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Systems Analysis
and Design
ELEVENTH EDITION
TILLEY | ROSENBLATT
Systems Analysis and Design, Eleventh © 2017 Cengage Learning
Edition
Scott Tilley and Harry Rosenblatt ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2016
iii
BRIEF CONTENTS
PHASE 1: SYSTEMS PLANNING 001
Chapter 1 Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design 002
Chapter 2 Analyzing the Business Case 040
Chapter 3 Managing Systems Projects 070
PHASE 2: SYSTEMS ANALYSIS 101
Chapter 4 Requirements Modeling 102
Chapter 5 Data and Process Modeling 142
Chapter 6 Object Modeling 178
Chapter 7 Development Strategies 200
PHASE 3: SYSTEMS DESIGN 233
Chapter 8 User Interface Design 234
Chapter 9 Data Design 274
Chapter 10 System Architecture 322
PHASE 4: SYSTEMS IMPLEMENTATION 359
Chapter 11 Managing Systems Implementation 360
PHASE 5: SYSTEMS SUPPORT AND SECURITY 409
Chapter 12 Managing Systems Support and Security 410
THE SYSTEMS ANALYST’S TOOLKIT 463
Toolkit Part A Communication Tools 464
Toolkit Part B CASE Tools 484
Toolkit Part C Financial Analysis Tools 498
Toolkit Part D Internet Resource Tools 514
Glossary 539
Index 559
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PHASE 1: SYSTEMS PLANNING 1.10.5 Network Administration
1.10.6 Web Support
25
26
1.10.7 Quality Assurance (QA) 26
Chapter 1 Case in Point 1.3: What Should Lisa Do? 26
1.11 The Systems Analyst 26
Introduction to Systems Analysis 1.11.1 Role 26
and Design 1.11.2
1.11.3
Knowledge, Skills, and Education
Certification
27
28
1.11.4 Career Opportunities 29
Learning Objectives 2 Case in Point 1.4: Just-in-Time Airfreight, Inc. 31
1.1 Introduction 3 1.12 Trends in Information Technology 31
1.2 What Is Information Technology? 3 A Question of Ethics 32
1.2.1 The Changing Nature of Information Technology 3
1.2.2 Systems Analysis and Design 4 1.13 Chapter Summary 32
1.2.3 What Does a Systems Analyst Do? 4 Key Terms 34
Case in Point 1.1: Cloud Nine Financial Advisors 5 Chapter Exercises 39
1.3 Information System Components 5
1.3.1 Hardware 6
1.3.2
1.3.3
Software
Data
6
7
Chapter 2
1.3.4 Processes 7
1.3.5 People 7 Analyzing the Business Case
1.4 Business Today 8
1.4.1 The Internet Model 8 Learning Objectives 40
1.4.2 B2C (Business-to-Consumer) 9 2.1 Introduction 41
1.4.3 B2B (Business-to-Business) 9
2.2 A Framework for IT Systems Development 41
1.5 Modeling Business Operations 10 2.2.1 Strategic Planning Overview 41
1.5.1 Business Profiles 10 2.2.2 What Is SWOT Analysis? 42
1.5.2 Business Processes 10 2.2.3 Strategic Planning for IT Projects 43
1.6 Business Information Systems 10 Case in Point 2.1: Lo Carb Meals 43
1.6.1 Enterprise Computing 11 2.2.4 The Changing Role of the IT Department 44
1.6.2 Transaction Processing 11 Case in Point 2.2: Attaway Airlines, Part One 45
1.6.3 Business Support 12
1.6.4 Knowledge Management 13 2.3 What Is a Business Case? 45
1.6.5 User Productivity 13 2.4 Information Systems Projects 45
1.6.6 Systems Integration 13 2.4.1 Main Reasons for Systems Projects 45
1.7 What Information Do Users Need? 14 Case in Point 2.3: Trent College 47
1.7.1 Top Managers 14 2.4.2 Factors That Affect Systems Projects 47
1.7.2 Middle Managers and Knowledge Workers 15 2.4.3 Internal Factors 47
1.7.3 Supervisors and Team Leaders 15 2.4.4 External Factors 49
1.7.4 Operational Employees 15
2.5 Evaluation of Systems Requirements 51
1.8 Systems Development Tools 15 2.5.1 Systems Request Forms 51
1.8.1 Modeling 16 2.5.2 Systems Review Committee 51
1.8.2 Prototyping 16
1.8.3 Computer-Aided Systems Engineering 2.6 Overview of Feasibility 52
(CASE) Tools 17 2.6.1 Operational Feasibility 53
2.6.2 Economic Feasibility 53
1.9 Systems Development Methods 17 2.6.3 Technical Feasibility 54
1.9.1 Structured Analysis 18 2.6.4 Schedule Feasibility 55
1.9.2 Object-Oriented Analysis 21
1.9.3 Agile Methods 22 2.7 Evaluating Feasibility 55
1.9.4 Other Development Methods 23 2.8 Setting Priorities 56
2.8.1 Factors That Affect Priority 56
1.10 The Information Technology
2.8.2 Discretionary and Nondiscretionary Projects 56
Department 24
1.10.1 Application Development 24 Case in Point 2.4: Attaway Airlines,
Case in Point 1.2: Global Hotels and Part Two 57
Momma’s Motels 25 2.9 Preliminary Investigation Overview 57
1.10.2 Systems Support and Security 25 2.9.1 Interaction with Managers, Users, and
1.10.3 User Support 25 Other Stakeholders 57
1.10.4 Database Administration 25 2.9.2 Planning the Preliminary Investigation 58
Table of Contents v
A Question of Ethics 65 PHASE 2 : SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

