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meteorology today
AN INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND THE ENVIRONMENT
AHRENS SECOND
J AC K S O N CANADIAN
J AC K S O N EDITION
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Meteorology Today
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Second Canadian Edition
Meteorology Today
C. Donald Ahrens
Emeritus, Modesto Junior College
Peter L. Jackson
University of Northern British Columbia
Christine E. J. Jackson
University of Northern British Columbia
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Brief Contents
Preface xvi
Visual Walkthrough xviii
Ancillaries xx
Chapter 0 Introduction 3
Chapter 1 Earth and Its Atmosphere 9
Chapter 2 Energy 31
Chapter 3 Temperature 61
Chapter 4 Humidity 95
Chapter 5 Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 121
Chapter 6 Stability and Cloud Development 153
Chapter 7 Precipitation 179
Chapter 8 Air Pressure and Winds 211
Chapter 9 Wind: Small Scale and Local 243
Chapter 10 Wind: Global Systems 279
Chapter 11 Air Masses and Fronts 309
Chapter 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 335
Chapter 13 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 365
Chapter 14 Hurricanes 405
Chapter 15 Weather Forecasting 435
Chapter 16 Global Climate 471
Chapter 17 Earth’s Changing Climate 505
Chapter 18 Air Pollution 543
Chapter 19 Light, Colour, and Atmospheric Optics 577
NEL v
vi Brief Contents
Appendix A Units, Conversions, Symbols, and Equations A-1
Appendix B Weather Symbols and Cloud Classification A-5
Appendix C Beaufort Wind Scale A-9
Appendix D Humidity and Standard Atmosphere A-10
Appendix E Time Zone Conversions A-14
Appendix F Global Precipitation A-16
Appendix G Tephigram A-17
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
NEL
Contents
Preface xvi Radiation 40
Visual Walkthrough xviii Radiation and Temperature 41
Ancillaries xx Radiation of the Sun and Earth 41
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 2.3
chapter 0 Wave Energy, Sunburns, and Ultraviolet Rays 42
Introduction 3 Incoming Solar Energy 44

Scattering and Reflection 45
A Brief History of Meteorology 4 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 2.4
Earth’s Systems 4 Blue Skies, Red Suns, and White Clouds 46
Using This Book to Learn Effectively 5
Radiation Absorption, Emission, and Equilibrium 47
Selective Absorbers – The Greenhouse Effect 48
chapter 1 Energy Balances 51
Earth and Its Atmosphere 9 Warming Air from Below 51
Annual Energy Balance 51
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 1.1 Daily Energy Balance 53
A Breath of Fresh Air 11 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 2.5
Earth’s Atmosphere 11 Daily Radiation and Energy Budgets
Today’s Atmosphere 12 at Earth’s Surface 54
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 1.2 Summary 57
The Atmospheres of Other Planets 18 Key Terms 57
Early Atmospheres 19 Questions for Review 58
Atmospheric Vertical Structure 20 Questions for Thought 58
Air Density and Pressure 20 Problems and Exercises 58
Atmospheric Layers 22 Online Resources 59
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 1.3
Solar Particles and the Aurora 26
Summary 26
Key Terms 28
Questions for Review 28
Questions for Thought 28
Problems and Exercises 29
Online Resources 29
chapter 2
Energy 31
Energy and Heat 32
Forms of Energy 33
Characteristics of the Sun 34
Sensible Heat 35
Latent Heat 36
altrendo nature/Getty Images

The Fate of a Sunbeam 37
Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere 38
Conduction 38
Convection 39
NEL vii
viii Contents
chapter 3 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 3.7

The Vancouver Island School-Based
Temperature 61 Weather Station Network 90
Temperature and Scales 62 Summary 91
Physical Controls of Temperature 64 Key Terms 92
Seasons 64 Questions for Review 92
Northern Hemisphere Seasons 66 Questions for Thought 93
Southern Hemisphere Seasons 70 Problems and Exercises 93
Local Temperature Variations 70 Online Resources 93
Solar Heating and the Noon Sun 71
Chapter 4
Daily Temperature Variations 72
Daytime Warming 72 Humidity 95
Nighttime Cooling 73 Circulation of Water 96
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 3.2 Water’s Many Phases 97
Record High Temperatures 74 Focus on a special topic 4.1
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 3.3 Water Budgets in Four Cities 99
Record Low Temperatures 76 Evaporation, Condensation, and Saturation 100
Geographic Controls of Temperature 78 Humidity 102
Temperature Data 80 Absolute Humidity 102
Daily, Monthly, and Yearly Temperatures 80 Specific Humidity and Mixing Ratio 102
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 3.4 Vapour Pressure 103
When It Comes to Temperature, Focus on a special topic 4.2
What’s Normal? 82 Cooking in the Mountains—Vapour Pressure
The use of Temperature Data 82 and Boiling 105
Temperature and Human Comfort 84 Relative Humidity 105
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 3.5 Relative Humidity and Dew Point 107
A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Comparing Humidities 109
Death 85 Focus on a special topic 4.3
Computing Relative Humidity and Dew Point 110
Human Thermal Comfort 86 Relative Humidity in the Home 111
Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort 112
Measuring Temperature 87
Measuring Humidity 114
Focus on a special topic 4.4
Is Humid Air “Heavier” Than Dry Air? 115
Focus on AN OBSERVATION 4.5
Psychrometry—Two Thermometers
and a Wet Sock 116
Summary 117
Key Terms 118
Online Resources 119
chapter 5
Condensation: Dew, Fog, and
Paul Madden/Getty Images
Clouds 121
The Formation of Dew and Frost 122
Condensation Nuclei 124
Haze 125
NEL
Contents ix
Fog 125
Radiation Fog 126
Advection Fog 127
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 5.1
Why Are Canada’s Coastal Regions So
Foggy? 129
Why Are Headlands Usually Foggier
Than Beaches? 130
Upslope Fog 130
Mixing Fog 131
Evaporation Fog 131
Vladimir Kostka
Fog That Forms by Mixing 132
Foggy Weather 132
FOCUS ON Social and Economic Impacts 5.4
Fog Dispersal 134
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC 6.4
Clouds 135 The Tephigram 170
Classification Of Clouds 135
Changing Cloud Forms 173
Cloud Identification 136
Summary 175
Focus on an observation 5.5 Key Terms 175
Measuring Cloud Ceilings 144 Questions for Review 175
Weather Satellites 144 Questions for Thought 176
Focus on a special topic 5.6 Problems and Exercises 176
Satellites Do More Than Observe Online Resources 177
Clouds 149
chapter 7
Summary 149
Key Terms 150 Precipitation 179
Precipitation Processes 180
Cloud Droplets Growth 180
Collision and Coalescence Process 182
Ice-Crystal Process 184
Precipitation in Clouds 187
chapter 6 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 7.1
Stability and Cloud Development 153 Cloud Seeding and Precipitation 188
Precipitation Types 189
Atmospheric Stability 154 Rain 189
Determining Stability 156
A Stable Atmosphere 156
The Canadian Rockies Flood of June 2013 190
The Radiosonde 157
Snow 191
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 6.2 Snowing When the Air Temperature Is Well
Subsidence Inversions—Put a Lid on It 159 above Freezing 193
An Unstable Atmosphere 159 Ice Pellets and Freezing Rain 195
A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere 160
Causes of Instability 161
The Ice Storm of 1998 197
Cloud Development 164
Convection and Clouds 164 FOCUS ON Social and Economic Impacts 7.5
Topography and Clouds 168 Aircraft Icing 198
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 6.3 Snow Grains and Snow Pellets 198
Determining Convective Cloud Bases 169 Hail 199
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x Contents
Measuring Precipitation 201 FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC 8.3

Instruments 201 A Mathematical Look at the Geostrophic
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 7.6 Wind 230
Measuring Snow Depth 204 Curved Flow Aloft—Gradient Winds 231
Radar and Precipitation 205 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 8.4
Measuring Precipitation from Space 205 Watching Clouds to Estimate Wind and Pressure
Summary 207 Patterns Aloft 232
Key Terms 207 Winds on Upper-Level Charts 233
Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere 234
Online Resources 209 Friction and Surface Winds 234
Winds and Vertical Air Motions 236
Chapter 8 FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC 8.6
The Hydrostatic and Hypsometric Equations 237
Air Pressure and Winds 211 Summary 238
Atmospheric Pressure 212 Key Terms 238
Horizontal Pressure Variations 212 Questions for Review 239
Daily Pressure Variations 214 Questions for Thought 239
Pressure Measurements 214 Problems and Exercises 240
The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law 216
Pressure Readings 218 chapter 9
Surface and Upper-Level Charts 219 Wind: Small Scale and Local 243
Scales of Motion 244
Flying from High to Low, Look Out Below 223
Microscale Winds 245
Newton’s Laws and Forces 224 Boundary Layer Friction and Turbulence 245
Forces and Horizontal Winds 224
Pressure Gradient Force 224
Measuring Wind and Transport in the Planetary
Coriolis Force 226
Boundary Layer 248
Straight Flow Aloft—Geostrophic Winds 229
Eddies—Big and Small 248
The Force of the Wind 250
Eddies, Clear Air Turbulence, and “Air
Pockets” 251
Impacts of Microscale Winds 252
Pedalling into the Wind 255
Local Wind Systems 256
Thermal Circulations 256
Local Winds of the World 260
Snow Eaters and Rapid Temperature
Changes 262
Large-Scale Thermal Circulations 265
Rogier Gruys. BluePeak Travel Photography
Seasonally Changing Winds—The Monsoon 266

Determining Wind 268
Prevailing Winds 268
Wind Measurements 270
NEL
Contents xi
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 9.5 Chapter 11

Wind Power 271
Air Masses and Fronts 309
Observing Winds from Space 273 Air Masses 310
Source Regions 311
Summary 274
Air Mass Classification 311
Key Terms 274
Air Masses of North America 313
Questions for Thought 275 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 11.1
Problems and Exercises 276 Lake-Effect Snows 314
Online Resources 277 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 11.2
Arctic Outbreaks 317
Chapter 10 Fronts 320
Wind: Global Systems 279 Stationary Fronts 321
Cold Fronts 321
Atmospheric General Circulation 280 Warm Fronts 325
Single-Cell Model 281 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 11.3
Three-Cell Model 282 The Wavy Warm Front 328
Real Surface Winds and Pressure: 283
General Circulation and Precipitation Patterns 285 Drylines 328
500 HPA Wind and Pressure Patterns 286 Occluded Fronts 329
Upper-Air Fronts 331
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 10.1 Summary 331
The “Dishpan” Experiment 288 Key Terms 332
Jet Streams 289 Questions for Review 332
Jet Streams Formation 290 Questions for Thought 333
Atmosphere–Ocean Interactions 292 Problems and Exercises 333
Wind and Surface Ocean Currents 293 Online Resources 333
Upwelling 295
El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation 296
Pacific Decadal Oscillation 301 Chapter 12
North Atlantic and Arctic Oscillations 303 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 335
Summary 304
Key Terms 305 Polar-Front Theory 337
Questions for Review 305 Where Do Middle-Latitude Cyclones Form? 339
Questions for Thought 306 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 12.1
Problems and Exercises 306 East Coast Storms 340
Vertical Structure of Lows 341
A Closer Look at Convergence and
Divergence 343
Upper-Level Waves and Middle-Latitude Cyclones 344
What a Middle-Latitude Cyclone Needs to Develop 345
Upper-Air Support 346
The Role of the Jet Stream 347
Jet Streaks and Storms 348
Conveyor Belt Model 349
The “Storm of the Century” 350
The Role of Vorticity 352
Vorticity on a Spinning Planet 353
Vorticity and Longwaves 355
Vorticity Advection 356
NASA
NEL
xii Contents
Toronto’s Snowstorm of the Century 357 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 13.4

