NMC summary/formula sheet V1

Area and Volume:

Area Volume
𝑏ℎ 4 2
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟
2 3
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2
3√3 2
𝐻𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎
2
Unit cells and Crystal Structures
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑀 𝑛𝑀A
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 = = (g/cm3)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉 𝑉𝑁A

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐿𝐷 = 𝑃𝐷 = (atoms/unit area)
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
(atoms/unit length)
Crystal structure Side length a Coordination Atoms per cell APF Stacking
number sequence
Simple cubic 2R 6 1 0.52360
FCC √8𝑅 12 4 0.74048 ABCABC
BCC 4 8 2 0.68017
𝑅
√3
HCP 2R Varies Varies 7? Varies 0.74? ABABAB
Crystal system formulae Relationships image
Cubic volume=a3 α = β = γ = 90 °
a =b =c

Hexagonal Volume= (
3√3
𝑎2 ) × 𝑐 α= β = 90°, γ = 120°
2 a =b ≠ c

Tetragonal Volume = 𝑎2 × 𝑐 α = β = γ = 90°

a =b ≠c

Rhombohedral/Trigonal Area of base = 𝑎2 sin 𝛼 α = β = γ ≠90°

Volume = 𝑎 × (𝑎2 sin 𝛼) a =b =c

Orthorhombic Area of base = a × b α = β = γ = 90°

Volume = a × b × c a ≠b ≠c

Monoclinic Triclinic
α = γ = 90°≠ β α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°
a ≠b ≠c a ≠b ≠c

Imperfections
𝑁A𝜌 −𝑄 𝑘 = 8.62 × 10−5
𝑁= (atoms/m3) 𝑁𝑣 = 𝑁𝑒 ( 𝑘𝑇 ) (vacancies/m3) eV/K
𝐴𝑡.𝑤𝑡
𝑁𝐴 = 6.022 × 1023 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23
J/(atoms.K)
Hume Rothery Rules
The diameters of the atoms The type of crystal structure of Small differences in The two elements should have
should not differ by more the two metals must electronegativity between the the same valence.
than 15% be the same. two elements are required.
𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 E.g. FCC-FCC Periodic table Periodic table
%∆𝑅𝑎𝑑. = × 100
𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Grains
A grain boundary has a higher energy and etches more deeply in a weak acid on a polished sample. The deeper grove refracts light
differently compared to the rest of the material. Resulting in a different/darker appearance.
𝑀 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 G=rounded ASTM number
ASTM: 𝑁( )2 = 2𝐺−1 Linear intercept method: M=magnification
100 𝑃𝑀
P= number of grain boundaries crossed
 NMC summary/formula sheet V1
Diffusion
Steady state
∆𝐶 −𝑄
R=8.314J/mol.K
𝐽 = −𝐷 ∆𝑥 (kg/m2.s or atoms/m2.s) 𝐷 = 𝐷0 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 (m2/s)
𝐾 = 8.62 × 10−5 𝑒𝑉/𝑘
𝑀(𝑘𝑔)
𝐽= 𝐾 = 1.38 × 10−23
𝐴(𝑚2 ) 𝑡(𝑠) J/(atoms.K)
Non-steady state
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑥 𝑋(𝑚) 𝑍 − 𝑍𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑟𝑓(𝑍) − 𝑒𝑟𝑓(𝑍𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 )
= 𝑒𝑟𝑓( ) =
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑜 2√𝐷𝑡(𝑠) 𝑍𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 − 𝑍𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑟𝑓(𝑍𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 ) − 𝑒𝑟𝑓(𝑍𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 )
 NMC summary/formula sheet V1
Mechanical properties
Engineering stress 𝐹
𝜎=
(tensile) 𝐴0
Engineering strain ∆𝐿
𝜀=
(tensile) 𝐿0
Shear stress 𝑆
𝜏=
𝐴
Shear strain 𝑎
𝛾 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
ℎ
𝜎 𝜏
Elastic constants 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠: 𝐸 =
𝜀
(N/m2 or Pa) Shear modulus: 𝐺𝑚 = 𝛾
Poisson (elastic) ratio −𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝜀𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔
𝑣= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 −(𝐷0 − 𝐷𝑓 )
𝜀𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 (𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 )
= =
−(𝐷0 − 𝐷𝑓 )/𝐷0 𝑑0 𝐿0
=
(𝐷0 2 − 𝐷𝑓 2 )/𝐷𝑓 2
Shear modulus 𝜏 𝐸
𝐺𝑚 = =
𝛾 2(1 + 𝑣)
Elastic Modulus 𝜎𝑌 × 𝜀𝑒𝑙
𝑈𝑅 =
of resilience: UR 2
Or
𝜎𝑌 2
𝑈𝑅 =
2𝐸
𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑤 =
𝑆𝐹