2.10 Chapter Summary 66
Key Terms
Chapter Exercises
67
69 Chapter 4
Requirements Modeling
Chapter 3 Learning Objectives 102
4.1 Introduction 103
Managing Systems Projects 4.2 Systems Analysis Phase Overview 103
4.2.1 Systems Analysis Activities 103
Learning Objectives 70 4.2.2 Systems Analysis Skills 105
3.1 Introduction 71 4.2.3 Team-Based Techniques: JAD, RAD, and Agile Methods 105
3.2 Overview of Project Management 71 4.3 Joint Application Development 105
3.2.1 What Shapes a Project? 71 4.3.1 User Involvement 105
3.2.2 What Is a Project Triangle? 71 4.3.2 JAD Participants and Roles 106
3.2.3 What Does a Project Manager Do? 72 4.3.3 JAD Advantages and Disadvantages 106
3.3 Creating a Work Breakdown Structure 72 4.4 Rapid Application Development 107
3.3.1 Gantt Charts 73 4.4.1 RAD Phases and Activities 108
3.3.2 PERT/CPM Charts 73 4.4.2 RAD Objectives 109
3.3.3 Identifying Tasks in a Work Breakdown 4.4.3 RAD Advantages and Disadvantages 109
Structure 74 4.5 Agile Methods 109
Case in Point 3.1: Parallel Services 76 4.5.1 Agile Method Advantages and Disadvantages 111
3.3.4 Factors Affecting Duration 76 Case in Point 4.1: North Hills College 111
Case in Point 3.2: Sunrise Software 77 4.6 Modeling Tools and Techniques 111
3.3.5 Displaying the Work Breakdown Structure 78 4.6.1 Functional Decomposition Diagrams 112
3.4 Identifying Task Patterns 78 4.6.2 Business Process Modeling 112
3.4.1 Task Patterns 78 4.6.3 Data Flow Diagrams 113
3.4.2 Using Task Boxes to Create a Model 79 4.6.4 Unified Modeling Language 113
3.4.3 Task Patterns 79 4.7 System Requirements Checklist 115
3.4.4 Identifying Task Patterns 80 4.7.1 Output Examples 115
3.4.5 Working with Complex Task Patterns 81 4.7.2 Input Examples 116
3.5 Calculating the Critical Path 81 4.7.3 Process Examples 116
3.5.1 Critical Path 82 4.7.4 Performance Examples 116
3.5.2 Calculating the Critical Path 82 4.7.5 Control Examples 117
4.8 Future Growth, Costs, and Benefits 117
3.6 Project Monitoring and Control 83
4.8.1 Scalability 117
3.6.1 Monitoring and Control Techniques 83
4.8.2 Total Cost of Ownership 118
3.6.2 Maintaining a Schedule 83
4.9 Fact-Finding 118
3.7 Reporting 84 4.9.1 Fact-Finding Overview 118
3.7.1 Project Status Meetings 84 4.9.2 Who, What, Where, When, How, and Why? 119
3.7.2 Project Status Reports 85 4.9.3 The Zachman Framework 120
3.8 Project Management Examples 85 4.10 Interviews 120
3.8.1 PERT/CPM Examples 85
Case in Point 4.2: Deep River College 126
3.9 Project Management Software 87 4.10.1 Unsuccessful Interviews 126
Case in Point 3.3: Census 2010 90 Case in Point 4.3: Fastpak Overnight
3.10 Risk Management 91 Package System 127
3.10.1 Steps in Risk Management 91 4.11 Other Fact-Finding Techniques 127
3.10.2 Risk Management Software 92 4.11.1 Document Review 127
3.11 Managing for Success 93 4.11.2 Observation 127
3.11.1 Business Issues 93 4.11.3 Questionnaires and Surveys 129
3.11.2 Budget Issues 93 4.11.4 Interviews versus Questionnaires 130
3.11.3 Schedule Issues 93 4.11.5 Brainstorming 131
4.11.6 Sampling 131
Case in Point 3.4: Spring Forward Products 94 4.11.7 Research 131
3.12 The Bottom Line 94 Case in Point 4.4: CyberStuff 132
A Question of Ethics 95 4.12 Documentation 132
4.12.1 The Need for Recording the Facts 132
3.13 Chapter Summary 95 4.12.2 Software Tools 133
Key Terms 97 4.13 Information Management Software 134
Chapter Exercises 99 4.14 Preview of Logical Modeling 135
vi Table of Contents
A Question of Ethics 136 6.4 Object Modeling with the Unified Modeling
4.15 Chapter Summary 136 Language 186
6.4.1 Use Case Modeling 186
Key Terms 138
Chapter Exercises 140 Case in Point 6.1: Hilltop Motors 188
6.4.2 Use Case Diagrams 188
6.4.3 Class Diagrams 189
Chapter 5 Case in Point 6.2: Train the Trainers, Inc. 191
6.4.4 Sequence Diagrams 191
Data and Process Modeling 6.4.5 State Transition Diagrams
6.4.6 Activity Diagrams
192
193
Learning Objectives 142 Case in Point 6.3: Travelbiz 193
5.1 Introduction 143 6.4.7 Business Process Modeling 194
6.4.8 CASE Tools 194
5.2 Overview of Data and Process Modeling Tools 143
6.5 Organizing the Object Model 195
5.3 Data Flow Diagrams 143
5.3.1 DFD Symbols 143 Case in Point 6.4: Cyber Associates 195
5.4 Creating a Set of DFDs 149 A Question of Ethics 195
5.5 Guidelines for Drawing DFDs 150 6.6 Chapter Summary 196
Case in Point 5.1: Big Ten University 160 Key Terms 197
Chapter Exercises 199
5.6 Data Dictionary 160
5.6.1 Using CASE Tools for Documentation 161
5.6.2 Documenting the Data Elements 161
5.6.3
5.6.4
Documenting the Data Flows
Documenting the Data Stores
162
163
Chapter 7
5.6.5 Documenting the Processes 163
5.6.6 Documenting the Entities 164 Development Strategies
5.6.7 Documenting the Records 164
5.6.8 Data Dictionary Reports 165 Learning Objectives 200
5.7 Process Description Tools 165 7.1 Introduction 201
5.7.1 Modular Design 165
5.7.2 Structured English 166 7.2 Development Strategies Overview 201
5.7.3 Decision Tables 167 7.3 The Impact of the Internet 201
Case in Point 5.2: Rock Solid Outfitters (Part 1) 171 7.3.1 Software as a Service 201
5.7.4 Decision Trees 171 7.3.2 Traditional vs. Web-Based Systems Development 202
7.3.3 Evolving Trends: Web 2.0, Cloud Computing, and
Case in Point 5.3: Rock Solid Outfitters (Part 2) 172 Mobile Devices 204
5.8 Logical versus Physical Models 172 7.4 Outsourcing 205
5.8.1 Sequence of Models 172 7.4.1 The Growth of Outsourcing 206
5.8.2 Four-Model Approach 172 7.4.2 Outsourcing Fees 207
Case in Point 5.4: Tip Top Staffing 173 7.4.3 Outsourcing Issues and Concerns 208
7.4.4 Offshore Outsourcing 208
A Question of Ethics 173
5.9 Chapter Summary 174 Case in Point 7.1: Turnkey Services 209
Key Terms 175 7.5 In-House Software Development Options 209
7.5.1 Make or Buy Decision 210
Chapter Exercises 177 7.5.2 Developing Software In-House 210
7.5.3 Purchasing a Software Package 212
Chapter 6 7.5.4
7.5.5
Customizing a Software Package
Creating User Applications
213
213
7.6 The Systems Analyst’s Role 215
Object Modeling Case in Point 7.2: Sterling Associates 216
Learning Objectives 178 7.7 Analyzing Cost and Benefits 216
7.7.1 Financial Analysis Tools 216
6.1 Introduction 179 7.7.2 Cost-Benefit Analysis Checklist 217
6.2 Overview of Object-Oriented Analysis 179 7.8 The Software Acquisition Process 217
6.2.1 Object-Oriented Terms and Concepts 179 Step 1: Evaluate the Information System
6.2.2 Objects 180 Requirements 218
6.2.3 Attributes 182 Step 2: Identify Potential Vendors or Outsourcing
6.2.4 Methods 182 Options 221
6.2.5 Messages 182 Step 3: Evaluate the Alternatives 222
6.2.6 Classes 183 Step 4: Perform Cost-Benefit Analysis 222
6.3 Relationships Among Objects and Classes 185 Step 5: Prepare a Recommendation 224
6.3.1 Object Relationship Diagram 185 Step 6: Implement the Solution 224
Table of Contents vii
Case in Point 7.3: Doug’s Sporting Goods 224 8.10 Security and Control Issues 262
8.10.1 Output Security and Control 262
7.9 Completion of Systems Analysis Tasks 224
8.10.2 Input Security and Control 263
7.9.1 System Requirements Document 224
7.9.2 Presentation to Management 225 8.11 Where Do We Go from Here? 264
8.11.1 Modular Design 264
7.10 Transition to Systems Design 226
8.11.2 Prototyping 265
7.10.1 Preparing for Systems Design 226
7.10.2 Logical and Physical Design 226 A Question of Ethics 266
Case in Point 7.4: Downtown! 227 8.12 Chapter Summary 267
A Question of Ethics 227 Key Terms 268
7.11 Chapter Summary 227 Chapter Exercises 272
Key Terms 229
Chapter 9
PHASE 3 : SYSTEMS DESIGN Data Design
Chapter 8 Learning Objectives
9.1 Introduction
274
275
User Interface Design 9.2 Data Design Concepts 275
9.2.1 Data Structures 275
Learning Objectives 234 9.2.2 Mario and Danica: A Data Design Example 275
9.2.3 Is File Processing Still Important? 277
9.2.4 The Database Environment 278
8.2 Systems Design Phase Overview 235
9.3 DBMS Components 279
8.2.1 Will It Succeed? 235
9.3.1 Interfaces for Users, Database Administrators, and
8.3 Chapter Overview 236 Related Systems 279
8.4 What Is a User Interface? 237 9.3.2 Data Manipulation Language 279
8.4.1 Human-Computer Interaction 238 9.3.3 Schema 280
9.3.4 Physical Data Repository 280
Case in Point 8.1: Casual Observer Software 239
9.4 Web-Based Design 281
8.5 Seven Habits of Successful Interface Designers 240 9.4.1 Connecting to the Web 282
8.5.1 Understand the Business 240 9.4.2 Data Security 282
8.5.2 Maximize Graphical Effectiveness 240
8.5.3 Think Like a User 240 9.5 Data Design Terms 282
8.5.4 Use Models and Prototypes 240 9.5.1 Definitions 283
8.5.5 Focus on Usability 241 9.5.2 Key Fields 283
8.5.6 Invite Feedback 241 9.5.3 Referential Integrity 286
8.5.7 Document Everything 241 9.6 Entity-Relationship Diagrams 287
8.6 Guidelines for User Interface Design 241 9.6.1 Drawing an ERD 287
8.6.1 Create an Interface That Is Easy to Learn and Use 241 9.6.2 Types of Relationships 287
8.6.2 Enhance User Productivity 242 9.6.3 Cardinality 290
8.6.3 Provide Users with Help and Feedback 243 Case in Point 9.1: TopText Publishing 291
8.6.4 Create an Attractive Layout and Design 244
9.7 Data Normalization 291
8.6.5 Enhance the Interface 245
9.7.1 Standard Notation Format 292
8.6.6 Focus on Data Entry Screens 247
9.7.2 First Normal Form 293
8.6.7 Use Validation Rules 250
9.7.3 Second Normal Form 294
8.6.8 Reduce Input Volume 252
9.7.4 Third Normal Form 297
Case in Point 8.2: Boolean Toys 253
9.8 Two Real-World Examples 298
8.7 Source Document and Form Design 253 9.8.1 Example 1: Crossroads College 298
8.8 Printed Output 254 Case in Point 9.2: CyberToys 303
8.8.1 Overview of Report Design 254 9.8.2 Example 2: Magic Maintenance 303
8.8.2 Types of Reports 255
Case in Point 9.3: DotCom Tools 305
8.8.3 User Involvement 256
8.8.4 Report Design Principles 256 9.9 Using Codes 305
9.9.1 Overview of Codes 305
Case in Point 8.3: Lazy Eddie 258
9.9.2 Types of Codes 306
Case in Point 8.4: Trustworthy Insurance 9.9.3 Designing Codes 307
Company 258 9.10 Data Storage and Access 308
8.9 Technology Issues 258 9.10.1 Tools and Techniques 309
8.9.1 Output Technology 259 9.10.2 Logical versus Physical Storage 310
8.9.2 Input Technology 261 9.10.3 Data Coding 311
viii Table of Contents
9.11 Data Control 313 10.10 Systems Design Completion 348

10.10.1 System Design Specification 349
Case in Point 9.4: SoccerMom 314
10.10.2 User Approval 350
A Question of Ethics 314 10.10.3 Presentations 350
9.12 Chapter Summary 314 A Question of Ethics 351
Key Terms 316 10.11 Chapter Summary 351
Chapter Exercises 320 Key Terms 354
Chapter 10 PHASE 4 : SYSTEMS

System Architecture IMPLEMENTATION
Learning Objectives 322
10.1 Introduction 323 Chapter 11
10.2 Architecture Checklist 323
10.2.1 Corporate Organization and Culture 323 Managing Systems
10.2.2 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) 324 Implementation
Case in Point 10.1: ABC Systems 324
10.2.3 Initial Cost and TCO 325 Learning Objectives 360
10.2.4 Scalability 325
10.2.5 Web Integration 325
10.2.6 Legacy Systems 326 11.2 Software Quality Assurance 361
10.2.7 Processing Options 326 11.2.1 Software Engineering 361
10.2.8 Security Issues 326 11.2.2 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 363
10.2.9 Corporate Portals 327 11.3 Overview of Application Development 363
10.3 System Architecture:Then and Now 327 11.3.1 Review the System Design 363
10.3.1 Mainframe Architecture 327 11.3.2 Application Development Tasks 364
10.3.2 Impact of the Personal Computer 328 11.3.3 Systems Development Tools 365
10.3.3 Network Evolution 328 11.3.4 Project Management 366
10.4 Client/Server Designs 329 11.4 Structured Application Development 367
10.4.1 Overview 329 11.4.1 Structure Charts 367
10.4.2 The Client’s Role 331 11.4.2 Cohesion and Coupling 369
10.4.3 Client/Server Tiers 331 11.4.3 Drawing a Structure Chart 371
10.4.4 Middleware 332 11.5 Object-Oriented Application Development 371
10.4.5 Cost-Benefit Issues 332 11.5.1 Characteristics of Object-Oriented Application
10.4.6 Performance Issues 333 Development 372
10.5 The Impact of the Internet 333 11.5.2 Implementation of Object-Oriented Designs 373
10.5.1 Cloud Computing 334 11.5.3 Object-Oriented Cohesion and Coupling 374
10.5.2 Web 2.0 335 11.6 Agile Application Development 374
10.6 Ecommerce Architecture 335 11.6.1 Extreme Programming (XP) 375
10.6.1 In-House Solutions 335 11.6.2 User Stories 376
11.6.3 Iterations and Releases 376
Case in Point 10.2: Small Potatoes, Inc. 336
11.6.4 The Future of Agile Development 376
10.6.2 Packaged Solutions 337
10.6.3 Service Providers 337 11.7 Coding 377
11.7.1 Programming Environments 377
10.7 Processing Methods 338
11.7.2 Generating Code 377
10.7.1 Online Processing 338
10.7.2 Batch Processing: Still with Us After All These Years 339 11.8 Testing the System 377
10.7.3 Real-World Examples 339 11.8.1 Unit Testing 378
Case in Point 10.3: R/Way Trucking Company 340 Case in Point 11.1: Your Move, Inc. 379
11.8.2 Integration Testing 379
10.8 Network Models 340
11.8.3 System Testing 380
10.8.1 The OSI Model 340
10.8.2 Network Topology 341 Case in Point 11.2: WebTest, Inc. 381
10.8.3 Network Devices 344 11.9 Documentation 381
10.8.4 Modeling Tools 345 11.9.1 Program Documentation 381
10.9 Wireless Networks 345 11.9.2 System Documentation 382
10.9.1 Wireless Network Standards 346 11.9.3 Operations Documentation 382
10.9.2 Wireless Network Topologies 346 11.9.4 User Documentation 383
10.9.3 Wireless Trends 346 11.9.5 Online Documentation 384
Case in Point 10.4: Spider it Services 348 11.10 Management Approval 386
Table of Contents ix
11.11 System Installation and Evaluation 387 12.5.2 Performance and Workload Measurement 425
11.12 Operational and Test Environments 387 12.5.3 Capacity Planning 427
12.5.4 System Maintenance Tools 429
11.13 Training 388
11.13.1 Training Plan 388 12.6 System Security Overview 429
11.13.2 Vendor Training 389 12.6.1 System Security Concepts 429
11.13.3 Webinars, Podcasts, and Tutorials 390 12.6.2 Risk Management 430
11.13.4 Outside Training Resources 390 12.6.3 Attacker Profiles and Attacks 431
11.13.5 Training Tips 391 12.7 Security Levels 433
11.13.6 Interactive Training 392 12.7.1 Physical Security 433
11.14 Data Conversion 393 Case in Point 12.3: Outer Banks County 436
11.14.1 Data Conversion Strategies 393 12.7.2 Network Security 437
11.14.2 Data Conversion Security and Controls 394 12.7.3 Application Security 440
11.15 System Changeover 394 12.7.4 File Security 442
11.15.1 Direct Cutover 394 12.7.5 User Security 442
11.15.2 Parallel Operation 395 12.7.6 Procedural Security 445
11.15.3 Pilot Operation 396 Case in Point 12.4: Chain Link Consulting, Inc. 445
11.15.4 Phased Operation 396
12.8 Backup and Recovery 446
Case in Point 11.3: Global Cooling 397 12.8.1 Backup Policies 446
11.16 Post-Implementation Tasks 397 12.8.2 Business Continuity Issues 447
11.16.1 Post-Implementation Evaluation 397 12.9 System Obsolescence 448
Case in Point 11.4: Yorktown Industries 399 12.10 Future Challenges and Opportunities 449
11.16.2 Final Report to Management 400 12.10.1 Trends and Predictions 449
A Question of Ethics 400 12.10.2 Strategic Planning for IT Professionals 451
12.10.3 IT Credentials and Certification 452
11.17 Chapter Summary 400 12.10.4 Critical Thinking Skills 452
Key Terms 403 12.10.5 CyberEthics 453
Chapter Exercises 407 A Question Of Ethics 454
12.11 Chapter Summary 454
PHASE 5 : SYSTEMS SUPPORT Key Terms 457
AND SECURITY Chapter Exercises 462
Chapter 12 THE SYSTEMS ANALYST’S

TOOLKIT
Managing Systems Support
and Security Toolkit Part A
12.1 Introduction 411 Communication Tools
12.2 User Support 411
12.2.1 User Training 411
12.2.2 Help Desks 411 A.1 Introduction 465
12.2.3 Outsourcing Issues 413 A.2 Successful Communication Strategies 465
12.3 Maintenance Tasks 413 A.2.1 Why, Who, What, When, and How 465
12.3.1 Corrective Maintenance 415 A.2.2 Cultural Context 466
12.3.2 Adaptive Maintenance 416 A.2.3 Know Your Subject 466
12.3.3 Perfective Maintenance 416 A.3 Written Communications 466
12.3.4 Preventive Maintenance 417 A.3.1 Writing Style and Readability 466
Case in Point 12.1: Outback Outsourcing, Inc. 418 A.3.2 Email, Memos, and Letters 468
A.3.3 Social Media at Work 469
12.4 Maintenance Management 418
A.3.4 Netiquette 470
12.4.1 The Maintenance Team 418
A.3.5 Workgroup Software 471
Case in Point 12.2: Brightside Insurance, Inc. 420 A.3.6 Reports 472
12.4.2 Maintenance Requests 421
12.4.3 Establishing Priorities 422
A.4 Oral Communications 473
A.4.1 Define the Audience 474
12.4.4 Configuration Management 422
A.4.2 Define the Objectives 474
12.4.5 Maintenance Releases 423
A.4.3 Organize the Presentation 474
12.4.6 Version Control 424
A.4.4 Define Any Technical Terms 474
12.4.7 Baselines 424
A.4.5 Prepare Presentation Aids 474
12.5 System Performance Management 425 A.4.6 Practice 476
12.5.1 Fault Management 425 A.4.7 The Presentation 476
x Table of Contents
C.3.5 Present Value Analysis 507

A.4.8 Online Presentations 478 C.3.6 Using a Spreadsheet to Calculate Present Value 509
A.5 Managing Your Communication Skills 478 C.4 Toolkit Summary 511
A.6 Toolkit Summary 479 Key Terms 512
Key Terms 481 Toolkit Exercises 513
Toolkit Exercises 482
Toolkit Part D
Toolkit Part B
Internet Resource Tools
CASE Tools
Learning Objectives 484 D.1 Introduction 515
B.1 Introduction 485 D.2 Planning an Internet Research Strategy 515
B.2 Overview of CASE Tools 485 Step 1: Review Your Information Requirements 515
B.2.1 CASE Tools History 485 Step 2: Use the Proper Search Tools and Techniques 516
B.2.2 The Marketplace for CASE Tools 486 Step 3: Evaluate the Results 516
Step 4: Consider Copyright and Data Integrity Issues 516
B.3 CASE Terms and Concepts 486
B.3.1 Repository 486 D.3 Search Basics 517
B.3.2 Individual Tools 487 D.4 Search Engines 518
B.4 Development Environments 488 D.4.1 Search Engine Concepts 518
B.4.1 Integrated Development Environments 489 D.4.2 Search Techniques 519
B.4.2 Application Life Cycle Management Environments 489 D.4.3 Advanced Search Techniques 519
B.4.3 Pros and Cons of Integrated Development Tools 490 D.4.4 Search Checklist 521
B.5 CASE Tool Trends 490 D.5 Subject Directories 522
B.5.1 New Products and Features 491 D.6 The Invisible Web 523
B.5.2 Method-Specific CASE Tools 492 D.6.1 Invisible Web Examples 523
B.6 Toolkit Summary 493 D.6.2 Navigation Tools for the Invisible Web 524
Key Terms 495 D.7 Internet Communication Channels 525
D.7.1 Social Networking 525
Toolkit Exercises 496
D.7.2 Forums 526
D.7.3 Newsletters, Blogs, Podcasts, and Videos 526
Toolkit Part C D.7.4
D.7.5
RSS Feeds
Mailing Lists
527
527
D.7.6 Chat Rooms 528
Financial Analysis Tools D.7.7 Instant Messaging and Text Messaging 528
D.8 Information Technology Community Resources 530
Learning Objectives 498 D.8.1 Corporate Resources 530
C.1 Introduction 499 D.8.2 Government Resources 530
D.8.3 Personal and Professional Resources 531
C.2 Describing Costs and Benefits 499 D.8.4 Online Learning Resources 532
C.2.1 Cost Classifications 500
C.2.2 Managing Information Systems Costs and Charges 500 D.9 Toolkit Summary 534
C.2.3 Benefit Classifications 501 Key Terms 535
C.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis 502 Toolkit Exercises 538
C.3.1 Payback Analysis 502
C.3.2 Using a Spreadsheet to Compute Payback Analysis 505 Glossary 539
C.3.3 Return on Investment Analysis 505 Index 559
C.3.4 Using a Spreadsheet to Compute ROI 506
xi
DEDICATION
To Harry
xiii
FOREWORD
Harry Rosenblatt was a teacher, a mentor, and textbook author. His dedication to writ-
ing the previous editions of this book was grounded in the desire to help students under-
stand the material, and to provide the foundation for becoming future systems analysts
and designers. He sought input from students on how to make the textbook better, even
going as far as putting together a team of students to help him. Harry’s work has
enabled thousands of students to gain an understanding of systems analysis and design.
While Harry was writing the previous editions of this text, he was actively teaching
at several colleges. Harry’s experience with teaching this material led him to develop an
extensive selection of supplemental resources to assist instructors who used the text in
their courses. The format of each edition was an iterative revision of his pedagogical
views of the subject matter stemming from his teaching experience.
Farewell, Harry. Your legacy will live on through the continued publication of this
text. Systems analysis and design is a timeless topic in the field of information technol-
ogy, and thousands of students will continue to be touched by your work.
Ronald R. Savilla, MBA

Carolinas Healthcare System
Former student and textbook assistant
xv
PREFACE
The Shelly Cashman Series® offers the finest textbooks in computing education. We are
proud that our previous editions of Systems Analysis and Design have been so well
received by instructors and students. Systems Analysis and Design, Eleventh Edition
continues with the innovation, quality, and reliability you have come to expect.
The Shelly Cashman Series development team carefully reviewed our pedagogy and
analyzed its effectiveness in teaching today’s student. Contemporary students read less,
but need to retain more. As they develop and perform skills, students must know how to
apply the skills to different settings. Today’s students need to be continually engaged and
challenged to retain what they’re learning. With this book, we continue our commitment
to focusing on the user and how they learn best.
Facing a challenging global marketplace, companies need strong IT resources to sur-
vive and compete effectively. Many of today’s students will become the systems analysts,
managers, and IT professionals of tomorrow. This textbook will help prepare them for
those roles.
Overview
Systems Analysis and Design, Eleventh Edition offers a practical, streamlined, and
updated approach to information systems development. The book emphasizes the role
of the systems analyst in a dynamic, business-related environment. Throughout the
book, real-world examples emphasize critical thinking and IT skills in a dynamic, busi-
ness-related environment.
Many two- and four-year colleges and schools use this book in information systems,
computer science, and ecommerce curriculums. The Eleventh Edition includes expanded
coverage of emerging technologies, such as agile methods, cloud computing, and mobile
applications. This new material compliments the updated treatment of traditional
approaches to systems analysis and design.
Using this book, students learn how to translate business requirements into informa-
tion systems that support a company’s short- and long-term objectives. Case studies and
assignments teach analytical reasoning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
Numerous projects, assignments, and end-of-chapter exercises are accessible online,
along with detailed instructor support material.
Objectives of This Textbook

Systems Analysis and Design, Eleventh Edition is intended for a three credit-hour intro-
ductory systems analysis and design course. This textbook is designed to:
• Explain systems analysis and design using an appealing full-color format, numerous
screen shots and illustrations, and an easy-to-read style that invites students to learn.
• Introduce project management concepts early in the systems development process,
with a new chapter that explains project management tools and techniques.
• Challenge students with a Question of Ethics mini-case in each chapter that asks
them to respond to real-life ethical issues in an IT environment.
• Provide multi-method coverage, including a comparison of structured, object-
oriented, and agile systems development methods.
• Explain how IT supports business requirements in today’s intensely competitive
environment, and describe major IT developments and trends.
xvi Preface
New and Updated Features in This Edition

Systems Analysis and Design, Eleventh Edition offers these exciting new and expanded
features:
• Streamlined presentation of material throughout the book, helping students focus on
the main content quickly and easily. There is less visual distraction and a clearer flow
of topics. Much of the additional material has been moved online.
• Expanded coverage of emerging technologies, such as agile methods, cloud comput-
ing, and mobile applications, making topics more aligned with today’s business envi-
ronments and student interests. New developments are placed in historical context.
• Updated examples of CASE tools reflecting web-based and/or open source offerings.
These tools are often free and are representative of modern systems analysis solu-
tions.
• Revised Toolkits reflecting changes in systems analysis tools and resources.
• Glossary of key terms now appears at the end of each chapter, helping students
remember concepts in context.
Organization of This Textbook

Systems Analysis and Design, Eleventh Edition contains 16 learning units in twelve
chapters and a four-part Systems Analyst’s Toolkit that teaches valuable cross-functional
skills. The twelve chapters are organized into five phases: planning, analysis, design,
implementation, and support and security.
Phase 1: Systems Planning

• Chapter 1 – Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design: Chapter 1 provides an
introduction to systems analysis and design by describing the role of information
technology in today’s dynamic business environment.
• Chapter 2 – Analyzing the Business Case: Chapter 2 explains how systems projects
get started and how to evaluate a project proposal to determine its feasibility.
• Chapter 3 – Managing Systems Projects: Chapter 3 describes how to use project
management tools and techniques, and how to plan, schedule, monitor, and report
on IT projects.
Phase 2: Systems Analysis

• Chapter 4 – Requirements Modeling: Chapter 4 describes the requirements model-
ing process: gathering facts about a systems project, preparing documentation, and
creating models that will be used to design and develop the system.
• Chapter 5 – Data and Process Modeling: Chapter 5 discusses data and process mod-
eling techniques that analysts use to show how the system transforms data into use-
ful information.
• Chapter 6 – Object Modeling: Chapter 6 discusses object modeling techniques that
analysts use to create a logical model.
• Chapter 7 – Development Strategies: Chapter 7 considers various development strat-
egies for the new system, and plans for the transition to the systems design phase.
Preface xvii
Phase 3: Systems Design

• Chapter 8 – User Interface Design: Chapter 8 explains how to design an effective
user interface, and how to handle data security and control issues.
• Chapter 9 – Data Design: Chapter 9 focuses on the data design skills that are neces-
sary for a systems analyst to construct the physical model of the information system.
• Chapter 10 – System Architecture: Chapter 10 describes system architecture, which
translates the logical design of an information system into a physical blueprint.
Phase 4: Systems Implementation

• Chapter 11 – Managing Systems Implementation: Chapter 11 describes application
development, documentation, testing, training, data conversion, and system change-
over.
Phase 5: Systems Support and Security

• Chapter 12 – Managing Systems Support and Security: Chapter 12 describes systems
support and security tasks that continue throughout the useful life of the system,
including maintenance, security, backup and disaster recovery, performance measure-
ment, and system obsolescence.
Toolkits
• Toolkit Part A – Communication Tools: Part A of the Toolkit discusses communica-
tion tools that can help the analyst write clearly, speak effectively, and deliver power-
ful presentations.
• Toolkit Part B – CASE Tools: Part B describes CASE tools that be can used to
design, construct, and document an information system.
• Toolkit Part C – Financial Analysis Tools: Part C demonstrates financial analysis
tools that can used to measure project feasibility, develop accurate cost-benefit esti-
mates, and make sound decisions.
• Toolkit Part D – Internet Resource Tools: Part D describes Internet resource tools
that can be used to locate information, obtain reference material, and monitor IT
trends and developments.
FOR THE STUDENT

The Shelly Cashman Series wants all students to have a valuable learning experience
that will provide the knowledge and skills you need to be successful. With that goal in
mind, the presentation of material has been significantly streamlined throughout the
book. There is now less distraction on the page and a clearer flow of topics. This should
help students focus on the main content quickly and easily.
CHAPTER LEARNING TOOLS AND HOW THEY WILL HELP YOU

Dilbert: There is a saying that a picture is worth a thousand words. To illustrate this
concept, each phase of the textbook begins with an eye-catching Dilbert© cartoon. If
you’re not familiar with Scott Adams’ characters, you will quickly recognize their
behavior in the workplace.
Case In Point: Each chapter includes four brief cases that focus on key issues.
xviii Preface
A Question of Ethics: A realistic ethical issue is presented at the end of each chapter.
These examples force you to examine your reactions and how you would respond to
common workplace situations.
Chapter Exercises: Your answers to the ten Questions will show that you understand the
key points. Five Discussion Topics and five Projects offer opportunities to dig deeper
and learn even more.
Learn Online: CengageBrain.com is the premier destination for purchasing or renting
Cengage Learning textbooks, eBooks, eChapters, and study tools at a significant dis-
count. In addition, CengageBrain.com provides direct access to MindTap, which gives
you the tools you need to get better grades, all in one place, all there when you need
them.
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

The Shelly Cashman Series is dedicated to providing you all of the tools you need to
make your class a success. Information on all supplementary materials is available
through your Cengage Learning representative or by calling one of the following tele-
phone numbers: Colleges, Universities, Continuing Education Departments, Post-
Secondary Vocational Schools, Career Colleges, Business, Industry, Government, Trade,
Retailer, Wholesaler, Library, and Resellers, call Cengage Learning at 800-354-9706;
K-12 Schools, Secondary and Vocational Schools, Adult Education, and School Districts,
call Cengage Learning at 800-354-9706. In Canada, call Nelson Cengage Learning at
800-268-2222.
INSTRUCTOR COMPANION SITE

The Instructor Companion Site for this textbook includes both teaching and testing aids,
and all are available for download at sso.cengage.com. The Instructor Resources
include:
• Instructor’s Manual: Includes lecture notes summarizing the chapter sections, figures
and boxed elements found in every chapter, teacher tips, classroom activities, lab
activities, and quick quizzes in Microsoft Word files.
• Syllabus: Easily customizable sample syllabus that covers policies, assignments,
exams, and other course information. Also included is a Microsoft Project file used
to create the five Phase Opener Gantt charts. An instructor can use this project file to
create a visual syllabus that could include additional tasks, quizzes, and projects. The
file also can be used to track class progress through the course. Instructors are wel-
come to distribute this file to students, and show them how to manage tasks,
resources, and deadlines for team projects that might be assigned.
• PowerPoint Presentations: A multimedia lecture presentation system provides slides
for each chapter, based on chapter objectives.
• Figure Files: Illustrations for every figure in the textbook in electronic form.
• Solutions to Exercises: Includes solutions for end-of-chapter exercises.
• Test Bank & Test Engine: Test Banks include questions for every chapter, and featur-
ing objective-based and critical thinking question types, page number references, and
figure references when appropriate. Cengage Learning Testing powered by Cognero
is a flexible, online system that allows you to:
Preface xix
• Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning
solutions.
• Create multiple test versions in an instant.
• Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want!
• Additional Activities for Students: The forms that students can use to complete the
Case Studies are included. Two additional case studies are also provided for every
chapter, to be assigned as homework, extra credit, or assessment tools. Chapter
Reinforcement Exercises, which are true/false, multiple-choice, and short answer
questions that help students gain confidence in the material learned are included.
• Additional Faculty Files: Several sample solutions to case study tasks also are
included. To install this program, you follow a simple registration process that enti-
tles you to use the software and obtain support. Detailed instructions are provided
on the Instructor Companion Site. Also included are Word document versions of the
email and voice mail messages posted for students on the SCR website and the
Interview Summaries for the New Century Case Study.
MINDTAP
MindTap is a personalized teaching experience with relevant assignments that guide stu-
dents to analyze, apply, and improve thinking, allowing you to measure skills and out-
comes with ease.
• Personalized Teaching: Becomes yours with a Learning Path that is built with key
student objectives. Control what students see and when they see it. Use it as-is or
match to your syllabus exactly—hide, rearrange, add, and create your own content.
• Guide Students: A unique learning path of relevant readings, multimedia and activi-
ties that move students up the learning taxonomy from basic knowledge and com-
prehension to analysis and application.
• Promote Better Outcomes: Empower instructors and motivate students with analyt-
ics and reports that provide a snapshot of class progress, time in course, engagement,
and completion rates.
The MindTap for Systems Analysis and Design includes study tools, critical thinking
challenges, and interactive quizzing, all integrated into an eReader that contains the full
content from the printed text.
AUTHOR’S NOTE
Systems analysis and design is a disciplined process for creating high-quality enterprise
information systems. An information system is an amalgam of people, data, and technol-
ogy to provide support for business functions. As technology evolves, so does systems
analysis.
A systems analyst is a valued team member who helps plan, develop, and maintain
information systems. Analysts must be excellent communicators with strong analytical
and critical thinking skills. They must also be business-savvy and technically competent,
and be equally comfortable working with managers and programmers.
With the eleventh edition of Systems Analysis and Design, I have striven to cover the
fundamental aspects of modern systems analysis and design, including both technical and
non-technical issues. By far the most significant change with the eleventh edition of this
textbook has been the streamlining of subject coverage, helping students focus on the
xx Preface
main content quickly and easily. There is less distraction and a clearer flow of topics. That
said, there is still a lot of material to cover, so students and faculty should not be surprised
if they have to be judicious in their selection of topics to discuss in a typical semester.
On personal note, I would be remiss if I did not express my sincere gratitude to
Harry Rosenblatt for involving me in this project several years ago. Our talks at the
local coffee shop led to plans for co-authorship of the eleventh edition. Little did I know
that Harry would be cruelly taken from us before work on the eleventh edition could
begin. While writing this book I didn’t have access to Harry’s experience or wisdom to
advise me, but I did have his enduring vision to guide me. Any errors or omissions in
this edition of the textbook are purely my responsibility.
PUBLISHER’S NOTE
With the eleventh edition we are thrilled to welcome Scott Tilley to The Shelly Cashman
Series author team. Scott is a professor at the Florida Institute of Technology (FIT),
where he is director of computing education. He has a Ph.D. from the University of
Victoria. He is an ACM Distinguished Lecturer. He writes the weekly “Technology
Today” column for the Florida Today newspaper (Gannett). In addition to this book, he
is the author of Software Testing in the Cloud: Migration & Execution (Springer, 2012),
Hard Problems in Software Testing: Solutions Using Testing as a Service (Morgan &
Claypool, 2014), Testing iOS Apps with Hadoop Unit: Rapid Distributed GUI
Testing (Morgan & Claypool, 2014). Scott recently taught the Systems Analysis and
Design course in the College of Business at FIT and used Systems Analysis and Design,
Tenth Edition. He incorporated his students’ feedback from this offering of the course
to help shape his revision of the textbook.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A book like Systems Analysis and Design would not be possible without the help and
support of a great many people. First and foremost, I want to thank Harry Rosenblatt
for providing the solid foundation upon which the eleventh edition of this textbook was
built.
A very special “Thank You” to Deb Kaufmann, the textbook’s development editor,
whose insight and suggestions were extremely valuable. Thanks also to the reviewers
who provided feedback that shaped each chapter: Melisa “Joey” Bryant, Forsyth
Technical Community College; Paul Dadosky, Ivy Technical Community College;
Barbara Myers, Dakota State University; and Teresa Shorter, Guilford Technical
Community College.
The support of the entire production team is greatly appreciated. Thanks to Kate
Mason, Alyssa Pratt, and Stacey Lamodi at Cengage Learning, and Arul Joseph Raj at
Lumina Datamatics.
Finally, sincere thanks to the instructors and students who offered feedback and com-
ments. I have tried to address your concerns and incorporate your suggestions. I will cer-
tainly continue to listen carefully. Feel free to contact me via email at scott@srtilley.com.
ABOUT OUR COVERS

The Shelly Cashman Series is continually updating our approach and content to reflect
the way today’s students learn and experience new technologies. This focus on student
success is reflected on this textbook’s cover, which features imagery informed by new
technologies, such as apps and mobile devices, cloud computing, and ubiquitous net-
works. When you use the Shelly Cashman Series, you can be assured that you are learn-
ing computing skills using the most effective courseware available.
Phase
DELIVERABLE
1 Systems Planning
Preliminary investigation report