Tropical–Extratropical Linkages 358 Canada’s Tornado Alley 390
Polar Lows 359 Tornado Winds 391
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 12.5 Tornado Formation 395
Atmospheric Rivers in the Northeast Pacific: Supercell Tornadoes 395
Pineapple Express 360 Non-supercell Tornadoes 397
Summary 360 Waterspouts 398
Key Terms 362 Forecasting and Observing Severe Weather 399
Questions for Review 362 Forecasting Severe Weather 399
Questions for Thought 362 Doppler Radar 399
Problems and Exercises 363 Storm Chasing and Field Research 401
Online Resources 363 Summary 401
Key Terms 402
Chapter 13 Questions for Thought 403
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 365 Problems and Exercises 403
Thunderstorms 366
Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms 367
Multicell Thunderstorms 369 Chapter 14
Supercell Thunderstorms 374
Thunderstorms and The Dryline 377 Hurricanes 405
Distribution of Thunderstorms 377 Tropical Weather 406
Lightning and Thunder 379 Anatomy of a Hurricane 407
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 13.1 Hurricane Formation and Dissipation 410
ELVES in the Atmosphere 380 The Right Environment 410
The Developing Storm 412
The Storm Dies Out 413
Don’t Sit under the Apple Tree 383
Hurricane Stages of Development 413
Floods and Flash Floods 385 Investigating the Storm 413
Tornadoes 386 Hurricane Movement 414
Tornado Life Cycle 386
Tornado Outbreaks 387
How Do Hurricanes Compare with
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 13.3 Middle-Latitude Storms? 415
The Edmonton Tornado 388
Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 417
Tornado Occurrence 389
Hurricane Juan Strikes Halifax 418
Winds, Flooding, and Storm Surges 418
Hurricane Fatalities 422
Notable Hurricanes 424
Camille, 1969 424
Tip, 1979 424
Andrew, 1992 424
Katrina, 2005 424
Sandy, 2012 425
Other Devastating Hurricanes 426
Hurricane Watches, Warnings, and Forecasts 428
Hurricanes in a Warmer World 429
Hurricane-Forecasting Techniques 430
Modifying Hurricanes 430
Summary 431
NOAA
Key Terms 431
NEL
Contents xiii

Chapter 15
Weather Forecasting 435
Skywatching 437
What Is a Meteorologist? 437
Forecasting Temperature Advection by Watching
the Clouds 439
iStockphoto
Weather Information 441
Data Collection 441
Producing Forecasts 441
Distributing Forecasts 443
Forecasting Tools 443
Precipitation Extremes 474
The Thickness Chart—A Forecasting Tool 446
Global Precipitation 475
Climatic Classification 479
Forecasting Methods 447 The Köppen System 479
Numerical Weather Prediction 447 Thornthwaite’s System 480
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 15.3 Climatic Regions in Canada 482
The Forecast Funnel 448 Global Climates 484
Forecast Problems and Solutions 449 Tropical Climates (A) 484
Other Forecasting Methods 452 Dry Climates (B) 488
Temperate Climates (C) 490
TV Weathercasters—How Do They FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 16.2
Do It? 453 A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle 492
Worded Forecasts 455 Cold Climates (D) 495
Forecasts Types 455 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 16.3
Forecast Accuracy and Skill 456 Drought on the Canadian Prairies 496
FOCUS ON Social and Economic Impacts 15.5 Polar Climates (E) 498
Weather Prediction and the Marketplace 459 Highland Climates 500
Forecasting with Surface Charts 459 Summary 501
Determining Weather Systems Movement 459 Key Terms 501
A Forecast for Hamilton and Sault Ste. Marie 461 Questions for Review 501
A Forecasting Example 463 Questions for Thought 502
The 500 hPa Chart 464 Problems and Exercises 502
The Computer Prognosis 465 Online Resources 503
A Valid Forecast 467
Summary 467 Chapter 17
Key Terms 468
Earth’s Changing Climate 505
Questions for Thought 469 Past Climates 507
Problems and Exercises 469 Reconstructing Past Climates 507
Online Resources 469 Prehistoric Climates 509
Climate During the Past 1000 Years 511
Chapter 16
Global Climate 471 The Ocean Conveyor Belt and Climate
Change 512
Climatic Controls 473
Global Temperatures 473
NEL
xiv Contents
Temperature Trends from Measurements 513

Climate Change Causes 515
Feedback Mechanisms 515
Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building 516
Variations in Earth’s Orbit 518
Atmospheric Particles 519
Nuclear Winter—Climate Change Induced
by Nuclear War 520
Variations in Solar Output 523
Current and Future Climate Change 524
Publiphoto / Science Source

Greenhouse Gas Trends 524
Radiative Forcing 525
Land Use Changes 525
Focus on an advanced topic 17.3
Radiative Forcing—The Ins and Outs 526
Climate Models and Recent Temperature
Trends 527
Smog in Southern Ontario and British Columbia’s
The Sahel—Climatic Variability and
Lower Fraser Valley 554
Humans 528
Ozone in the Stratosphere 555
Climate Change Projections 529 Air Pollution Levels and Trends 557
Focus on an advanced topic 17.5
Climate Models 530
The Ozone Hole 558
Climate Change Consequences 532 Factors Affecting Air Pollution 561
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 17.6 Wind 561
Changing Sea Ice in the Arctic and Its Stability and Inversions 562
Impact 536
Curbing Climate Change 537 Indoor Air Pollution 563
FOCUS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACTS 17.7
Smokestack Plumes 565
Natural Disasters in a Changing
Climate 538 Topography 566
Severe Air Pollution Potential 567
Summary 538 Urban Air Pollution 567
Key Terms 539
Questions for Review 540 FOCUS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS 18.6
Questions for Thought 540 Heat Waves and Air Pollution: A Deadly Team 568
Problems and Exercises 541 Acid Deposition 570
Online Resources 541 Summary 572
Key Terms 573
Chapter 18 Questions for Review 573
Air Pollution 543 Problems and Exercises 574
Air Pollution History 544
Health and Air Pollution 545
Air Pollutants and Sources 545 Chapter 19
Criteria Air Contaminants 546 Light, Colour, and Atmospheric
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 18.1 Optics 577
Long-Range Transport of Dust and Air Pollution
to Western Canada 550 White and Colours 578
White Clouds and Scattered Light—Nonselective
Ozone in the Troposphere 552
Scattering 579
NEL
Contents xv
Blue Skies and Hazy Days—Rayleigh and Mie Appendix C

Scattering 581
Red Suns and Blue Moons 583
Beaufort Wind Scale A-9
Refraction, Twinkling, and Twilight 584
Mirages 587 Appendix D
Humidity and Standard
Fata Morgana 588
Green Flash 589 Atmosphere A-10
Halos, Arcs, Sundogs, and Pillars 590
Rainbows 593 Appendix E
Coronas, Glories, and Heiligenschein 595
Summary 597 Time Zones Conversions A-14
Key Terms 597
Appendix F
Problems and Exercises 598 Global Precipitation A-16
Appendix G
Appendix A
Tephigram A-17
Units, Conversions, Symbols, and
Equations A-1
Glossary G-1
Appendix B Index I-1
Weather Symbols and Cloud
Classification A-5
NEL
Preface
About This Book incorporates several updates made in the recent U.S. 10th
and 11th editions. Content throughout the book was
Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate, streamlined and new scientific findings and data were
and the Environment, Second Canadian Edition, custom- incorporated. For example, Chapter 17 was updated to
izes C. Donald Ahrens’ classic U.S. textbook Meteorology include the latest climate change information from the
Today for Canadians. Meteorology Today is well known for Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. New sec-
making the key concepts in meteorology accessible, and tions were added to several chapters, such as sections on
the Canadian edition benefits from the solid foundation forecasting severe thunderstorms and hurricanes in
that Professor Ahrens refined over nearly three decades. It Chapters 13 and 14. Twelve new Weather Watch boxes
uses clear writing, tables, graphics, and illustrations com- were added on topics such as the polar vortex, the use of
bined with nontechnical explanations, and adds content, smartphones to collect weather data, and air quality in
practices, and examples useful for Canadian university Beijing.
and college students. This book is a comprehensive survey Some chapter content was reorganized. A new brief
of the atmosphere that emphasizes understanding pro- introductory chapter was written to help readers use the
cesses and the application of meteorological principles. textbook most effectively. It provides a concise rationale
Full-colour photographs and figures are used throughout for studying the atmosphere and a history of meteorology.
the book to clearly show concepts and engage the reader. It also explains how to use Earth Systems Guides and the
This book is organized into 19 core chapters plus a various textbook features that aid learning. The chapters
short introductory chapter intended to enhance reader were streamlined to clarify writing and to synthesize
awareness of strategies for learning from the text. The repeated information. For example, some information
core chapters are largely self-contained and organized so from Chapter 1 was relocated to later chapters; Chap-
that instructors can select whole or partial chapters to ters 2 and 3 were synthesized to reduce redundancy; and
tailor their use of the text to their course needs. The cov- detailed cloud classification material from Chapter 5 was
erage is broad but comprehensive, with enough material moved to Appendix B to improve readability.
for more than a single semester course. Additionally, each More than half the chapter opening stories were
chapter has features that engage students and enhance rewritten—several were given a Canadian twist. This
their comprehension of the content. Readers are also improves their linkage with chapter content and pro-
encouraged to extend their knowledge and are supported vides a broader understanding of the topics. The chapter-
in doing so through exposure to higher-level topics and opening format was changed to accommodate the
practical techniques for understanding weather. expanded opening vignettes and provide a more com-
plete roadmap of chapter content. The Earth Systems
Guide was moved to a regular spot on the first main
New in the Second Canadian page of each chapter, following the opening spread.
Edition The order of some chapters was changed to follow a
more logical sequence: the Weather Forecasting
Our goals in producing this book were to ensure the infor- chapter (15) was moved so it now appears after the chap-
mation is current, streamline the text without losing its ters on Thunderstorms and Tornadoes (13) and Hurri-
comprehensiveness, make it more readable, and increase canes (14); the chapter on Earth’s Changing Climate (17)
its learning value for Canadian readers. In the first Cana- was moved after the chapter on Global Climate (16).
dian edition, we adapted the 9th U.S. edition of Meteorology Each figure and photo was reviewed; more than 170
Today, creating a comprehensive text with information, were revised or replaced, and 10 new figures were added.
examples, and conventions that reflect how meteorology is The format of many tables was revised to improve read-
practised in Canada. More than 300 new or revised figures ability. The Glossary and inside back cover reference map
or photos were incorporated. Canadian contributors wrote were extensively revised, as were all Appendices. New
16 Canadian content Focus On sections, and an Earth Sys- Focus On sections were added: two new sections from the
tems Guide was developed. This guide contextualizes atmo- U.S. edition were adapted for this edition (on the forecast
spheric processes and phenomena within Earth’s systems funnel in Chapter 15, and on the combined effects of heat
through the use of graphical images and text. and poor air quality on health in Chapter 18), one new
Our second Canadian edition includes many updates Focus On section was written on water budgets in Chapter
unique to the Canadian edition and also 4, and four new Focus On sections by renowned
NEL
xvi
Preface xvii
Canadian experts were added to complement the 16 of We have also been privileged to work with Nelson’s
these from the first edition. John Clague (Simon Fraser excellent team of professionals. Jackie Wood supervised
University) contributed a new Focus On section in the process. Our development editor, Suzanne Simpson
Chapter 16 on how climate change impacts natural disas- Millar, guided, encouraged, and accommodated us
ters; in Chapter 7, John Pomeroy (University of Saskatch- through a longer-than-expected writing process; for her
ewan) with Paul W hitfield and Ronald Stewart wrote a infinite patience we are forever grateful. Melody Tolson
Focus On section on the 2013 floods that affected southern ably researched many of the new pictures and sorted out
Alberta; Edward Wiebe and Andrew Weaver (University copyright permissions. Dawn Hunter’s sharp copy
of Victoria) added a Focus On section in Chapter 3 on a editing makes us look more literate than we actually are.
citizen-science network of personal weather stations at The design team created a modern look and managed
schools on Vancouver Island; and Jon Warland (Univer- production. Naman Mahisauria of MPS Limited super-
sity of Guelph) provided a new Focus On section, also in vised the team that masterfully produced the book.
Chapter 3, on human thermal comfort. Additionally, the input of multiple disciplinary spe-
cialists has been invaluable. Thanks to each of them:
Brad Snyder for providing advice on current practices
About the Authors and taking pictures of contemporary Meteorological
Service of Canada weather forecasting technology.
C. Donald Ahrens is emeritus professor at Modesto
Gerard Szejwach for suggestions on improving con-
Junior College and the award-winning author of several
fusing wording and correcting an error concerning
best-selling meteorology textbooks. The Textbook and Aca-
superior mirages. The 22 renowned experts listed alpha-
demic Authors Association awarded him its 2009 McGuffey
betically below, who contributed Focus On sections for
Longevity Award, and in 2007 the National Weather Asso-
topics of particular relevance to Canadians:
ciation awarded him its Lifetime Achievement Award. Dr.
Ahrens’s books have influenced both meteorology profes- Dr. Yongsheng Chen Dr. John Pomeroy
sionals and hundreds of thousands of students who used his Dr. John Clague Clifford Raphael
books to expand their knowledge of weather and climate. Dr. Stephen Déry Dr. Gerhard Reuter
Dr. Chris Fogarty Dr. Ronald Stewart
Peter L. Jackson is a professor at the University of
Northern British Columbia. Before becoming an aca- Dr. William Gough Dr. Douw Steyn
demic, he was a meteorologist/weather forecaster with Dr. Ismail Gultepe Dr. Ian Strachan
Environment Canada. He teaches undergraduate and Patrick King Dr. James Voogt
graduate courses on weather and climate, storms, bio- Dr. René Laprise Dr. Jon Warland
meteorology, and air pollution, as well as research Claire Martin Dr. Andrew Weaver
methods. His research focuses on the interaction Dr. Ian McKendry Dr. Paul Whitfield
between the atmosphere and Earth’s surface in moun-
tains, as well as air quality. Dr. Ruping Mo Edward Wiebe
We also appreciated the invaluable advice, sugges-
Christine E. J. Jackson is a senior laboratory tions, and feedback from the reviewers of our first edition
instructor in the University of Northern British of this book. As colleagues who teach introductory mete-
Columbia’s Geography Program where she develops, orology courses at other Canadian universities, their
coordinates, and teaches experiential labs for introduc- comments have guided our modifications. Thank you,
tory weather, geomorphology, and soil science courses.
Phil Graniero, University of Windsor
She has worked in a wide variety of educational set-
tings—colleges, schools, museums, and community John Maclachlan, McMaster University
science and environmental literacy programs—and is Mark Moscicki, University of Windsor
interested in improving understanding of the natural Gerhard Reuter, University of Alberta
environment through applied learning. Ian B. Strachan, McGill University
Jon Warland, University of Guelph
John Yackel, University of Calgary
Acknowledgments Finally, on a personal note, we thank our family
Creating a textbook is a team effort. C. Donald Ahrens and friends for their patience and support as we were
provided the excellent student-centred material upon preoccupied with this project.
which the Canadian edition is based. His original work,
Meteorology Today, continues in its 11th U.S. edition, now Peter and Chris Jackson
with co-author Robert Henson. We have appreciated their
perspective as we revised the second Canadian edition.
NEL
VISUAL WALKTHROUGH
50 CHAPTER 2
Earth Systems Guide The Canadian edition con- atmosphere biosphere