Strength: ability to resist an applied tensile Ductility: ability to deform plastically before
stress- measured as yield strength and tensile fracture- measured as % elongation or %
strength (MPa) redusction before fracture
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑓
(𝐴5 )%𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100 (𝑍)%𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐿0 𝐴0
True stress and strain
𝐿 𝐴 (strain) 𝜀𝑇 = ln(1 + ε) (stress) 𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎(1 + 𝜀)
𝐿0 𝐴0 = 𝐿𝑖 𝐴𝑖 and 𝐿 𝑖 = 𝐴0
0 𝑖 𝐿𝑖 𝐴0 𝐹
= ln = ln =
𝐿0 𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑖
Hardness tests
i) the surface of the sample 𝐻𝐵/𝐵𝐻𝑁
must be clean and free 2𝑃(𝐾𝑔)
=
of oxides
ii) the sample surface must 𝜋𝐷(𝑚𝑚) (𝐷 − √𝐷2 − 𝑑(𝑚𝑚) 2 )
be firm and at right
angles to indenter 𝑃(𝐾𝑔)
iii) thickness of sample must 𝐻𝑉 = 1.854
𝑑1(𝑚𝑚) 2
be at least 10 X depth of
indentation 𝑃
iv) distance between 𝐻𝐾 = 14.2
𝑙2
measurements - 3 to 5 times
the 1
indentation diameter 𝑅=
𝑡

𝑈𝑇𝑆 (𝑀𝑃𝑎) = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × (𝐻𝐵)

 NMC summary/formula sheet V1

Plastic deformation and strengthening of materials

Resolved stress
Polycrystal harder but less ductile than single crystal.
Hardness increase with a decrease in grain size.

1. By placing other dislocations through cold work in

their paths
2. By increasing the number of grain boundaries through
a smaller grain size
3. By introducing solute solid solution alloy atoms with a
different atom size into the solvent metal
4. By exceeding the solid solubility through alloying and
thereby introduce second phases or precipitates

1- Degree of cold 𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓 𝑑0 2 −𝑑𝑓 2 𝑡0 −𝑡𝑓

Rods and wire × 100 𝑜𝑟
𝑑0 2
× Plates and sheets × 100
work = % reduction 𝐴0 𝑡0
100
2- grain sizes 𝐾𝑖 Inverse relationship between YS and the
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝜎𝑌 = 𝜎0 +
√𝐺𝑆 grain size GS GS= grain size (Linear
intercept method)
3- solid solution in 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜀𝑒𝑙 Should not exieed solubility limit.
alloys 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 No.solute atoms per solvent atoms=
=
𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 concentration
Cold working affects:
Increas hardness, increase strength, decrease ductility, minimal decrease in grain size.
Recovery and recrystalization Done through annealing.
Recovery: only dislocation re-arrangement into cells or
subgrains. Little change in properties.
Recrystallisation: New and smaller grains are crystallised.
Properties are largely regained.
Grain growth: Undesirable growth of grains. Must be avoided.

i) A minimum amount of cold work is required.

ii) The smaller the degree of cold work, the higher the temperature needed for Rx.
iii) Increasing the annealing temperature, decreases the time necessary to complete Rx.
iv) The final grain size directly after Rx depends on the degree of cold work.
v) The larger the original grain size, the greater the amount of cold work required to produce an equivalent Rx temperature.
vi) The Rx temperature decreases with increasing purity of the metal
Q tx% ≡ time for x% recrystallization R≡ gas constant = 8,314 [J / g.mol K]
t x% = C eRT
Q≡ activation energy [J/mol] T= ≡ absolute temp. [℃ + 273K]
Grain Growth
Disorder in grain boundaries are a source of internal energy. At high temperatures and long times the system reduces its
internal energy by having less grain boundaries, i.e. larger grains. This takes place by diffusion of atoms.
 NMC summary/formula sheet V1

Phase diagrams, transformations and heat treatments

isomorphous system: complete solubility over the entire composition range.
The amount of L at 1250°:
𝑆 (𝐶𝛼 − 𝐶0 )
𝑊𝐿 = =
(𝑅 + 𝑆) (𝐶𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿 )

The amount of α at 1250°C:

𝑅 (𝐶0 − 𝐶𝐿 )
𝑊𝛼 = =
(𝑅 + 𝑆) (𝐶𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿 )