approachable to all. I will not pretend that mathematical prerequisites and previous knowledge are not
required. However, the approach taken in this textbook encourages the reader to explore a variety of concepts
and provides exposure to an extensive amount of mathematical knowledge. Linear algebra is an exciting
discipline. My hope is that those reading this book will share in my enthusiasm.

xv

00_norman_fm.indd 15 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 xvi A Personal Note

Acknowledgments
Thanks are expressed to:

Agnieszka Wolczuk for her support and encouragement.

Mike La Croix for all of the amazing figures in the text, and for his assistance in editing, formatting, and
LaTeX’ing.

Peiyao Zeng, Daniel Yu, Adam Radek Martinez, Bruno Verdugo Paredes, and Alex Liao for proof-reading
and their many valuable comments and suggestions.

Stephen New, Paul McGrath, Ken McCay, Paul Kates, and many other of my colleagues who have helped
me become a better instructor.

To all of the reviewers whose comments, corrections, and recommendations have resulted in many posi-
tive improvements.

Charlotte Morrison-Reed for all of her hard work in making the third edition of this text possible and for
her suggestions and editing.

A very special thank you to Daniel Norman and all those who contributed to the first and second editions.

Dan Wolczuk
University of Waterloo

00_norman_fm.indd 16 03/12/18 2:04 PM

 CHAPTER 1

Euclidean Vector Spaces

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3
1.2 Spanning and Linear Independence in R2 and R3
1.3 Length and Angles in R2 and R3
1.4 Vectors in Rn
1.5 Dot Products and Projections in Rn

Some of the material in this chapter will be familiar to many students, but some ideas
that are introduced here will be new to most. In this chapter we will look at operations
on and important concepts related to vectors. We will also look at some applications
of vectors in the familiar setting of Euclidean space. Most of these concepts will later
be extended to more general settings. A rm understanding of the material from this
chapter will help greatly in understanding the topics in the rest of this book.

1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3

We begin by considering the two-dimensional plane in Cartesian coordinates. Choose
an origin O and two mutually perpendicular axes, called the x1 -axis and the x2 -axis,
as shown in Figure 1.1.1. Any point P in the plane can be uniquely identied by the
2-tuple (p1 , p2 ), called the coordinates of P. In particular, p1 is the distance from P to
the x2 -axis, with p1 positive if P is to the right of this axis and negative if P is to the
left, and p2 is the distance from P to the x1 -axis, with p2 positive if P is above this axis
and negative if P is below. You have already learned how to plot graphs of equations
in this plane.
x2

P(p1, p2)
p2

O p1 x1
Figure 1.1.1 Coordinates in the plane.

01_norman_ch01.indd 1 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 2 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces

For applications in many areas of mathematics, and in many subjects such as

physics, chemistry, economics, and engineering, it is useful to view points more ab-
stractly. In particular, we will view them as vectors and provide rules for adding them
and multiplying them by constants.

x1
Denition
 
We let R2 denote the set of all vectors of the form , where x1 and x2 are real
R2
x2
numbers called the components of the vector. Mathematically, we write

x1
  
2
R = | x 1 , x2 ∈ R
x2

x1 y1
   
We say two vectors , ∈ R2 are equal if x1 = y1 and x2 = y2 . We write
x2 y2

x1 y
   
= 1
x2 y2

Although we are viewing the elements of R2 as vectors, we can still interpret these
p1

geometrically as points. That is, the vector �p = can be interpreted as the point
p2
P(p1 , p2 ). Graphically, this is often represented by drawing an arrow from (0, 0) to
(p1 , p2 ), as shown in Figure 1.1.2. Note, that the point (0, 0) and the points between
(0, 0) and (p1 , p2 ) should not be thought of as points “on the vector.” The representation
of a vector as an arrow is particularly common in physics; force and acceleration are
vector quantities that can conveniently be represented by an arrow of suitable
magnitude and direction.

x2

P(p1, p2)

p1
p=
p2

O = (0, 0) x1
Figure 1.1.2 Graphical representation of a vector.

01_norman_ch01.indd 2 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 Section 1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 3

EXAMPLE 1.1.1 An object on a frictionless surface is being pulled by two strings with force and
direction as given in the diagram.
(a) Represent each force as a vector in R2 .
(b) Represent the net force being applied to the object as a vector in R2 .

Solution: (a) The force F1 has 150N of horizontal force and 0N of vertical force.
Thus, we can represent this with the vector
100 N
150
 
F�1 =
0
F2
The force F2 has horizontal component p
100 cos π3 = 50 N and vertical component 3
√
100 sin π3 = 50 3 N. Therefore, we can F1
150 N
represent this with the vector

50
 
F�2 = √
50 3
(b) We know from physics that to get the net force we add the horizontal components
of the forces together and we add the vertical components of the forces together. Thus,
the net horizontal
√ component
√ is 150N + 50N = 200N. The net vertical force is
0N + 50 3N = 50 3N. We can represent this as the vector

200
 
F� = √
50 3

The example shows that in physics we add vectors by adding their corresponding
components. Similarly, we nd that in physics we multiply a vector by a scalar by
multiplying each component of the vector by the scalar.
Since we want our generalized concept of vectors to be able to help us solve
physical problems like these and more, we dene addition and scalar multiplication of
vectors in R2 to match.

x1 y
Denition
   
Let �x = , �y = 1 ∈ R2 . We dene addition of vectors by
Addition and Scalar
x2 y2
Multiplication in R2
x1 y1 x1 + y1
     
�x + �y = + =
x2 y2 x2 + y2

We dene scalar multiplication of �x by a factor of t ∈ R, called a scalar, by

x1 tx
   
t�x = t = 1
x2 tx2

Remark
It is important to note that �x − �y is to be interpreted as �x + (−1)�y .

01_norman_ch01.indd 3 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 4 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces

x2
R(p1 + q1, p2 + q2)
p2 + q2

q2
Q(q1, q2)
P(p1, p2)
q r=p+q

O p1 p1 + q1 x1
Figure 1.1.3 Addition of vectors �p and �q .

The addition of two vectors is illustrated in Figure 1.1.3: construct a parallelogram

with vectors �p and �q as adjacent sides; then �p + �q is the vector corresponding to the
vertex of the parallelogram opposite to the origin. Observe that the components really
are added according to the denition. This is often called the parallelogram rule for
addition.

EXAMPLE 1.1.2  
−2 5
  x2 3
Let �x = , �y = ∈ R2 . Calculate �x + �y .
–2 4
3 1 3

−2 + 5 3
   
5
Solution: We have �x + �y = = .
3+1 4 1
O x1

Scalar multiplication is illustrated in Figure 1.1.4. Observe that multiplication by

a negative scalar reverses the direction of the vector.
x2

(1.5)d

O x1

(–1)d
Figure 1.1.4 Scalar multiplication of the vector d.
�

01_norman_ch01.indd 4 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 Section 1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 5

EXAMPLE 1.1.3 3 0
     
−2
Let �u = , �v = ,w
�= ∈ R2 . Calculate �u + �v , 3�
w, and 2�v − w
�.
1 3 −1
Solution: We get

3 1
     
−2
�u + �v = + =
1 3 4
0 0
   
3�w=3 =
−1 −3
0 0
         
−2 −4 −4
2�v − w� =2 + (−1) = + =
3 −1 6 1 7

EXERCISE 1.1.1 1 2 0
     
Let �u = , �v = ,w
� = ∈ R2 . Calculate each of the following and illustrate
−1 1 1
with a sketch.
(a) �u + w
� (b) −�v (c) (�u + w
� ) − �v

We will frequently look at sums of scalar multiples of vectors. So, we make the
following denition.

Denition Let �v 1 , . . . , �v k ∈ R2 and c1 , . . . , ck ∈ R. We call the sum c1�v 1 + · · · + ck�v k a linear

Linear Combination combination of the vectors �v 1 , . . . ,�v k .

It is important to observe that R2 has the property that any linear combination of
vectors in R2 is a vector in R2 (combining properties V1, V6 in Theorem 1.1.1 below).
Although this property is clear for R2 , it does not hold for most subsets of R2 . As we
will see in Section 1.4, in linear algebra, we are mostly interested in sets that have this
property.

Theorem 1.1.1 For all w

� , �x , �y ∈ R2 and s, t ∈ R we have
V1 �x + �y ∈ R2 (closed under addition)
V2 �x + �y = �y + �x (addition is commutative)
V3 (�x + �y ) + w� = �x + (�y + w
�) (addition is associative)
V4 There exists a vector �0 ∈ R2 such that �z + �0 = �z for all �z ∈ R2 (zero vector)
V5 For each �x ∈ R there exists a vector −�x ∈ R such that �x + (−�x ) = �0
2 2

(additive inverses)
V6 s�x ∈ R2 (closed under scalar multiplication)
V7 s(t�x ) = (st)�x (scalar multiplication is associative)
V8 (s + t)�x = s�x + t�x (a distributive law)
V9 s(�x + �y ) = s�x + s�y (another distributive law)
V10 1�x = �x (scalar multiplicative identity)

0
 
Observe that the zero vector from property V4 is the vector 0 =
� , and the
0
additive inverse of �x from V5 is −�x = (−1)�x .

01_norman_ch01.indd 5 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 6 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces

The Vector Equation of a Line in R2

In Figure 1.1.4, it is apparent that the set of all multiples of a non-zero vector d� creates
a line through the origin. We make this our denition of a line in R2 : a line through
the origin in R2 is a set of the form

{td� | t ∈ R}

Often we do not use formal set notation but simply write a vector equation of the line:

�x = td,
� t∈R

The non-zero vector d� is called a direction vector of the line.

Similarly, we dene a line through �p with direction vector d�  �0 to be the set

{�p + td� | t ∈ R}

which has vector equation

�x = �p + td,
� t∈R
This line is parallel to the line with equation �x = td,
� t ∈ R because of the parallelogram
rule for addition. As shown in Figure 1.1.5, each point on the line through �p can be
obtained from a corresponding point on the line �x = td, � t ∈ R by adding the vector �p .
We say that the line has been translated by �p . More generally, two lines are parallel
if the direction vector of one line is a non-zero scalar multiple of the direction vector
of the other line.
x2
d+p
x = td + p, t g

x1

Figure 1.1.5 The line with vector equation �x = td� + �p , t ∈ R.

EXAMPLE 1.1.4
 
−4
A vector equation of the line through the point P(2, −3) with direction vector is
5

2
   
−4
�x = +t , t∈R
−3 5

01_norman_ch01.indd 6 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 Section 1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 7

EXAMPLE 1.1.5 Write a vector equation of the line through P(1, 2) parallel to the line with vector
equation
2
� �
�x = t , t∈R
3

Solution: Since they are parallel, we can choose the same direction vector. Hence, a
vector equation of the line is

1 2
� � � �
�x = +t , t∈R
2 3

EXERCISE 1.1.2 Write a vector equation of a line through P(0, 0) parallel to the line

4 3
� � � �
�x = +t , t∈R
−3 −1

Sometimes the components of a vector equation are written separately. In

particular, expanding a vector equation �x = �p + td,
� t ∈ R we get
x1 p1 d1 p1 + td1
� � � � � � � �
= +t =
x2 p2 d2 p2 + td2
Comparing entries, we get parametric equations of the line:
⎨ x1 = p1 + td1
⎧
t∈R
⎪
⎪
⎩ x2 = p2 + td2 ,
⎪
⎪

The familiar scalar equation of the line is obtained by eliminating the parameter t.
Provided that d1  0 we solve the rst equation for t to get
x1 − p1
=t
d1
Substituting this into the second equation gives the scalar equation
d2
x2 = p2 + (x1 − p1 ) (1.1)
d1
What can you say about the line if d1 = 0?

EXAMPLE 1.1.6 Write a vector equation, a scalar equation, and parametric

� � equations of the line passing
−5
through the point P(3, 4) with direction vector .
1
x1 3
� � � � � �
−5
Solution: A vector equation is = +t , t ∈ R.
x2 4 1
⎨ x1 = 3 − 5t
⎧
So, parametric equations are ⎪ t ∈ R.
⎪
⎪
⎩ x2 = 4 + t,
⎪
Hence, a scalar equation is x2 = 4 − 51 (x1 − 3).

01_norman_ch01.indd 7 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 8 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces

Directed Line Segments

For dealing with certain geometrical problems, it is useful to introduce directed line
segments. We denote the directed line segment from point P to point Q by PQ � as in
Figure 1.1.6. We think of it as an “arrow” starting at P and pointing towards Q. We
shall identify directed line segments from the origin O with the corresponding vectors;
we write OP � = �p , OQ
� = �q , and so on. A directed line segment that starts at the origin
is called the position vector of the point.

x2
Q

P
O x1
Figure 1.1.6 The directed line segment PQ
� from P to Q.

For many problems, we are interested only in the direction and length of the di-
rected line segment; we are not interested in the point where it is located. For example,
in Figure 1.1.3 on page 4, we may wish to treat the line segment QR � as if it were the
same as OP.
� Taking our cue from this example, for arbitrary points P, Q, R in R2 , we
dene QR� to be equivalent to OP � if �r − �q = �p . In this case, we have used one directed
line segment OP starting from the origin in our denition.
�
More generally, for arbitrary points Q, R, S , and T in R2 , we dene QR � to be
equivalent to S�T if they are both equivalent to the same OP � for some P. That is, if

�r − �q = �p and �t − �s = �p for the same �p

We can abbreviate this by simply requiring that

�r − �q = �t − �s

EXAMPLE 1.1.7 For points Q(1, 3), R(6, −1), S (−2, 4), and T (3, 0), we have that QR � is equivalent to
S T because
�
6 1 5 3
         
−2
�r − �q = − = = − = �t − �s
−1 3 −4 0 4
x2

S(–2, 4) Q(1, 3)

O T(3, 0) x1
R(6, –1)

01_norman_ch01.indd 8 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 Section 1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 9

In some problems, where it is not necessary to distinguish between equivalent

directed line segments, we “identify” them (that is, we treat them as the same object)
and write PQ � = RS � . Indeed, we identify them with the corresponding line segment
5
 
starting at the origin, so in Example 1.1.7 we write QR = S T =
� � .
−4

Remark
Writing QR � = S�T is a bit sloppy—an abuse of notation—because QR � is not really
the same object as S T . However, introducing the precise language of “equivalence
�
classes” and more careful notation with directed line segments is not helpful at this
stage. By introducing directed line segments, we are encouraged to think about vectors
that are located at arbitrary points in space. This is helpful in solving some geometrical
problems, as we shall see below.

EXAMPLE 1.1.8 Find a vector equation of the line through P(1, 2) and Q(3, −1).
Solution: A direction vector of the line is
x2

3 1 2
     
PQ = �q − �p =
� − =
−1 2 −3 P(1, 2)

Hence, a vector equation of the line with direction

� that passes through P(1, 2) is
PQ
O x1
1 2
   
�x = �p + t PQ = +t t∈R
� Q(3, –1)
,
2 −3

Observe in the example above that we would have the same line if we started at the
second point and “moved” toward the rst point—or even if we took a direction vector
in the opposite direction. Thus, the same line is described by the vector equations

3
   
−2
�x = +r , r∈R
−1 3
3 2
   
�x = +s , s∈R
−1 −3
1
   
−2
�x = +t , t∈R
2 3

In fact, there are innitely many descriptions of a line: we may choose any point on
the line, and we may use any non-zero scalar multiple of the direction vector.

EXERCISE 1.1.3 Find a vector equation of the line through P(1, 1) and Q(−2, 2).

01_norman_ch01.indd 9 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 10 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces

Vectors, Lines, and Planes in R3

Everything we have done so far works perfectly well in three dimensions. We choose
an origin O and three mutually perpendicular axes, as shown in Figure 1.1.7. The
x1 -axis is usually pictured coming out of the page (or screen), the x2 -axis to
the right, and the x3 -axis towards the top of the picture.
x3

O
x2
x1
Figure 1.1.7 The positive coordinate axes in R3 .

It should be noted that we are adopting the convention that the coordinate axes
form a right-handed system. One way to visualize a right-handed system is to spread
out the thumb, index nger, and middle nger of your right hand. The thumb is
the x1 -axis; the index nger is the x2 -axis; and the middle nger is the x3 -axis. See
Figure 1.1.8.
x3

x2

O x1

Figure 1.1.8 Identifying a right-handed system.

We now dene R3 to be the three-dimensional analog of R2 .

⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤
Denition We dene R3 to be the set of all vectors of the form ⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥, with x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R.
⎢ ⎥
R3 x3
⎣ ⎦
Mathematically,
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥
⎧⎡ ⎤ ⎫
⎪ ⎪
R3 = ⎪ x x x x
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
2⎥ | ,
1 2 3, ∈ R
⎨⎢⎢ ⎥⎥ ⎬
⎢ ⎥
⎩⎣ x ⎦
⎪ ⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎪
⎪
3
⎪ ⎪
⎭

⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢y1 ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
We say two vectors �x = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ , �y = ⎢⎢⎢⎢y2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ are equal and write �x = �y if xi = yi , for
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x3 y3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
i = 1, 2, 3.

01_norman_ch01.indd 10 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 Section 1.1 Vectors in R2 and R3 11

⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢y1 ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Denition Let �x = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ , �y = ⎢⎢⎢⎢y2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ ∈ R3 . We dene addition of vectors by
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Addition and Scalar x3 y3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Multiplication in R3
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢y1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ x1 + y1 ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x + �y = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢y2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ x2 + y2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥
x3 y3 x3 + y3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

We dene the scalar multiplication of �x by a scalar t ∈ R by

⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢tx1 ⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
t�x = t ⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢tx2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x3 tx3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Addition still follows the parallelogram rule. It may help you to visualize this
if you realize that two vectors in R3 must lie within a plane in R3 so that the two-
dimensional picture is still valid. See Figure 1.1.9.

x3

O x2

x1
Figure 1.1.9 Two-dimensional parallelogram rule in R3 .

EXAMPLE 1.1.9 ⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥
Let �u = ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ , �v = ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ , w � = ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ ∈ R3 . Calculate �v + �u , −�
w, and −�v + 2�
w − �u .
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−1 2 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Solution: We have

⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�v + �u = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 −1 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
−�w = − ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 −1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥
w − �u = − ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + 2 ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ − ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ + ⎢⎢⎢⎢−1⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−2⎥⎥⎥⎥
−�v + 2�
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 1 2 1 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−1 −2

01_norman_ch01.indd 11 28/11/18 4:28 PM

 12 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces

EXERCISE 1.1.4 ⎢⎢⎢ 2⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Let �x = ⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥ , �y = ⎢⎢2⎥⎥ ,�z = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 0⎥⎥⎥⎥ ∈ R3 . Calculate 2�x − �y + 3�z.
⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−5 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−1
⎣ ⎦

As before, we call a sum of scalar multiples of vectors in R3 a linear combination.

Moreover, of course, vectors in R3 satisfy all the same properties in Theorem 1.1.1
replacing R2 by R3 in properties V1, V4, V5, and V6.
⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤
The zero vector in R3 is �0 = ⎢⎢⎢⎢0⎥⎥⎥⎥ and the additive inverse of �x ∈ R3 is −�x = (−1)�x .
⎢ ⎥
0
⎣ ⎦
Directed line segments are the same in three-dimensional space as in the two-
dimensional case.
The line through the point P in R3 (corresponding to a vector �p ) with direction
vector d�  �0 can be described by a vector equation:

�x = �p + td,
� t∈R

CONNECTION
It is important to realize that a line in R3 cannot be described by a single scalar
equation, as in R2 . We shall see in Section 1.3 that a single scalar equation in R3
describes a plane in R3 .

EXAMPLE 1.1.10 Find a vector equation and parametric equations of the line that passes through the
points P(1, 5, −2) and Q(4, −1, 3).
⎢⎢⎢ 4 − 1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Solution: A direction vector is PQ� = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ −1 − 5 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢−6⎥⎥⎥⎥. Hence, a vector equation of
3 − (−2) 5
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
the line is
⎢⎢⎢ 1⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 3⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
�x = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 5⎥⎥⎥⎥ + t ⎢⎢⎢⎢−6⎥⎥⎥⎥ , t ∈ R
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
−2 5
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Hence, we have
⎢⎢⎢ x1 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎢⎢⎢ 1 + 3t ⎥⎥⎥
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢⎢⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 5 − 6t ⎥⎥⎥⎥ , t∈R
x3 −2 + 5t
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

Consequently, corresponding parametric equations are

x1 = 1 + 3t
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
x2 = 5 − 6t t∈R
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎩ x3 = −2 + 5t,
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪

01_norman_ch01.indd 12 28/11/18 4:28 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
started a canal, but they found so much in the way that they were not
able to go far with it.

Fig. 38. Mount Royal Station, Baltimore and Ohio Railroad,

Baltimore
The plan for a canal came up again twenty years after
Washington died, and in 1823 a charter was given for building the
Chesapeake and Ohio canal. New York had then been six years at
work on the Erie canal and would finish it in two years more. If the
Virginia and Maryland people had known that most of them would be
dead before their canal was half done, and that it would never be
really finished, they would not have undertaken it.
 Fig. 39. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Cumberland
They did not begin the work until five years later, in 1828. Then a
great crowd came together at Georgetown, now a part of
Washington, on the Potomac, to see the first earth thrown out.
President John Quincy Adams made the principal speech and then
took a spade to begin the digging. The spade hit a root and would
not go into the soil. The President set down his foot more firmly, but
still the spade would not move. At last, determined to succeed, he
pulled off his coat for the job. The crowd liked this and cheered
loudly, while Mr. Adams accomplished what he had set out to do.
On this very day something else was going on at Baltimore, forty
miles away. Baltimore was not on the Potomac, but her people did
not propose to be left out of the western trade on that account. After
much disputing a charter had been granted for building what became
one of the most famous, as it is one of the oldest, American railways,
—the Baltimore and Ohio. Hence Baltimore had a celebration of her
own on this same Fourth of July, 1828.
They did not have the President of the United States to help
them, but they fared very well. They had great faith in what they
were doing, and doubtless would have shouted even louder had they
known what a great railroad they were starting and what a hard time
the canal people would have.
There was only one man remaining of all the patriots who had
signed the Declaration of Independence almost fifty years before.
This was Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and he was the guest of
Baltimore on that day. A prayer was offered, the Declaration was
read, and after an officer of the railway company had spoken Mr.
Carroll removed the first earth. As if nature would be kind to an old
man, no root made his work hard; and the superstitious may say that
the President’s toilsome digging over in Georgetown was a bad
omen for that enterprise. It is easier to look back than to see into the
future.
Both canal and railway went on building, but as they needed
nearly the same route in some places, they did not get on well
together. The canal was located in the state of Maryland, along the
north bank of the Potomac. This was done in some measure
because a large part of the water which would be needed for the
canal came down from the uplands on the north side. It took twenty-
three years to dig the trench as far as Cumberland, so that it was
1851 before boats could run between Cumberland and tide water.
The original plan of carrying the canal beyond Cumberland and
across the mountains was never carried out.
Just below the point where Wills creek enters the Potomac there
is a dam, and from the pond so made the water is taken into the
upper end of the canal. Much traffic has passed up and down the
canal, but, on the whole, it has not paid for the cost of building and
repairing. Sometimes it has been out of use, and a few months ago
the state of Maryland sold it for a small sum to the Wabash Railway
Company.
 The North American Review has been published for a long time.
At least seventy-five years ago this magazine printed two articles on
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. By reading them we can see how
the intelligent people of that time felt about building it.
In favor of the proposed railroad they said, first, that it would not
be closed by ice for several months each year, as the Erie canal and
the rivers were. Secondly, they reminded the public that Baltimore is
two hundred miles nearer the Ohio navigation than New York is, and
one hundred miles nearer than Philadelphia. Thirdly, they argued
that New Orleans was a long way off, and its climate hot and
unhealthful. Provisions sent by that route would be likely to spoil, and
the traders taking the goods down the river might fall sick. Further,
the rivers in a dry summer would be too low for navigation.
 Fig. 40. Highest Point on Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad, at Sand Patch,
Pennsylvania
Nor did Baltimore people think that the Erie canal could get
much trade except from regions close to lake Erie, and they had
noticed that lands not far from the canal still sent a good deal of
produce down the Susquehanna river to Baltimore. There was no
port south of them that was so good as theirs; in short, they showed
a very proper pride in their own home and a conviction that Baltimore
was as good as any other American city, if not, perhaps, a little
better.
They said also that the lime used for building in the city of
Washington was brought all the way from Rhode Island, while there
was a great abundance of good limestone in their own mountains,
although it could not be carried by wagons. There was coal also, in
seams so thick and wide that it could never be used up, but there
was no way of getting it down to the sea where it would run factories,
smelt iron, and propel the new steamships that so soon would make
the ocean a well-traveled highway. Slate also was to be had, and
marble, and gypsum, and timber, but these could not be brought to
the towns where they might be used. There was, moreover, much
iron ore all along the proposed route, and we all know that iron is the
most important of the metals.
It had long before been learned that there were many fish in
Chesapeake bay, and that New England was not to have the fishing
business all to herself. Better even than this, there were then, as
there are now, places under the shallow waters where countless
oysters lived and multiplied. It was said, even in 1827, that if there
could be a railroad to carry things quickly, oysters might be sent to
people living far from the sea.
Baltimore’s notion of swift carrying was much like that of the Erie
canal packet owners. Trains could go four miles an hour, and thus
goods might be sent from Baltimore to the Ohio river in sixty-two and
one-half hours. Some hopeful people thought that the speed might
even be raised to eight miles an hour. When cars run at that rate in
these days we begin to talk about getting out and pushing the
engine.
The builders of the railroad had what seem to us curious ideas of
laying a foundation for the track. They dug a trench in some places,
putting into it broken stone, and on this they laid long slabs of stone,
or “stone rails.” On these, in their turn, the iron rails were riveted
down. Until car springs were invented the jolting must have been like
that of a farm wagon.
 Even when the track was finished no decision had been made as
to how the cars were to be moved. Mr. Hulbert, in one of his stories
of historic highways, tells of several experiments which were made.
Some one invented a locomotive in which a horse was to tread an
endless belt and thus make the machine go, carrying with it the
horse and dragging the cars. On one trip, when several newspaper
men were present to report the trial, the train ran into a cow and they
were all tipped out and tumbled down a bank. The method did not
have much praise in the papers. Sails were also tried, and one car
which was thus moved by wind was called Æolus. This car, with its
mast and other ship-like rigging, made much talk, but that was all.
And no one could quite see how it would ever be possible to draw a
car on a curved track. This meant much, for it was out of the
question to build a railway through the mountains without many
curves, and some of them rather short ones. But there were those
who thought that if a curved road were possible, it would be a good
thing because the engineer could occasionally look back along the
line and see how his train was coming on.
 Fig. 41. Looking down the Potomac from Harpers Ferry
Maryland on the left; West Virginia on right and in foreground; Virginia in the
distance; Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and Chesapeake and Ohio canal
at the left; Shenandoah river enters under bridge on the right

But steam was to win the day. Mr. Peter Cooper had a
locomotive, called Tom Thumb, built in 1829, and an old picture
shows an exciting race between this little engine and a horse car.
The steam car won the race, and it is now to be seen whether or not
electricity will drive steam out of business on the railways.
By 1833 the road was laid as far as Harpers Ferry, a place made
lively by armies and guns in the Civil War. It is a rugged old town,
built near the spot where the Shenandoah joins the Potomac, and
both together have cut a fine gorge through the Blue Ridge. To-day
as one stands in the upper part of the village and looks down
through the great gorge, he sees the bridge and tracks and trains of
the Baltimore and Ohio, and the channel of the Chesapeake and
Ohio canal (Fig. 41). The railway outstripped the canal, for the road
was finished to Cumberland in 1842, nine years before canal boats
floated into that place; and in 1853 the first train rolled into Wheeling,
on the Ohio river.
Another part of the road now runs farther north to Pittsburg and
leads on to Chicago, while yet another passes south to Cincinnati
and St. Louis. Eastward the main line runs to Philadelphia and stops
at the Whitehall terminal in New York City. These long lines, with
many spurs and side lines, make up the Baltimore and Ohio Railway
system, which, like the Pennsylvania and the New York Central, joins
the seaports of the Atlantic coast with the fields and cities of the
Mississippi, and carries in either direction the rich mineral products
of the intervening mountains.
Like her neighbors on the Atlantic, Baltimore stretches out her
hands to sea and land. The city was begun in 1730, at which time a
Mr. Carroll sold the land for it at forty shillings an acre. When
Washington first went to the Ohio there were only twenty-five houses
in Baltimore, but in 1770 there were twenty thousand people, and the
new city was drawing trade from Philadelphia. In 1826, when the
Erie canal was building, Baltimore had become a city of sixty
thousand inhabitants. Now it has more than half a million people,
and is the sixth American city. In foreign trade, however, it stands
third, and its docks are busy places. The Hamburg-American, the
North-German Lloyd, and the Red Star lines all send regular
steamers between Baltimore and Europe, and hundreds of others
sail to ports on our own coast, to the West Indies, and to South
America. Baltimore builds ships as well as sails them, to carry the
corn, flour, and meat of the prairies and the great plains to foreign
lands, and to bring back their products in exchange. Where there are
railways and ships there are always merchants and factories. Out of
the gains of trade a Baltimore merchant built one of the most famous
of our schools, the Johns Hopkins University.
 Fig. 42. Coke Ovens at Meyersdale, Pennsylvania
There has been no more important factor in the development of
the United States than is found in the great railway systems, which,
by linking all sections together, give unity and strength to the whole
fabric of our government. Washington’s dreams of his country’s
future are already overtopped by her actual achievements, and the
most hopeful among those who first saw the advantages of steam
engines could hardly have looked forward to the swift transportation
of to-day.
In the year 1901 an American ship and American railway trains
ran a great race to London over land and sea. The start was from
Australia and the distance was more than thirteen thousand miles.
The race was not against other ships and other trains, but against
time. The mail from Sydney in New South Wales usually went by the
Red sea and the Suez canal, a route which is a thousand miles
shorter than is the Pacific route, and which took thirty-five days and a
few hours. It happened on August 13, in the morning, that three
hundred and sixty-seven sacks of important mail for London were
piled on the dock, beside which lay a new American ship, the
Ventura. Because no good British ship was at hand that morning, the
post-office authorities thought that they would let the vessel with the
Stars and Stripes carry the mail. She did carry it, and on the evening
of September 2 she laid down the bags on the pier at San Francisco.
The American railroads tried their hand at carrying the British
mail. The Southern Pacific took it swiftly across to Ogden, in Utah.
The Union Pacific seized it, two hours late, and said that the time
should be made up. The train raced a thousand miles to Omaha and
made up some of the time but not all. Then it was off for Chicago,
where the Lake Shore road had a “special” ready to overtake the
Fast Mail. It ran two hundred and forty-four miles in two hundred and
sixty-five and a half minutes, and did overtake it. Then came Buffalo,
New York, Queenstown, and London. The carriers in that great city
started out with the mail early in the morning of September 14. If the
bags had come by the shorter route under the British flag, they
would not have reached London until September 16. This is what
great railways and great ships do in our time,—they make neighbors
of all men.

Fig. 43. The Observation End, Baltimore and

Ohio Railroad
 CHAPTER X
CITIES OF THE OHIO VALLEY

If we look at a map, we shall see that the Allegheny river flows

southward from New York into western Pennsylvania. The
Monongahela river, rising among the rough highlands of West
Virginia, sends its waters toward the north, and the two great
streams join to form the Ohio, which flows on far to the southwest.
All together they are like wide-spreading branches of an apple tree
uniting with the gnarled old trunk.
In the great crotch of the tree Pittsburg is snugly placed. A
narrow point of flat land lies between the rivers just before they come
together to make the Ohio, and back of this point, to the east, rise
steep hills. Across the Allegheny and across the Monongahela the
banks rise sharply for several hundred feet, and there too, wherever
the slope is not too steep for houses to stand, tens of thousands of
busy people have their homes.
 Fig. 44. Old Blockhouse, Pittsburg
The rivers are crossed by many bridges and are full of boats. Up
and down for miles their banks are smoky and noisy with furnaces,
and at night the iron mills light up the valley with wonderful torches of
flame leaping into the black sky. If the great towns clustered within
an hour’s ride were counted in, Pittsburg would now have a million
people. Only a hundred years ago she was, like many other cities in
the New World, a humble village between two rivers. As early as
1730 white men journeyed here to trade with the Indians, who could
come from any part of the western country in their canoes.
Washington stood here November 24, 1753, and in his description of
the place wrote, “I think it extremely well situated for a fort, as it has
absolute command of both rivers.” Men were to need forts for a long
time in that country, and the one which was soon built on this site
had a stirring history. In 1758 it was recaptured from the French and
named for England’s prime minister, Pitt. Hence we have Pittsburgh,
which is the old spelling, but it is now common to drop the h, and
write it Pittsburg.
 The old blockhouse of brick, which is still standing, was built in
1764. Washington came back to the spot in 1770, and found here
about twenty houses, used by men who were trading with the
Indians. Arthur Lee, in 1784, thought that the place would “never be
very considerable,” but he was not a good prophet. In 1816 it had
become a city and has been steadily gaining in importance since that
time. Not much more than fifty years later an historian of Pittsburg
said that if Mr. Lee could then come back, he would find a city bigger
than the six largest cities and towns in the Old Dominion.
The secret of Pittsburg’s success is in its location. Many years
ago it was called “the gate of the West,” and through it has gone
much of the trade between the East and the lands beyond the
mountains. Even from New York the pioneers came by land and
water to the head of the Ohio, an undertaking by no means easy in
those days. A prominent man in Pittsburg once contracted with the
government to send provisions to Oswego, and as he wished to
make the long journey as profitable as he could, he packed the
provisions in strong barrels that would hold salt. When these were
emptied they were filled for the return trip with Onondaga salt and
carried by lake Ontario to the Niagara river below the falls. They
were then taken around the falls and across the lake to Erie, up
French creek, over the portage, and at length by boat to Pittsburg. It
was a roundabout way, but the enterprising dealer sold salt in
Pittsburg for half the price charged by the packers who brought it by
rough mountain roads from the East.
Improvements in methods of transportation caused an increase
in business activity. By the Pittsburg pike, by the canal with its
Portage Railway, and finally by the Pennsylvania Railroad, trade was
coming from Philadelphia. Not less promptly did the men of
Baltimore and the Virginians reach Pittsburg by the trail, the National
Road, and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Because Pittsburg stood
at the head of the Ohio it was a door to the whole Mississippi valley,
and men and goods quickly found their way to it. Once there a boat
would take them over thousands of miles of river, or to New Orleans
and the open sea.
 Henry Clay used to tell in Congress a good story about Pittsburg.
He said that a ship built at Pittsburg sailed down the river, through
the gulf, across the Atlantic, into the Mediterranean, and anchored at
Leghorn. The captain handed his papers to the officer of the
customhouse, who did not credit them. “Sir,” said he, “your papers
are forged; there is no such port as Pittsburg in the world; your
vessel must be confiscated.” Though the captain was frightened, he
pulled out a map and taught the Italian official a lesson in geography,
making him understand at last that one could sail a thousand miles
up the Mississippi and another thousand up the Ohio, and that there
was such a port as Pittsburg.

Fig. 45. Pittsburg

The first boats on the Ohio river were the light bark canoes of the
red men. These could sail in almost any water, but they were easily
broken and could carry only light loads. When white men began to
throng the river and wanted to carry their families, household
furniture, tools, grain, and all the produce of the land, they needed
something larger and stronger. At first they built barges, which were
little more than great boxes made water-tight. These they loaded and
steered down the stream as best they could. They did not expect to
bring them back, for such boats could not be pushed against the
current. Hence the barge builders at Pittsburg always had work, for a
new one had to be provided for each fresh cargo.
Later men began to make keel boats, in which they could not
only go downstream but could also, by poling, make a return voyage.
These boats were about fifty feet long and could carry twenty tons or
more. Along the sides were “running boards,” where the men went
up and down with their setting poles to drive the boat against the
current. The space between the running boards was covered over to
form a kind of cabin. It was not an easy task to pole one of these
boats up a rapid, and the life on the river was a life of toil.
During the last twenty years before 1800, or while Washington
was President, a wealthy merchant of Philadelphia took up traffic on
the Ohio. He sent dry goods and other merchandise overland to
Pittsburg, thence down the Ohio in a barge, and up the Mississippi to
Kaskaskia in Illinois, which was at that time an important town. Here
the cargo was exchanged for skins of bear, deer, buffalo, and other
animals, to be taken up the Ohio and sent from Pittsburg to
Philadelphia.
It took time to trade in this way. A summer was needed to go
down to New Orleans and back again with a keel boat or a barge.
When a boat came up “with furs from St. Louis; cotton from Natchez;
hemp, tobacco, and saltpeter from Maysville; or sugar and cotton
from New Orleans and Natchez, it was a wonder to the many, and
drew vast crowds to see and rejoice over it.”
One of the river men. Captain Shreve, once took his boat from
New Orleans up to Louisville in twenty-five days. The people
celebrated this remarkable achievement and gave the captain a
public dinner. No doubt they made as much ado as we should now
make if a ship should go from New York to Liverpool in three days.
They were quite right to make a feast in honor of the occasion, for
the time commonly allowed for the journey had been three months.
The flatboat, which for years was used in river traffic, was about
forty feet long, twelve feet wide, and eight feet deep. It had a flat
bottom and was handled by means of three oars on each side. Two
of these were called sweeps, and were almost as long as the boat
itself. At the stern was a still longer steering oar. When the water
rose in the autumn these boats carried loads of produce and bore
thousands of families who were seeking homes farther west.
Old and young with their household treasures, which often
included the cow, sailed down in these rude house boats to some
chosen spot in the distant wilderness. It was in a boat like these that
the tall and awkward young man, Abraham Lincoln, made a voyage
to New Orleans and first saw something of the outside world.
Redstone was an old name for Brownsville, where the National
Road crossed the Monongahela, and many boats started from here
in early days. It is said that an old boatman was once hailed by a
seeker after information. “Where are you from?” was the first
question. “Redstone,” was the answer. “What is your lading?”
“Millstones.” “What is your captain’s name?” “Whetstone.” “Where
are you bound?” “For Limestone.” The interesting part of the story is
that these answers were all true.
Large as the traffic was by the flatboats, it was greatly increased
when steamboats began to run on the rivers. No other craft could
hope to compete with these.
The boatmen owed a grudge to the steamboat, just as the pack-
horse men had hated the Conestoga wagon, for they saw that their
trade was lost, and it was hard to try to make a living in some other
way. For many years the great passenger boats reigned supreme on
the rivers of the West, but at last they in turn were forced to give way
to the railroads. Such boats still run on the Ohio and the Mississippi,
but men do not travel on them when they wish to go quickly.
Railroad cars, however, do not take the place of some boats on
the Ohio. Look out on the Monongahela at Pittsburg and you may
see large fields of boats,—many acres of barges, for there are
barges on the river still, though they do not look like the old ones.
They are of great size and are sometimes made of steel. The coal,
taken from the hill out of which it is dug, is run on a trestle along the
river and dumped into one of these boats. At Pittsburg the barges
wait for the water to rise to a “coal-boat” stage,—that is, until there is
a depth of at least eight feet all the way down the river Then a
number of barges are lashed together and a steamboat pushes them
down the stream. The water often comes up suddenly, and the coal
must be rushed to market while the high water lasts. A single
towboat sometimes takes to New Orleans several acres of coal from
the great Pittsburg coal seam. This lies flat under the hilltops and is
mined from the edges where the rivers have cut down through the
coal, far into the beds of rock that lie below.

Fig. 46. Coal Barges, Pittsburg

On the Monongahela the United States owns fifteen dams with
locks, and the river is thus “slacked” far up into West Virginia. The
dams change the river into a series of long, still ponds, which are
deep enough to float the coal barges. Below Pittsburg, in the Ohio, is
another dam which sets the water back and makes a harbor for the
city.
There is no coal to send down the Allegheny, but there are logs
to be rafted, and there is much oil, for the river flows through the
petroleum region around Oil City. Some of this is taken to refineries
at Pittsburg and made ready for use. Much natural gas is obtained
by boring and is used in the city for warming houses and for cooking.
 Fig. 47. Pittsburg at Night
A cloud of smoke from the soft coal burned in so many shops
and furnaces hangs over the lower parts of Pittsburg and has given it
the name of “The Smoky City.” James Parton says that on the first
morning of his visit there he felt sure that he was rising very early, for
the street lamps were all burning and he ate his breakfast in a room
lighted by gas. As the room was filled with people, he thought
Pittsburg was very enterprising, and himself along with it, but he was
quite taken aback when he looked at his watch and found that it was
almost nine o’clock. Darker even than the streets are the “rooms” in
which thousands of miners, within a few miles of the city, dig out coal
with their picks and shovels.
If one rides into Pittsburg by night, he will see something finer
than fireworks. The train is likely to whirl him past long rows of fiery
ovens in which coal is being made into coke. And in many towns
near by, as well as along the rivers by the city itself, the jets of flame
will show iron furnaces and steel mills, with grimy workmen moving
about in the strange light.

Fig. 48. Furnaces near Pittsburg

The iron ore for these furnaces is brought from many parts of the
country, but chiefly from the lands around lake Superior. It is shipped
down the lakes in large steamers and loaded into cars at Cleveland
or some other port on lake Erie. Instead of carrying the coal to the
ore, the ore is thus brought to the coal, without which it could not be
worked. The reason for this is that Pittsburg is much nearer the
places where most of the iron is to be used. If the coal of
Pennsylvania were taken to the iron mines of Minnesota and the
furnaces built there, much of the iron and steel would have to be