tains a feature that situates atmospheric phenomena and cryosphere anthrosphere
process in the context of Earth’s systems. Chapter phe- hydrosphere lithosphere
nomena are represented in the image and Earth systems

are represented as buttons: the atmosphere, hydrosphere
(including the cryosphere), lithosphere, and biosphere
(including the anthrosphere). For each chapter, relevant
buttons are highlighted and image features are altered to atmosphere biosphere
indicate the linkages between the chapter content and cryosphere anthrosphere
Earth systems. The relationships between the chapter hydrosphere lithosphere
content and Earth systems are expanded on in the intro-

ductory text. The purpose of this feature is to help read-
ers understand the big picture and how each chapter’s
content is related to Earth as a whole.
Focus On Each chapter contains Focus On sections

that either extend specific chapter content, or provide ACTIVE FIGURE 2.13 (a) In an atmosphere with little or no greenhouse gases, Earth’s surface
more in-depth coverage. More than 80 Focus On boxes radiation upward both during the day and at night (L↑). On average, incoming energy from th
are spread throughout the book. These are categorized from the surface, but the surface would not receive IR radiation from its lower atmosphere (no
surface air temperature would be low, and most water would be in the form of ice. (b) With gre
into five different types: receives K↓ but also receives additional IR energy from the atmosphere (L↓). Annual average in
●● Focus on a Special Topic energy for the whole system, but the added L↓ from the greenhouse gases raises Earth’s average
able level.
●● Focus on an Environmental Issue 86 chapter 3
●● Focus on an Observation The FOCUS mainONcause A SPECIAL TOPIC 3.6

of this global warming is the greenhouse
Human Thermal Comfort BRIEF REVIEW
gas CO2, whose concentration has been increasing primarily
●● Focus on an Advanced Topic
because of theJonburning of fossil fuels and such land-use prac- FIGUREIn4 thethe
and outputs of energy to alast section
Warland ● inputs
●● Focus on Social and Economic Impacts tices as deforestation. School of environmental Sciences,
University of Guelph (Look back at Figure 1.5 and Figure 1.6.) human body.radiation is absorb
However, people’s increasing
sensation of being hot,concentrations
cold, or com- of other greenhouse gases,
L↓ (gain of longwave
radiation)
L↑ (loss of longwave
next several sectio
Twenty-two renowned Canadian scientists were such asthismethane (CH ),
fortable is called their thermal comfort. though
nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluo-
radiation)
feeling has subjective

4
psychological
invited to contribute Focus On sections on topics of par- rocarbons
90 chapter 3closely related (CFCs), have
aspects, discussed more below, it is general
to the energy budget of a per-collectively been shown to have an
K∗ = K↓ − K↑
(net gain of
QE (loss of latent
heat from
● All objects with
ticular relevance to Canadians, such as drought on the effect almost equal to

son. Just as a stone floor may feel colder on
that of CO
shortwave radiation)
. Look at Figure 2.12
respiration and
and ● The higher an o
bare feet than a carpeted one, even though they 2 evaporation)
Canadian Prairies, East Coast storms, the pineapple notice

FOCUS ON that both CH
are at the same temperature, a person feels
AN OBSERVATION
hotter or colder depending on his 4
3.7and N O absorb strongly at infrared tion emitted pe
or her 2
express, Southern Alberta’s 2013 floods, and changing The Vancouver
wavelengths. exchange of energy withIsland
measured in WMoreover,
−2
m .
the environment
aSchool-Based
particular CFC
as Weather M
(CFC-12) Station absorbs Network in maximum emis
sea ice in the Arctic and its impacts. Additionally, Focus the region
edward Wiebe
outdoors
of
andareandrewthe Weaver
their metabolic
atmospheric
the two major inputs of energy for people
this idea(Mwas
heat production
window between 8 and 11 µm.
QH (loss of
) the origin of the Vancouver Island
sensible heat)
● Earth absorbs s
ever, it emits in
M (metabolic
on an Advanced Topic sections provide quantitative dis- Thus, in

School of earth
terms
and the
University
andtotal
Ocean
longwaveofradiation
of
Sciences,
shortwave
its absorption
(K* 5 K↓ −School-Based
Victoriaabsorbed (L↓). the three
K↑) and
impact
Weather Station Network.
Since 2001 we have installed about 150
on infrared
heat production
radiation,
inside the body)
the addition of a single

major outputs of energy are convective
CFC-12
weather
lossesstations
of
molecule
on schools in communities
to the atmosphere is and at night.
cussions of important equations, such as the geostrophic Measuring the weather
sensiblehas never
heat been
to the air easier. around
(Q ), evaporation
h of Vancouver Island, one of which is shown
● Earth’s surface
the equivalent
anyone interested in what
sweat (Q ),of
the atmosphere
or water adding
is
and longwave 10,000 molecules
in Figure 5. Most of these are located on the
radiation
● QG (conduction of heat
of CO . Overall,
wind equation and the hydrostatic equation, and con-
e
doing outside hisemitted
or her front door can now eas-
from the person (L↑). additionally,eastern into the ground)
side of the island, but some are located
a per- 2
water vapour
ily set up an inexpensive lose, oraccounts
son may automatic weather
gain, energysta-
throughinfor about
the west
conduction adjacent to60 percent
the pacific Ocean. of the atmospheric ing it a much b
cepts, such as the tephigram (the thermodynamic chart tion. the simplest
greenhouse
(Qof), these
on a screen indoors.
G whichdisplay
Morethe
touching
is smallobservations
effect;
advanced
ground versions
but may CO
Schools
if only his or her feet are are a good location to install weather
accounts
canlargerstations
be because they for
for a per-
hypothermia
about
or heat
have Internet 26
exhaustion
access and in
percent;
roughly
methane, the atmosphere
Solar radiation is one of the strongest
be 2 45 minutes. determinants of thermal comfort for a person
used in Canada). Other Focus On sections explain be connected to son
about
logged, analyzed,7
a computer
orand
lying on so
percent;
tree.
thethat
uploaded
dataorcan
ground
to theand
these inputs
leaning
and
Internet.
outputs
are generally
against
the
a wall somewhat evenly dispersed
throughout
of energy areremaining
convective
neighbourhoods greenhouse
heatand
of towns losscities.
is controlled by both
gases con- ● Water
outside. energy budget measurements along vapour a
at some schools,the theairstudents
temperature
reallyand
takethe wind speed. the transects through city parks revealed that varia-
observation techniques, such as radiosonde measure- Keen amateur weather
tribute
well as such people as
observers
illustrated
about
●
farmers
everywhere,
in Figure
who
the total budget7
4.
want more
as
is percent.
thus written ship of theThe
larger
increasing
observations
person
the difference in
and use them to do
and the air, the
owner-
faster the
concentrations
temperature between
exchange of
a tions in solar
of
energy between shade house
and
sun are the strongest drivers of thermal com-
full gases th
detailed information about specific sites than can activities, such as weather reporting on the daily
ments, sky colours and what they mean, and how to greenhouse B 5 M 1gases
be obtained from professional or 1
K* L↓ −affect
government Earth’s
Q − Q −announcements
h e L↑ −Q
G or climate
energy.
charting
greater
theexercises
greater the
thetemperature
system
windthey
where
exchange, hence
through
speed, too, the
the concept of wind
a series
fort. this fact can also be seen in other thereby
as when a herd of cows congregates in a shady
animals, keepin
operated weather stations, have eagerly taken
measure cloud ceilings. Look for these interesting sec- of interactions
advantage of thiswhere that
a positive value
new technology. are
of B indicates
personal
learn to keep track
discussed
that
and the amounts.
rainfall ●
of daily
chill, wheremore
Figurethe6 shows
sensation
changes
fullyof cold ain
an exam- Chapter
person expe- spot of a17.
pasture during hot summer days.otherwise wou
weather stationsperson is gaining
commonenergy,
in everyand a negative value riences is exaggerated by high winds. Metabolic production is also important,
tions that both break up and augment each chapter’s
are now town ple of the temperatures around Greater Victoria.
Cloudy, calm n
tK
indicates
and city and provide a loss
present andofhistorical
energy to the environment. evaporative loss of energy depends on how especially for people exercising. ● at rest or walk-
thanks to the cooling effect of a sea breeze,
researchers have found that, in general, moist the skin is, whether through sweat ● FIgURE 5 a weather
or rain station in the Vancouver
ing comfortably, most people Islandproduce around 50
therepeople
content.
observations online through personal
experiencing an energy
websites
or large undertakings, such as Weather Under- budget between
is a 13°c change in temperature over a dis- School-Based Weather
about
tance of only 30
or other sources, and the relative humidity of
km on this summer afternoon. of ray Watkins
Station
to 100
elementary
Wm
in
Network
Gold
−2
river,
mounted onheat.
of metabolic
British columbia.
because cloud
top however, a run-
−50 and 150 W m−2 report feeling thermally the air. the more humid the air is, the slower ner or a biker can easily reach over 500 W m−2
ground (www.wunderground.com/wundermap).
neutral:
the amateur weather not toohas
observer hot,never
not too
hadcold. From
the one-minute resolution data we collect
about to aboutevaporation
amounts
can occur and the less loss
two million observations per
of
of monthly of metabolic
average temperaturesheatconfirm
production! surface.
the Interesting,
it better! −50 to −150 W m−2 people report feeling
In 2001 we while below about −150 W m−2 people
day all cool,
of which
WEAThER WATCh
are
energy. this process is part of the concept
is stored in a database and
the humidex (discussed in chapter 4),ence where
of of thethough,
importance
the mal
is thatasaaperson’s
sea breeze
comfort changes
cooling perception
when
influ-
It is not the gre
of the ther-
● research-
exercising.
WEATHER WATCH These mini-boxes appear through- installed
cold. people
station on the building
to 150
an automatic
with a our
that housed
W m−2ofreport
weather
positive
climate
feeling
made available within a few minutes on the
budget ofInternet. sensation of heat can be exaggeratedVictoria.
about 50as of 2015, we
humidities.
have collected six billion
in summer in
by highas timeers
certain
goeshave
expect
parts
on,found
of
the project
to feel hot,and
Greater
that, because
will
the valuable enhancement o
people exercising
value of the energy budget
research lab at the University Victoria. We warm, and above continue to provide an interesting
out the book. They provide anecdotes, examples, or 150 W m
immediately developed
−2
peoplewhere
a website
hypothermia
reportthe
observations.
Talk about an enhanced greenhouse effect! The atmosphere of Venus,
feeling too really
Detailed analysis of the data has
hot. only just begun Longwave emissions from a person
but, as an example, maps
depend
resource
on the surface temperature of the clothing or the
at which
to people they report
on Vancouver Island.
higher values. In other words, a person As greenhouse
feeling too hot shifts to
● exercis-
observations, temperature, humidity,sets
windin when
speed the body’s core
unexpected weather facts related to the chapter topic which is mostly carbon dioxide, is considerably denser than that of
temperature
and direction, daily
tionradiation
drops bypressure,
rain, atmospheric
begins when
could the
2°c, while heat exhaus-
body’s and
core temperature
skin, if it is exposed. Generally, these emissions
do not vary much and, except in very particular
ing might● FIgURE
report feeling
−2
150 W min Greater
6 temperatures
, whileVictoria
a person
fromsitting
average surfac
neutral or comfortable at
the at a picnic
and are included to stimulate reader interest in the Earth. Consequently, the greenhouse effect on Venus is exceptionally
and incoming solar
viewed by anyone rises
with2°c.
be stored
a loss or gain
a connection to the 150 W m−2 for an
of Inter- circumstances, are not easily altered to affect would feel overly Island
Vancouver warmSchool-
through the en
with such an energy
thermal comfort.
strong, producing a surface air temperature of about 462°C.
average
net. Nearby weather person
stations weighing
operated 75 kg will lead to
by envi- budget. Based Weather Station
content. ronment canada provided observations at hourly

intervals. Our goal was to record values every
Network at 3:34 p.m. on
august 27, 2014. Notice the
13°c change in temperature NEL
minute. almost immediately we noticed two
from the cooler coastal
things. First, interesting weather events that areas to the hot inland areas
because ofNEL
xviii
affected us at the scale of the city do happen the sea breeze.
with timescales much shorter than one hour. From http://victoriaweather.ca/
these include such things as convective rain
Copyright 2016 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated,
events, fronts with sharpintransitions
wholein tempera-
or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the rightture,
to and changes inadditional
remove wind speed and direction.
content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Knowing that Victoria lies in the rain shadow of
VISUAL WALKTHROUGH xix
ADDITIONAL LEARNING AIDS TEXT ENDMATTER

●● A short introductory chapter orients readers to ●● Seven appendixes contain meteorological tables, charts,
the discipline and book features that aid readers in maps, definitions, symbols, equations, and constants.
their learning. Included is a tephigram, the chart used in Canada to
assess the vertical structure of the atmosphere.
●● Content-related vignettes at the start of each
chapter are designed to pique reader interest and
3
00
00
01
03
10
200 hPa
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
24
40
80
50
60
70
90
0
30
(11,784 m) 2
show how chapter contents relate to other aspects 6 28 30

22
of life. 2200
18
20
●● Key terms are in bold. These are repeated in a Key 16 300 hPa
0
(9164 m)
–8
Terms list at the end of the chapter and are defined
14
12
in the Glossary at the end of the book.
10
10
0
–7
400 hPa
6
Important words and phrases are italicized.

(7185 m)
●● 4
2
0
0
●● Brief Reviews summarize main points and are –4
–2
500 hPa
0
–6
(5574 m)
provided once or twice in each chapter.

–6
–8
–1
0
–1
2 600 hPa
–
–1
Summaries at the end of each chapter review the
14
0
(4206 m)
●●
0
–5
–1
6
main ideas. 700 hPa
0.1
(3012 m)
–2
0
End-of-chapter supplemental materials aid students
–2
0
800 hPa
●●
0
–4
(1949 m)
in assimilating content.
02
0.
900 hPa
–2
6 (988 m)
–2
8
Table and figure references are identified with a

1000 hPa
●● –3
0
–3
0
(111 m)
specific symbol when first given in the text so that
24
30
28
32
36
20
20
18
16
14
3
0
6
7
10
8
9
10
12
0.5
1.5
0
2.5
–2
–1
students can easily find their way back to where
they were reading after viewing one of these items.
Active Figures have accompanying online support ●● A tear-out, laminated, colour Cloud Chart is
material that aid in understanding more com- intended for readers to use outside to learn
plex topics. cloud identification.
●● Appendixes provide meteorological charts, maps, ●● A Glossary defines key terms used throughout the book.
computational resources, and symbol legends that ●● A quick-reference map shows North American
support text activities and provide useful refer- physiographic features (water bodies, mountain
ence material. ranges, land surface cover), political boundaries, and
place names referred to in the text.
END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIAL
●● Summaries at the end of each chapter review the 19
main ideas. 5 18 7
53
Three kinds of questions are provided to review and

1 54 7 7
4
●● 2 35 7
test students’ knowledge and as supplements for 13

34
22
7
7
7
lab activities: 23 7
7
13 7 7
39 7
– uestions for Review act to check how well

Q 25
27
12 7
students have assimilated chapter content.

13
7
8 11
7 26 7
North 24
13 20 39
– uestions for Thought require students to

Q
Pacific 45 7
Ocean 52 33 44 3
9 41 7 51
synthesize concepts for deeper understanding. 9

16
39
37 7 32
7
7
3
41 42 7
36 29 31 North
– roblems and Exercises provide a technical

P 9
10
30 28
50
3
Atlantic
Ocean
challenge for students through activities or 48

21
49
41
37 40
3
calculations based on chapter content. 6 17 38

15
14
3
41
# Mountain ranges 38
# Islands 43
# Lakes/Water bodies
# Rivers 36
# Areal features 46
Provincial / State borders
International borders
47
Rivers that are borders
46
NEL
ANCILLARIES
Instructor Resources Second Canadian Edition. NETA principles of clear design

and engaging content have been incorporated throughout,
making it simple for instructors to customize the deck for
their courses.
Image Library This resource consists of digital copies
of figures, short tables, and photographs used in the book.
The Nelson Education Teaching Advantage (NETA) Instructors may use these jpegs to customize the NETA
program delivers research-based instructor resources PowerPoint or create their own PowerPoint presentations.
that promote student engagement and higher-order
thinking to enable the success of Canadian students and NETA Instructor’s Manual This resource was
educators. Visit Nelson Education’s Inspired Instruc- written by Mark Mosciki, University of Western Ontario.
tion website at http://www.nelson.com/inspired to find It is organized according to the textbook chapters and
out more about NETA. addresses key educational concerns, such as typical
The following instructor resources have been cre- stumbling blocks student face and how to address them.
ated for Meteorology Today, Second Canadian Edition. Other features include a discussion of Earth systems and
Access these ultimate tools for customizing lectures and how the chapter connects to the world of practice, study
presentations at www.nelson.com/instructor. projects, and multimedia content.
Day One Slides Day One—Prof InClass is a Power-
NETA Test Bank This resource was written by Mark Point presentation that instructors can customize to ori-
Mosciki, University of Western Ontario. It includes over ent students to the class and their text at the beginning
1400 multiple-choice questions written according to of the course.
NETA guidelines for effective construction and develop-
ment of higher-order questions. Also included are more
than 250 essay questions.
MindTap Offering personalized paths of dynamic

assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital
learning solution that turns cookie-cutter into cutting-
The NETA Test Bank is available in a new, cloud-based edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into
platform. Nelson Testing Powered by Cognero® is a higher-level thinkers. MindTap enables students to ana-
secure online testing system that allows instructors to lyze and apply chapter concepts within relevant assign-
author, edit, and manage test bank content from any- ments, and allows instructors to measure skills and
where Internet access is available. No special installations promote better outcomes with ease. A fully online learn-
or downloads are needed, and the desktop-inspired inter- ing solution, MindTap combines all student learning
face, with its drop-down menus and familiar, intuitive tools—readings, multimedia, activities, and
tools, allows instructors to create and manage tests with assessments—into a single Learning Path that guides the
ease. Multiple test versions can be created in an instant, student through the curriculum. Instructors personalize
and content can be imported or exported into other sys- the experience by customizing the presentation of these
tems. Tests can be delivered from a learning management learning tools to their students, even seamlessly intro-
system, the classroom, or wherever an instructor chooses. ducing their own content into the Learning Path.
Testing Powered by Cognero for Meteorology Today can Items accompanying this text’s MindTap include the
also be accessed through www.nelson.com/instructor. following:
NETA PowerPoint Microsoft® PowerPoint ® lecture ●● Videos. Various videos illustrating weather and
slides for every chapter have been created by Tim Phaneuf, climate concepts are provided to engage students in
University of Northern British Columbia. There are an seeing the text concepts come alive.
average of 43 slides per chapter, many featuring key fig- ●● Active Figures. Scattered throughout the text, select
ures, tables, and photographs from Meteorology Today, figures are labelled as Active Figures. Active Figures
NEL
xx
ANCILLARIES xxi
are computer animations or visualizations of the aids you need to succeed. Built-in apps leverage social
figures in this text. By expanding and further illus- media and the latest learning technology. For example:
trating important but difficult concepts presented in
●● ReadSpeaker will read the text to you.
the text, these Active Figures aid student comprehen-
sion. Examples of Active Figures include such topics ●● Flashcards are pre-populated to provide you with a
as the Coriolis force, Bergeron process, hail forma- jump start for review—or you can create your own.
tion, the life cycle of a thunderstorm, and develop-
●● You can highlight text and make notes in your
ment of a cumulus cloud.
MindTap Reader. Your notes will flow into Evernote,
●● Pre- and post-tests to help students test their the electronic notebook app that you can access
mastery of concepts. anywhere when it’s time to study for the exam.
●● Test for assessment, online videos, ebook, and more! ●● Self-quizzing allows you to assess your understanding.
●● Active Figures bring figures in the text to life
Student Ancillaries as animations.
●● Videos provide additional visual support to concepts
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Visit www.nelson.com/student to start using
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MindTap Stay organized and efficient with MindTap— included with your text. If a code card is not provided, you
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NEL
Earth’s atmosphere: the view from Apollo 17 as it travels toward the moon on December 7, 1972.
Image courtesy NASA Johnson Space Center
2 NEL
chapter 0
Introduction
“Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get.”
—Anonymous
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena. Weather is the c ondition of
the atmosphere at any particular time and place. Weather is always changing. It is composed
of weather elements, especially temperature, humidity, pressure, clouds, precipitation, wind, and
visibility. If we measure and observe weather elements over many years, we would obtain the
typical weather in an area. In addition, if we track the variability in each weather element, we
can define the climate of that area.
Weather and climate play major roles in our lives. Weather dictates our choice of clothes
for the day, our preparations for outdoor activities, and the success of our crops. Climate, on
the other hand, influences the clothing we buy, the activities we enjoy, and the type of crops we
plant. Even when we are properly dressed for the weather, wind, humidity, and precipitation
change our perception of how warm or cold it feels. On a humid summer day, we feel uncom-
fortably warm and blame it on the humidity. On a cold, windy day, the effects of wind chill
make it feel much colder than it really is. In Canada, talking about the weather is a favourite
pastime. You might recognize these regional expressions: “Snow’s comin’ down like dinner plates,”
or “How’d you recognize someone from Saskatchewan? They fall over when the wind stops blowing.”
In fact, some scholars consider the weather a part of our national identity and describe us as a
nation huddled against the cold.
When the weather turns colder or warmer than normal, it directly affects our lives. Many
natural disasters are weather related. Major cold spells accompanied by heavy snow and ice
can snarl traffic, curtail airport services, close schools, and down power lines. For example, a
huge ice storm in 1998 left millions of people without power for as long as a month. It caused
over $3 billion in damage in Eastern Canada, making it one of Canada’s costliest natural
disasters.
Every summer, scorching heat waves escalate cooling costs, increase emergency hospital
visits, and even cause deaths from heat exhaustion. As in 2015, successive heat waves combined
with a lack of precipitation can lead to drought, causing food shortages and global impacts.
Between 1999 and 2004, the Canadian Prairies experienced the worst drought in over 100 years,
devastating agriculture. In 2002 alone, this drought cost the Canadian economy $3.6 billion and
41,000 jobs.
The atmosphere is the most dynamic Earth system; a cumulus cloud can develop into a
towering thunderstorm and spawn a tornado in just an hour or two. Summertime thunderstorms
and tornadoes can have severe impacts. Though not as frequent as in the United States, torna-
does in Canada are dangerous; between 1985 and 1987, they caused 39 deaths. Additionally,
cloudbursts from thunderstorms can create flash floods, as well as strong downdrafts that cause
damage and down airplanes. Annually, hail destroys crops worth millions of dollars, and light-
ning kills about seven people in Canada. Canada’s 8000 annual wildfires cause about $14 billion
in losses; lightning starts nearly half of these fires.
Anticipating these many weather-related impacts drives much of the research in
meteorology. The atmosphere also has a role in most global environmental issues, such as CONTENTS
air pollution, acid rain, ozone depletion, and climate change—defining issues for this cen- A Brief History of
tury. For these reasons, interest in meteorology continues to grow. So, how did this sci- Meteorology 4
ence begin? Earth’s Systems 4
Using This Book to Learn
Effectively 5
NEL 3
4 chapter 0
A Brief History of Meteorology military aircraft discovered the existence of jet streams.
After World War II, surplus military radar systems were
The term meteorology comes from the Greek word meteoros, repurposed to measure precipitation.
meaning “high in the air.” It goes back to the Greek philoso- Meteorology took another step forward in the 1950s, as
pher Aristotle, who wrote a book of speculations on nature rudimentary computers evolved and could solve
entitled Meteorologica in about 340 BC. Although his ideas mathematical equations—including some developed in the
were mostly wrong, they persisted for almost 2000 years. 1920s that quantify the behaviour of the atmosphere. Thus,
Meteorology did not become a true science until the inven- numerical weather prediction was born. In 1960, the first
tion of these key weather instruments: the thermometer at weather satellite was launched, revolutionizing meteorology.
the end of the 16th century, the barometer for measuring air For the first time, images of clouds and storms across broad
pressure in 1643, and the hygrometer for measuring humidity areas could be seen and tracked over time. Both weather
in the late 18th century. satellites and radar allow measurement and understanding
The invention of the telegraph in 1843 made the trans- of the otherwise inaccessible atmosphere. Continuing
mission of weather observations possible. Real-time com- developments in remote sensing, computers, and numerical
munication enabled the analysis of the weather that models have made these the fundamental tools for
occurred at different places at the same time, providing a understanding, forecasting, tracking, and communicating
regional or synoptic view of the current weather. By 1869, weather and climate information.
improved telegraph communication allowed crude weather The field of meteorology has progressed hand in hand
maps with lines of equal air pressure to be drawn. Interest with these technological and communication developments.
in flight, first with balloons and then aircraft, required a Together, these facilitate the central goal of meteorology: to
better understanding of the weather. Later, two world wars serve society and enable improved policy, planning, and
intensified the development of weather technology and safety through understanding and predicting the atmosphere.
knowledge. Around 1920, the concepts of air masses and While many advances in meteorology have occurred, many
weather fronts were formulated in Norway. By the 1940s, mysteries and interesting problems remain for the next gen-
daily upper-air balloon observations provided a three- eration of meteorologists.
dimensional view of the atmosphere, and high-flying
Earth’s Systems
The atmosphere is one of Earth’s interlinked systems.
Understanding the atmosphere in this context helps us to see
the flows of energy and materials that govern how Earth
works. First, let’s clarify that a system is a set of interacting,
interrelated elements that form a complex whole. Systems
interact with each other, and system components interact
within a system. By explicitly considering the atmospheric
system and how it interacts with other Earth systems, we gain
a broader understanding of how the atmosphere functions.
Consequently, we have created an Earth Systems Guide at the
beginning of each chapter to graphically show how the
chapter contents fit into this framework. Let’s dissect this
graphic so that as you read these chapters, you can better use
this information.
As shown in the following figure, each Earth Systems
Guide is based on the same image, which represents the
interacting Earth systems, the biosphere, anthrosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and atmosphere. In
each diagram, a set of buttons in the upper-left corner also
represents these systems. The buttons are “on”—coloured—
when the chapter content is relevant to that system, or
©Lindsey Martin
“off ”—greyed out—when that system isn’t as relevant to

the chapter. Additionally, the introductory text in each
chapter further explains how the chapter’s topics fit into
Aurora borealis or northern lights. the Earth Systems framework. Examine ● Figure 0.1 and
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INTRODUCTION 5
The biosphere encompasses all of Earth’s

living things—plants, animals, and humans.
The atmosphere includes the It includes life on land and water above and
gaseous part of Earth from its below the surface. As human impacts on
System buttons indicate surface to the exosphere, where Earth are complex and pronounced they are
the relevant systems for the atmosphere gradually merges also represented as a separate system called
the chapter’s content. with space. the anthrosphere.
atmosphere biosphere
cryosphere anthrosphere
hydrosphere lithosphere
The hydrosphere includes all of The lithosphere includes Earth’s The anthrosphere is the human
Earth’s water-fresh salt, and frozen. geologic materials and processes part of the biosphere. It includes
In this Guide, frozen water is (volcanism, rock disintegration, erosion). our economy, culture, technology,
represented separately as the It is shown by the land surface and communications, structures, and
cryosphere, since snow and ice underground cross-section. It includes any activities associated with these.
greatly affect climate through the all the rocks and sediment making up The city, roads, ships, airplane, agriculture
reflection of sunlight. the planet. and underground mineshaft symbolize
human interaction with the environment.
● Figure 0.1 Interpreting Earth Systems Guides.
notice how the image represents various components of for changes to both the buttons and the Earth Systems Guide
each system. image as you read.
As you read each chapter, notice how the Guide is altered
to show the connections between the Earth systems and
chapter concepts. For instance, ● Figure 0.2 the Chapter 19
Earth Systems Guide, superimposes an example of an atmo-
Using This Book to Learn Effectively
spheric optical phenomenon—a double rainbow—and has A number of features in this book will help you learn more
only the atmosphere button coloured. This shows that the efficiently and effectively. The Student Ancillaries section in
chapter’s content doesn’t relate to interacting Earth systems the Preface describes how to access digital resources available
but is focused on atmospheric phenomena. In other chap- with this textbook. Visit www.nelson.com/student to view
ters, the content connections to Earth systems are repre- these resources, such as quizzes, flashcards, additional video
sented by using different graphical techniques and text exercises, and more. Especially useful are Active Figures, which
explanations. Some images change their perspective, so the are linked to animated online resources that are intended to
scene appears closer to the surface or farther in space; others increase your understanding of the concept shown in the
have magnified sections to elaborate on unseen details. Look image. Active Figures are identified throughout the book.
NEL
6 chapter 0
● Figure 0.2 The Chapter 19 Earth Systems Guide.

atmosphere biosphere
cryosphere anthrosphere
hydrosphere lithosphere
Additionally, within the book the following learning readers on track. Make Brief Reviews a learning tool by
features may seem obvious, but they are highlighted so that incorporating your own more detailed notes.
every reader can benefit from their instructional value. This ●● Summary—at the end of each chapter, a brief summary
list follows the order that these features appear in the book. recounts the key points. Expand the summaries to create
your own detailed study guide for each chapter.
●● Table of Contents—lists how information is orga-
●● Key Terms—are listed at the end of each chapter and
nized within each chapter and between the chapters of
track the words indicated in bold text. Include Key Terms
this book. Review this information before reading each
as another study tool when reviewing chapter concepts.
chapter. Notice how chapters, headings, and subheadings
●● End-of-Chapter learning materials—three types
show the book’s framework. Experienced learners use this
of questions are provided at the end of each chapter to
information to construct their own framework so that
increase your engagement with the chapter content:
content can be related to key concepts in a meaningful
● Questions for Review check how well you have
way. Main headings are also listed on the opening pages
assimilated the content.
of each chapter.
● Questions for Thought require you to synthesize
●● Chapter-opening vignette—links the chapter content
content for deeper understanding.
to a real-world application or related topical story.
● Problems and Exercises provide more technical
●● Earth Systems Guide—visually contextualizes each
challenges through activities or calculations related to
chapter’s content; see the previous section for details.
the content.
●● Bold text—indicates key words that are explained in
●● Appendixes—contain useful tables, conversions, for-
the Glossary and listed as Key Terms.
mulas, charts, symbols and definitions. Appendix titles
●● Italicized text—indicates important words or phrases
indicate the content.
that are not Key Terms.
●● Glossary—provides definitions for words in bold font
●● Weather Watch boxes—short, interesting facts related
(Key Terms)
to the section’s content.
●● Index—an alphabetical listing of main concepts or words
●● Focus On boxes—over 80 boxes, of different types,
and their page numbers. Use this tool to find information
are interspersed throughout the text: Focus on a
by topic.
Special Topic, Focus on an Advanced Topic, Focus on
●● Physiographic Map of North America—inside the
an Observation, Focus on Environmental Issue, and
back cover is a reference map showing topography, land
Focus on Social and Economic Impacts. These boxes
cover, and place names used in the text.
demonstrate or expand specific chapter content. Twenty
●● Cloud Chart—removable and laminated; take this
were written by renowned Canadian experts who are
cloud identification tool outside and learn by doing!
identified under the title.
Start by reviewing the classification diagram. It depicts
●● Active Figures—animated or interactive online resources;
types of clouds as four major groupings (low, middle,
use these to increase your conceptual understanding.
high, and clouds with vertical development). Match
●● Brief Reviews—lists that occur once or twice in a
the cloud photos to their image in the diagram; then
chapter and summarize content mid-chapter to keep
regularly try to recognize the clouds you see. Compare
NEL
Another random document with
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given to the efforts of the Commission to enlighten the people as to
our mission, but having patiently awaited the termination of
business we returned to our search for the bead-work, only to find
that the finer specimens could not by any process of cajolery be
secured. Money meant nothing to the hillmen and we had no
substitutes in the way of gewgaws to offer them. The only one of us
who succeeded in getting a really good suit was Miss Anne Ide, and
her success was the result of a curious incident. She met a chieftain
gorgeously arrayed, and at a venture tried upon him the Samoan
greeting and a Samoan song which she had learned in her childhood
when her father was Chief Justice of the Samoan Islands. To her
great surprise the Bogobo answered and seemed greatly pleased. He
had already had conveyed to him the fact that the only thing the
ladies wanted was bead clothing, so he indicated to Miss Ide that he
would present to her his coat and pants, and without further ado,
and much to her astonishment, he began to divest himself of these
garments which she accepted with delight. The incident awakened
natural curiosity on our part as to the relation between the
Polynesian language of Samoa and the vernacular of the hill tribes
around the Davao gulf.
From Davao we proceeded on our journey around Mindanao,
sailing out into the open Pacific and up to the province of Surigao in
the northeast corner of the island.
PICTURESQUE BEAD-BEDECKED
BOGOBOS OF THE DAVAO COUNTRY
The town of Surigao lies six miles up a swamp-bound, sluggish

river and we experienced, as we so often did in the whole course of
the trip, a sense of being in uncharted and therefore dangerous
waters. We embarked in a launch when the tide was high and had no
trouble in getting up to the village, but we were earnestly entreated
by the officer in charge of the launch to hurry with our business in
order that we might start back before the tide went out. He assured
us that it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to cross the bar at
the mouth of the river at low tide. His entreaties were in vain. The
Commissioners were engaged in interviews with Surigao citizens
which they could not or would not cut short, so the ladies and
children, having seen everything and met everybody, went back to
the landing and sat in the launch patiently waiting while the daylight
slowly disappeared. The launch captain was visibly agitated, and told
us time and again about what a hard time we were sure to have
getting back to the Sumner. And he was quite right.
The launch was not large enough to accommodate the entire party
so it towed a cutter which also was fairly well loaded. When the men
finally arrived, full of explanations and good-natured apologies, it
was pitch dark, but, being optimists, we shoved off into the river,
feeling sure that the fears of our commanding officer were
groundless.
After steaming merrily along for a few miles, becoming more and
more confident all the time, we suddenly got a shaking bump and
found ourselves fast in the mud. It didn’t take so long, however, to
get afloat again, and we were just congratulating ourselves that the
captain’s bug-bear of a sandbar was behind us when we felt a violent
impact followed by a terrifying sensation as if the keel were grinding
over rocks.
The captain swore softly and said something about striking “the
ruins of that old Spanish bridge,” then hurried forward to see what
damage had been done. The people in the cutter, riding the short
waves in our wake, were thoroughly alarmed and were clamouring to
know what had happened to us. We couldn’t tell them, but it
sounded very much as if we had torn the whole bottom out of the
launch. The engine had stopped; it was inky dark; the children all
began to cry; and, to add further discomfort to the situation, it began
to rain in torrents. The launch swayed sickeningly this way and that,
then the engine started again, whereupon came a most furious clatter
aft. There is no denying that it made us blanch with fear, but it
proved to be only a blade of the propeller which had been bent and
was striking the boat with each revolution.
Three times more we slid into the mud; the last time we stuck and
no effort that could be made would get us out, so we were forced to
abandon the launch and wedge ourselves altogether into the little
cutter. You may picture for yourself the scene of men, women and
children, in the rain and with no light save the faint flicker of
lanterns, dropping off a big launch into a small rowboat over an inky
stream supposed to be filled with crocodiles.
When we reached the mouth of the river the captain began to show
signs of nervousness, though he had been entirely self-controlled
throughout the worst of our troubles. We couldn’t see where we were
going, but we could distinctly feel that the open bay lay not far ahead
of us. What we wanted was to have the Sumner’s searchlight turned
on our path, but the only thing we had with us with which to convey
this desire to the ship’s officers were red rockets,—the last resort of
the sailor in distress. There was nothing else to do; the launch
captain began firing them off, and a weirder scene than was revealed
by their momentary glare can hardly be imagined. They produced the
desired effect, however, and in less than ten minutes a great shaft of
light, straight from the bridge of the Sumner, was sweeping the
banks of the river and bay shore and affording us just the kind of
assistance we required.
But that was not the end. Less than half way to the Sumner we met
a lifeboat, equipped with all the paraphernalia for rescuing us from a
watery grave, and manned by an excited crew in oilskins, who, under
the sharp commands of an almost frantic officer, were pulling in mad
haste for the river’s mouth. When they saw us they lapsed into a state
of utter disgust. They turned and rowed sadly back to the ship, and
afterward I overheard them exchanging very definite opinions as to
the possible future of a sailor who would burn red rockets when all
he wanted was a searchlight.
After calling at Cagayan Misamis, Dapitan, Iloilo, San José Antique
and Capiz, we made straight for Cebu. Cebu is, in rivalry with Iloilo
and next to Manila, the most important town in the Philippine
Islands. It is a receiving station for exports from all parts of the
southern islands and is altogether what is known as a “live” town. It
is the capital of the province of the same name which consists of a
single long island some two thousand square miles in area and with a
population (at that time) of nearly seven hundred thousand.
At Cebu we were rejoined by Chief Justice Arellano, who had left
us sometime before to go back to Manila. We were greatly interested
in his account of the effect of Aguinaldo’s capture and subsequent
treatment. The erstwhile insurgent leader was still in prison, but his
prison was made an honourable abode where he was permitted to be
with his family and to receive his friends. The mass of the people
would not, for a long time, believe he really had been captured. They
thought the report was an American fabrication to delude them and
to destroy their faith in Aguinaldo’s anting-anting,—or magic charm
against defeat. The shattering of that faith gave vast impetus to the
general peace movement and, though a few hundred rifles and
several insurrecto officers were still unaccounted for, and though
occasional outbreaks and the activities of marauding bands of
outlaws continued for a considerable length of time, the actual
organised insurrection had suffered a complete collapse.
The Commission kept Cebu on tenterhooks for a time as to
whether the condition of order in the province was such that they
could go on with the establishment of government there, and it was
interesting to watch the effect of this uncertainty. To be included in
the general organisation became at once the warmly expressed wish
of a majority of the people, and there was great excitement
throughout the town. Eventually Justice Llorente, of the Supreme
Court of Manila, a member of our party, and himself a Cebuano, was
appointed Governor of the province under the simple American
form, and because of his integrity and real patriotism, because of the
high regard in which he was held by the people, and because of the
enthusiasm and complete faith with which he entered upon his
duties, it was hoped that he would be able soon to lead his province
into the sensible paths marked out for it.
With Cebu and the problems of Cebu behind us, we felt that our
long trip was nearly finished. Bohol, Leyte, Samar, Albay, the
Camarines and Sorsogon, each in its turn brought us nearer to our
comfortable homes in Manila and to relaxation, for which we were
beginning to long.
Each district expected us to give them at least a day for business
and an evening for festivity, but this was not always possible. At
Sorsogon we found a veritable riot of decoration, with fine arches
and many flags and every indication that the town had spared no
effort to make our visit there a memorable event. In the evening,
beside the banquete and baile, there was to have been a torchlight
procession, with a triumphal car and a Filipino maiden as the
Goddess of Liberty. It was a great pity that we couldn’t stay, but we
had to sail that afternoon for Boak, so the programme had to be
advanced several hours.
The extraordinary car, or float, which had undoubtedly cost weeks
of skilled workmanship, came forth into the blistering sunlight
bearing the pretty brown girl in tinsel and white muslin, her long,
black hair almost wholly enveloping her as she held aloft the
flickering symbol of Enlightenment. It was a Filipino adaptation of
the “sacred torch” which we had ourselves been carrying throughout
the islands, and I felt that its production was a fitting climax to our
laborious progress.
Two days later when we landed in Manila, after organising
Marinduque and Batangas, we were able to look back upon a singular
experience, an expedition perhaps unique in history, with which was
ushered in a new era, not to say a new national existence, for the
people of the Philippine Islands.
CHAPTER IX
THE WILD MEN’S COUNTRY
I should like to say here, by way of explanation, which may or may

not be necessary, that I am not trying in this narrative to pose as a
woman endowed with an especial comprehension of such problems
of state as men alone have been trained to deal with. I confess only to
a lively interest in my husband’s work which I experienced from the
beginning of our association and which nothing in our long life
together, neither monotony, nor illness, nor misfortune, has served
to lessen; and it would be practically impossible for me to write a
record of memories in which he did not figure very largely.
In the settlement of American control in the Philippine Islands Mr.
Taft, first as President of the first legislative Commission and, later,
as Civil Governor, had to contend with a varied and complex
resistance which it would be difficult for one not experienced in
politics to comprehend. If it had been Filipino resistance only it
would have been fairly easy to overcome, but Filipino resistance was
indirectly sanctioned and directly assisted by a strong opposition in
the United States to what seemed to us who were on the ground to be
the only sensible and really patriotic measures possible under the
circumstances.
For reasons which I have tried to convey, as clearly as I am able,
my husband was not in favour of a continuation of military rule in
the Islands beyond the time when military activity was imperative,
nor was he in favour of abandoning a problem which grew daily more
difficult and more complicated. So he and his colleagues persisted in
the tremendous task of settling a whole people under a sane and
sensible form of government.
PHILIPPINE NON-CHRISTIANS. A
BONTOC IGORROTE (TOP, LEFT,) A
MORO AND TWO KALINGA CHIEFS
(WITH SHIELDS)
The trip through the southern islands was particularly valuable to

them in that it gave them first-hand, working knowledge of existing
conditions in every province. They immediately set about revising
their original Provincial code in accordance with requirements which
they were able to discover only through personal investigation, and
at the same time they took up the grave business of establishing a
sound judiciary.
There was always something new to be talked over at our family
table, or during the long evening hours on the verandah overlooking
the Bay and, in spite of the fact that much of our “news” presented
itself in the form of fresh delays and exasperating difficulties, life was
very entertaining.
Not long after we returned from our trip through the South Mrs. J.
Franklin Bell invited my sister Maria and me to go with her on an
expedition, on which she expected to accompany her husband,
through the mountains of northern Luzon which are inhabited by
non-Christian tribes only. General Bell was commander of troops in
the North and this was to be an inspection trip. It meant several
weeks on horseback, over dangerous trails where, in parts at least, no
white woman had ever been, but we were most anxious to go. The
trouble was that I had never ridden in my life, so I looked with
considerable trepidation to the prospect of a long and necessarily
intimate association with a horse. I brought the proposition up in
family council and my husband advised me, by all means, to go. I
should probably have gone without this advice, but it was comforting
to have it because if anything happened I could “blame it all on him.”
In fact, I began to do this even before I left. When my courage
dwindled a little I promptly told him that it was all his fault; that if
he hadn’t urged me to go I never should have thought of such a
thing; but that as long as I had promised I should have to see the
adventure through, though I knew I should never survive it. He only
laughed and assured me that we would have a glorious time and that
the trip would do us “all the good in the world.”
Major Stevens, who expected to accompany us, brought me an
American horse, of formidable dimensions, and volunteered to
superintend my first encounter with him. He was as gentle as a lamb.
I wouldn’t let him go faster than a walk the first evening and the fact
that I was pretty stiff at the end of my ride made me almost hopeless.
The second evening I let him out a little, and began, much to my
surprise to enjoy the exhilaration of the exercise. By the third
evening I had progressed so far that I decided for myself that the
poor old beast had no speed in him at all.
We took a Spanish steamer, the Salvadora, from Manila up to
Vigan, where General Bell was stationed, and, though I am glad to
have had the experience, I shouldn’t care to repeat it. When we got
on board we were shown at once to a most promising-looking
stateroom, quite spacious, and with four berths in it. The trip to
Vigan was to take from Thursday to Saturday and we were glad to
note that we were going to be quite comfortable. But our self-
congratulations came to a sudden end. Upon inspection we found the
room was indescribably dirty, the beds were without sheets, the
pillows were like rocks, there were insects galore, and the
thermometer stood at 110 degrees. Ventilation was out of the
question because the room opened into a sort of public saloon where
innumerable Filipinos, in various states of undress, slept, stretched
out on the floor, on the tables, on chairs, on anything that could
serve as a resting place. The second night I got the Captain’s
permission to sleep on the bridge, since the decks, too, were covered
with a miscellaneous crowd and were rendered additionally
uncomfortable by odoriferous strings of cabbages and other
vegetables which hung from the awnings.
The food on the ship was all Spanish; indeed, I might say, terribly
Spanish; still, I was rather used to it and didn’t mind much as long as
I could get into a wind-swept corner of the deck to eat it. But there
were some American women on board who had just come out from
the United States and they complained violently.
We were put ashore early Saturday morning; much earlier, in fact
than we had been expected to arrive. We had to drive three miles
before we reached the Bells’ house, and when we did get there we
were delighted to find that they were just having breakfast. They
were eating real, human food and, however heroically we had
adapted ourselves to the peculiarities of Spanish cookery, there was
nothing we stood so much in need of. They were a most homelike
and comfortable-looking party. Besides the General and Mrs. Bell
there were two young officers, Mr. Wilcox and Mr. Nolan, and a
young lady whose name was Miss Bubb, a daughter of General Bubb,
and whose general characteristics had won for her the nickname of
“Bubbles.”
The first thing we learned was that Mrs. Bell would, after all, be
unable to go with us on the trip through the mountains. She was not
at all well and the doctor had forbidden it. We were greatly
disappointed. Mrs. Bell is so jolly and full of fun that she is an
addition to any party, and on such an expedition as we were
contemplating we were sure to miss her tremendously. But, the party
was all made up. General Bell was to take command; “Bubbles” was
going; then, in addition to my sister and me, there were Major Rice,
Major Stevens, Captain Shearer and Captain Haight—eight in all.
First let me say that the northern part of the island of Luzon bears
just about as much resemblance to the rest of the archipelago as the
Alps bear to the plains of Nebraska. We began to notice the
difference even at Vigan, though Vigan is at sea-level and is as hot as
a sea-level town is supposed to be in that latitude. But it feels and
looks like a little foreign city; foreign, that is, to the Philippines. Its
houses are well built of ancient-looking stone, with heavy red-tiled
roofs; its streets are narrow and crooked and it has a fine plaza filled
with fire-trees which, when I saw them first, were in full bloom.
There is no way to describe the magnificence of a grove or avenue of
fire-trees. They make a veritable cloud of flame which, seen against a
background of blue hills, or overhanging the mouldy, old-world grace
of a Spanish church and convent, fairly “takes one’s breath.” The
world-famed cherry trees of Japan, wonderful as they are, seem pale
and soulless in comparison. I wonder the Spaniards didn’t line the
streets of Manila with fire-trees and make for themselves the
reputation of having created the most amazing city in the world.
While we were at Vigan, and before starting on the long trip, we
made an excursion to Bangued, in the province of Abra. Mrs. Bell
went with us. This town, a short time before, could be reached only
by raft up the Abra River, no launch ever having been built that could
go through the rapids, but the establishment of an Army post made
necessary the building of a piece of road which shortened the journey
at the Bangued end. The first part of the trip, however, had still to be
made by water and all the supplies for the soldiers were sent up on a
fleet of twenty or more rafts which started out together every
morning. When there was a breeze each of them would run up a sail
of bright, striped Igorrote cloth.
We had a grand raft with a bamboo awning. And there were
comfortable rattan chairs, to say nothing of a picnic luncheon and a
carefully wrapped and jealously guarded box of ice. Ice was the rarest
of all luxuries in the provincial towns of the Philippines in those
days.
ON THE LONG TRAIL IN NORTHERN
LUZON. MRS. TAFT SECOND FROM
THE LEFT
MR. TAFT AND CHARLIE ENJOYING

THEIR FAVOURITE EXERCISE
We moved very slowly against the current of the swift-flowing

river, but we had no desire to hurry. It was really enchanting. From
narrow, pebbly beaches on either bank rose rugged cliffs which
seemed to tower mountain high, throwing deep shadows into the
canyon and leaving only a narrow ribbon of sky above us. And these
cliffs were hung with a tangled undergrowth through which small,
white waterfalls rushed and rustled. Where the river broadened, here
and there, we came upon groups of bright-clad natives who regarded
us with great curiosity, and at one place we saw half a dozen women
starting up the steep bank with graceful brown water-jars balanced
on their heads. Each one was carrying at least six, one on top of
another, and all of them full. How they managed it was beyond
comprehension. We watched them until they were out of sight and
not one of them ever raised a hand to her head. As a matter of fact,
they were nonchalantly smoking and chattering away as if they were
quite unconscious of their burdens, though the slightest
unrhythmical motion would have spelt disaster for them all.
At eleven o’clock we reached the village where the road begins and
the whole population gathered around in curious groups and gazed
at us. White women were still a novelty in that region and I’m sure
we looked much more peculiar to them than they looked to us. There
were crowds of school children from the new American school, and
one very much embarrassed little girl, who had had her English book
only about four months, read some English for me very nicely. Likely
as not that same little girl has by this time won a normal school
certificate and is herself teaching English in an “American” school.
Such is the history of many of her generation.
When we reached Bangued the young men in the command of
Major Bowen, who was our host, gave up their house to the ladies,
and we had three comfortable beds, with mosquito nets, in a large,
airy room. It was a fine afternoon for a siesta because it rained in
torrents for the rest of the day and the patter of rain on nipa thatch is
a soothing sound. The young men’s house was just across from the
Major’s and by evening the street was such a river that we had to be
carried over for dinner. But nobody minded; and we enjoyed even
the music of the native band which stationed itself down under our
windows and enlivened the occasion with a wonderful medley of
sound. When the band-men came upstairs for refreshments Mrs. Bell
and two of the young officers ran down and tried their powers on the
instruments, and I can only say that the result was joyful
pandemonium.
The next morning we left our hospitable hosts and, escorted by
Lieutenant Ingram, made the return trip all the way down the river.
The water was high and, though it had taken us an interminable time
to go up, it took only three hours and a half to go down; and some of
the rapids were most exciting. We took our lunch basket and chairs
ashore on a lovely, green, shaded knoll and dallied there for several
hours. Only a month before nobody, who was not compelled to, ever
went over this route on account of the danger of being shot, but the
last of the Abra insurgents had surrendered, and so safe did we feel
that we were absolutely unarmed.
If I should try to write a detailed account of this expedition I am
afraid I could not avoid conveying the idea that we encountered
nothing but a continuous downpour. It was the “rainy season” and
we were wet most of the time, but Mr. Taft was right when he
promised that we would have a glorious time and that the trip would
do us a “world of good.” Down in the heat and the political turmoil of
Manila I was taking things much too seriously, while up in the far-
away north there was nothing to do but dismiss all worry and accept
things as they came along. After we left Vigan on the long trail the
only way we could get even a letter through was by messenger who
had to travel hundreds of miles through a most difficult country. So I
enjoyed myself thoroughly, as did every one else in the party,
hardships and physical discomforts seeming only to add to our
gaiety.
At first I thought that my riding lessons in Manila were not going
to do me much good. We had had a most luxuriously easy time in the
beginning. We left General Bell’s house in an Army ambulance,
instead of on horses, for our first day’s journey on the “long trail.”
General Bell was in command and he knew what he was doing. All he
had to do was to issue orders; we obeyed. That is what it is to go
camping with a soldier. One learns what discipline means.
We were permitted to take with us only such things as were
absolutely necessary. Even then, the “absolute necessities” which we
eventually discarded as useless impedimenta would have made a
long list. Everything was done up in waterproof bundles and when
we started out these were stuffed so full that they would hardly
fasten, but they grew slimmer as time went on. The most important
articles, we found, were our slickers and wraps. It was wet and cold
and we had to have them, but all our toilet appurtenances together
went easily into Miss Bubb’s saddle-bags.
The first day we forded a river—the same river—several times, and,
finally, we had to cross it on a raft which was so small that it could
carry only one thing, or one person at a time. My sister, Miss Bubo
and I sat on the bank above the ford for more than two hours waiting
for all our things to get across. While we waited many natives came
along driving carabaos, and it was amusing to see the two-wheeled,
awkward carts hustled onto the swaying raft—one thing after another
falling into the river—while each poor old carabao was forced to
swim, dragged along by his master who held fast to a string attached
to a ring in the animal’s nose. If I had been able to speak the dialect I
would have said: “Your friend the Carabao, being a water-buffalo,
could probably swim the river much more easily without your
assistance.” I have had to look on and suffer at many things in the
Philippine Islands merely because I was unable to speak a dozen-odd
different dialects. In the provinces Spanish was seldom of any use
because the common tao knows little or nothing of it, and it is with
the common tao that one wishes there to communicate.
On our first day’s journey we did thirty-seven miles in a jolting
Army wagon, but the air was so invigorating, and we were having
such a good time, that we were not exhausted. We didn’t even
murmur when we were told to be ready to start at four the next
morning.
This was at Candon and we were joined there by Major Stevens,
which made our party complete. The next evening, at Concepción, we
camped in a lovely, new nipa-thatched house which had been built by
a man who was known generally as “Windy” Wilson, an Army
captain. We were extremely thankful for the shelter, because it was
raining as it can rain only in northern Luzon and we had every
reason to believe that this would be the last house we would be
permitted to occupy for many a day. We were striking straight into
the mountains and our shelter-to-be was a small field tent slung on
the cargo saddle of a commissary mule.
Captain Wilson’s house was quite spacious. It had two rooms; one
small and one large one. The ladies slept in the smaller room on
Army cots, while the four stalwart officers of our military escort
stretched themselves out on blankets and slickers on the split
bamboo floor of the larger room. The walls and partitions were of
woven nipa palm leaves, known locally as suali, while the two
windows were made of braided bamboo and were set in grooves so,
when we wanted to open them, all we had to do was to give them a
gentle shove. There were no “trappings of civilisation,” but we
managed to be perfectly comfortable.
AN IGORROTE HEAD DANCE, AND A

COMPANY OF CARGODORES WITH
THEIR DOGS, WHICH ARE TO BE
KILLED FOR FOOD
The next day, before the sun was very high, we found ourselves in
the midst of mountain-tops, on a trail which rose in great upward
sweeps around the densely wooded slopes, to an altitude of 5600
feet. By this time we were all on horseback with eight Igorrote boys
behind us carrying a sedan chair to be used in case of accident or a
dangerous washout on the trail. I wish I could describe the
magnificence of the scene which lay all about us when we reached
that amazing summit. General Bell, who had been all through the
Rocky Mountains, the Yellowstone, and the Yosemite Valley, said
there was nothing that he had ever seen which could compare with it.
And its grandeur is accentuated by vivid colouring. The Igorrotes
have, for hundreds of years, been building extraordinary rice terraces
and these have gradually climbed the mountains until, in some
places, only the rugged crests are left uncultivated. The terraces are
as symmetrical as honeycomb and are built in solid walls of finely
laid masonry out of which grow ferns and tangled vines. The brilliant
colour of the young rice fairly glows against the dark greens of pine
trees, of spreading mangoes, and of tropic forest giants whose names
I do not know. And wherever one looks there are peaks, jagged sunlit
peaks which rise from sombre valleys upward into a strange light
whose every ray seems to shine in its own individual hue. In the far
distance we could see the ocean, with white breakers dashing against
the cliffs; while in the valley below the Santa Cruz River, though
actually foaming and dashing through its winding, rocky bed,
seemed to us to be lying still, without motion of any kind, or sound.
In my diary, which I kept on that trip, I find that at each stopping
place I have solemnly set down the observation that: “the scenery to-
day was the finest we have yet found”; and when we reached Sagada I
took the trouble to record for my own future reference that: “I shall
not rest until Will has seen it.” He never has.
At Sagada we found ourselves quite far up in the Igorrote country,
where Filipinos as a rule, do not go. We had come from Cervantes
over a trail where the horses cautiously kept to the inside, and where
we were told to let go of our inner stirrups so, in case a horse went
over the edge of the precipice its rider would have a chance of falling
clear on the terra-firma side instead of being hurled out into open
space. There are a great many people who have to be taken over such
trails blind-folded, but there were no dizzy-heads among us, and as
each turn of the way revealed to us different and more wonderful
views, we filled the day with exclamation points.
Here and there we met bands of Igorrotes, marching “Indian file,”
carrying great bundles of rice up short-cut mountain trails, which
wound through the rice terraces and were “as steep as the side of a
house.” All the men had long, murderous-looking spears, while the
women were evidently the burden-bearers. Along the main trail we
came, now and then, upon a company of men leading home a
whimpering and pitiful little pack of very thin dogs. We knew these
were to be killed and eaten and, naturally, the thought was sickening,
but in the Igorrote country the dog-loving white man has to get used
to this. Some day, perhaps, it will be different, but not until herds
and flocks have been substituted and entirely new ideas have
patiently been instilled into the minds of these people. For the time
being dog flesh is their most cherished article of diet.
I wish it were known just where these curious wild tribes came
from; just what their race history is. They are as unlike Filipinos as
American Indians are unlike Englishmen. They have but one thing in
common with the Filipinos, and that is their colour, which is a soft,
dark brown. There is hardly an American who has ever lived among
them for any length of time who has not a real admiration and
affection for them and yet, to all intents and purposes, they are
naked savages. They are most amenable to civilising influences. They
take to education eagerly. They are, in their physical development,
beautiful to look upon—when they are cleaned up—perfectly formed,
straight and muscular, with features strongly marked and with wide,
clear eyes which inspire confidence. They are entirely fearless; and
they are loyal to the “last ditch.” Also, it is these same
incomprehensible “naked savages” who have built the thousands of
acres of rice terraces which are a marvel and a mystery to every
irrigation expert or technical engineer who has ever seen them.
Bureau of Science, Manila.
VIEWS OF THE EXTRAORDINARY IGORROTE RICE

TERRACES. PRACTICALLY ALL OF THE NORTH CENTRAL
LUZON IS CULTIVATED IN THIS MANNER
Bontoc, which we reached after a day’s weary, wet riding over

slippery trails from Sagada, is the capital of what is now known as
the Mountain province. For the first time in their known history the
Igorrotes are united under one central government, each tribe having
its lieutenant governor—an American always. There are the
Benguets, the Bontocs, the Ifugaos, the Ilongots, the Kalingas and
others, and they have been engaged in inter-tribal warfare since time
began, their chief pleasure being derived from the taking of each
other’s heads. When I went into the Igorrote country head-hunting
was still in full force and houses were still decorated with festoons of
human skulls, while no man ever ventured forth, even to his rice
fields, without his spear and shield and head-axe. They all carry
spears even yet, but head-hunting, having been made by the
American government a capital offence, is not so popular. Mr. Dean
C. Worcester, as Secretary of the Interior, in direct charge of all wild
tribes, actually succeeded in introducing substitutes for the sport in
the form of baseball and other inter-tribal athletic contests and
peaceful, though rough and strenuous pastimes. For fourteen years
Mr. Worcester was to these children of the hills a most highly
respected Apo-apo,—chief of chiefs.
Miss Bubb, my sister Maria and I were the first white women who
ever set foot in Bontoc and to say that we created a sensation is to
describe our reception too mildly. We were the guests of three
American miners who had a comfortable house and who, having
lived among the Igorrotes for a long time—one of them for more than
a year without visiting civilisation—could give us much interesting
first-hand information. The people gathered around us in hordes,
but they kept at a respectful, not to say a reverential, distance. I think
they were afraid of us; especially the women, not one of whom would
let us look at her baby. But we were used to that. Many Christian
Filipinos believe firmly in the “evil eye.” There was one little dwarf
who was bolder than the rest and who followed us everywhere we
went. He was like a little, brown, toy-child, beautifully formed, and
looking not more than one year old, but we were told that he was at
least fourteen.
Everybody wanted to give us things. The evening I arrived I
received a present from one of the headmen, of three live chickens,
and the next day, as we were picking our way through the native
village, another man ran after me and, very graciously and gracefully,
presented me with two fresh eggs. We learned to say “mapud,” which
means “good,” and, in connection with smiles and gestures, found it
served us famously for all purposes of social intercourse.
Bontoc is in a deep valley, on the bank of a wide, swift river and
surrounded by close sheltering hills, so it is not as cold as it is in
Sagada and some other places we visited; but it is cold enough, and I
failed to understand how the natives could live in a state of almost
complete nakedness. But they do and, in fact, all these people do,
even in the coldest regions. The Bontoc Igorrote wears a very bright-
coloured clout called a “G-string” with a heavy, brass chain around
his waist, while his long, black hair is tucked into a little, flat, straw
hat which is fastened, in some mysterious way, on the back of his
head. They nearly all wear heavy, brass earrings which make their
ears unsightly, and the Bontoc “dandy” usually has a long, black,
homemade and half-smoked cigar tucked behind one ear for all the
world like the pencil of an absentminded bookkeeper.

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Meteorology today an introduction to

weather climate and the environment

Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate

Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate

Essentials of Meteorology: An Invitation to the

Introducing meteorology a guide to weather Second

Essentials of Meteorology An Invitation to the

An Introduction to Psychological Science, Second

Introduction to Politics Second Canadian Edition Robert

An Introduction to Psychological Science Third Canadian

Vice President, Editorial Production Service: Cover Design:

Chapter 1 Earth and Its Atmosphere 9

Chapter 5 Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 121

Chapter 6 Stability and Cloud Development 153

Chapter 8 Air Pressure and Winds 211

Chapter 9 Wind: Small Scale and Local 243

Chapter 10 Wind: Global Systems 279

Chapter 11 Air Masses and Fronts 309

Chapter 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 335

Chapter 13 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 365

Chapter 15 Weather Forecasting 435

Chapter 16 Global Climate 471

Chapter 17 Earth’s Changing Climate 505

Chapter 18 Air Pollution 543

Chapter 19 Light, Colour, and Atmospheric Optics 577

Appendix A Units, Conversions, Symbols, and Equations A-1

Appendix B Weather Symbols and Cloud Classification A-5

Appendix C Beaufort Wind Scale A-9

Appendix D Humidity and Standard Atmosphere A-10

Appendix E Time Zone Conversions A-14

Appendix F Global Precipitation A-16

Introduction 3 Incoming Solar Energy 44

FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 2.2

chapter 3 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION 3.7

Measuring Precipitation 201 FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC 8.3

Seasonally Changing Winds—The Monsoon 266

FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 9.5 Chapter 11

Toronto’s Snowstorm of the Century 357 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 13.4

Questions for Review 431

Temperature Trends from Measurements 513

Publiphoto / Science Source

Blue Skies and Hazy Days—Rayleigh and Mie Appendix C

Earth Systems Guide The Canadian edition con- atmosphere biosphere

process in the context of Earth’s systems. Chapter phe- hydrosphere lithosphere

nomena are represented in the image and Earth systems

Earth systems. The relationships between the chapter hydrosphere lithosphere

content and Earth systems are expanded on in the intro-

Focus On Each chapter contains Focus On sections

●● Focus on an Observation The FOCUS mainONcause A SPECIAL TOPIC 3.6

feeling has subjective

ticular relevance to Canadians, such as drought on the effect almost equal to

Canadian Prairies, East Coast storms, the pineapple notice

on an Advanced Topic sections provide quantitative dis- Thus, in

the addition of a single

content. ronment canada provided observations at hourly

ADDITIONAL LEARNING AIDS TEXT ENDMATTER

show how chapter contents relate to other aspects 6 28 30

in the Glossary at the end of the book.

Important words and phrases are italicized.

provided once or twice in each chapter.

main ideas. 700 hPa

End-of-chapter supplemental materials aid students

Table and figure references are identified with a

– uestions for Review act to check how well

– uestions for Thought require students to

– roblems and Exercises provide a technical