TOOLKIT SUPPORT
Communications and financial
analysis tools
DILBERT © 2005 Scott Adams. Used By permission of UNIVERSAL UCLICK. All rights reserved.
As the Dilbert cartoon suggests, it is always a good idea to know whether a project fits the
company’s overall strategy. A systems project that does not align with corporate strategies
should not be approved. The role of an information system is to support business goals.
Systems planning is the first of five phases in the systems development life cycle. Chapter 1
provides an introduction to systems analysis and design by describing the role of information
technology in today’s dynamic business environment. Chapter 2 explains how systems projects
get started and how to evaluate a project proposal to determine its feasibility. Chapter 3
describes how to use project management tools and techniques, and how to plan, schedule,
monitor, and report on IT projects.
1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design
Chapter
1 Introduction to
Systems Analysis
and Design
Chapter 1 is the first of three chapters in the systems The chapter includes four “Case in Point” discussion
planning phase. This chapter describes the role of questions to help contextualize the concepts described
information technology in today’s dynamic business in the text. The “Question of Ethics” invites examination
environment. This chapter describes the development of the ACM’s code of ethics and those of a developing
of information systems, systems analysis and design systems analyst.
concepts, and various systems development methods.
This chapter also describes the role of the information
technology department and its people.
Learning Objectives Chapter Contents

When you finish this chapter, you should be 1.1 Introduction
able to: 1.2 What Is Information Technology?
• Describe the impact of information technology Case in Point 1.1: Cloud Nine Financial
Advisors
• Define systems analysis and design and the role of 1.3 Information System Components
a systems analyst 1.4 Business Today
• Define an information system and describe its 1.5 Modeling Business Operations
components 1.6 Business Information Systems
• Explain how to use business profiles and models 1.7 What Information Do Users Need?
• Explain Internet business strategies and 1.8 Systems Development Tools
relationships, including B2C and B2B 1.9 Systems Development Methods
1.10 The Information Technology Department
• Identify various types of information systems and
Case in Point 1.2: Global Hotels and
explain who uses them
Momma’s Motels
• Distinguish among structured analysis, object- Case in Point 1.3: What Should Lisa Do?
oriented analysis, and agile methods 1.11 The Systems Analyst
• Explain the waterfall model, and how it has Case in Point 1.4: Just-in-Time Airfreight, Inc.
evolved 1.12 Trends in Information Technology
• Discuss the role of the information technology A Question of Ethics
department and the systems analysts who work 1.13 Chapter Summary
there Key Terms
Chapter Exercises
Phase 1 Systems Planning
1.2 What Is Information Technology? 3
1.1 Introduction
ensorship?
void Global C
The headlines in Figure 1-1 offer dramatic examples of Can Google A
Web Sales Surge as Gas Prices Rise
how information technology affects our society.
Companies use information as a way to increase pro- Privacy or Securit
y: Must We Choo
ductivity, deliver quality products and services, maintain se?
Identity Theft:
customer loyalty, and make sound decisions. In a global
Are Your Kids
Social Media
economy with intense competition, information technol-
Safe?
Explodes!
ogy can mean the difference between success and failure.
What’s Up With Facebook?
Another Home Run
Five More States Ban for Apple?
1.2 What Is Information Driver Texting
Technology? Digital Cure for
Information technology (IT) refers to the combination Health Care Costs
of hardware, software, and services that people use to
manage, communicate, and share information.
Although fictitious, the bold headlines in Figure 1-1 Figure 1-1 These headlines illustrate the enormous
impact of information technology on our lives.
illustrate the huge impact of IT on our society.
More than ever, business success depends on infor-
mation technology. IT is driving a new digital economy,
where advances in hardware, software, and connectivity can provide enormous bene-
fits to businesses and individuals. Although economic trends affect IT spending levels,
most companies give IT budgets a high priority, in good times or bad. The reason is
simple: During periods of growth, companies cannot afford to lag behind the IT
curve. Conversely, when the economy slows down, firms often use IT to reduce oper-
ating costs and improve efficiency.
The following sections provide a sense of IT history, an overview of systems analy-
sis and design, and a description of the system analyst’s role.
1.2.1 The Changing Nature of Information Technology

The history of IT is a fascinating study of human progress and achievement. We are
dazzled by the latest and greatest technology, just as our parents and grandparents
were astonished by the arrival of television, space flight, and personal computing. It
is important for IT professionals, who live and work in this exciting world, to realize
that each technology advance is part of a long-term process that often brings dra-
matic change, but never really ends. The story of IBM is a good example.
As its name suggests, International Business Machines was a major supplier of
office equipment and typewriters long before the modern computer era. Herman
Hollerith, who invented a card that identified characters by the location of punched
holes, founded IBM’s predecessor company in 1896. A deck of hundreds or even
thousands of these cards could store data that was easily sorted, queried, and printed
by machines. This system sounds archaic now, but punch card technology was a huge
advance that revolutionized the business world, and was in use into the 1960s and
beyond.
Today, IBM is a globe-spanning company with several hundred thousand employ-
ees. It has succeeded in part by constantly adapting to its changing business environ-
ment. For example, while it was once known primarily as a hardware company, today
IBM makes a significant part of its revenue from software and services. It also invests
4 1.2 What Is Information Technology?
in its people and tries to hire the best tal-

ent available. It has more patents and
more Noble Prize winners than any other
IT company in history.
Figure 1-2 shows an employee clock-
ing in with a punch card in 1953.
Nowadays, most forward-thinking IT
firms do not require their employees to
“punch in” at all. Working from home,
“hoteling” using random offices as
needed, and global contracting has dra-
matically changed the definition of “being
at work.” No doubt future students will
view our current technology the same
way we smile at punched cards.
1.2.2 Systems Analysis and Design

Systems analysis and design is a step-by-
Figure 1-2 An employee clocking in with a punch card in 1953. step process for developing high-quality
ClassicStock.com/Superstock information systems. An information
system combines technology, people, and
data to provide support for business functions such as order processing, inventory
control, human resources, accounting, and many more. Some information systems
handle routine day-to-day tasks, while others can help managers make better deci-
sions, spot marketplace trends, and reveal patterns that might be hidden in
stored data.
Talented people, including a mix of managers, users, network administrators, web
designers, programmers, and systems analysts, typically develop information systems.
Capable IT professionals like these are always in demand, even in a slow economy.
For example, notice how many positions related to information technology and infor-
mation systems are available in the Melbourne, Florida area, as shown on Monster
.com’s job search website in Figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3 Monster.com is an example of an online job search website that IT

professionals can use.
Source: Monster.com
1.2.3 What Does a Systems Analyst Do?

A systems analyst is a valued member of the IT department team who helps plan,
develop, and maintain information systems. Analysts must be excellent communica-
tors with strong analytical and critical thinking skills. Because systems analysts
transform business requirements into IT projects, they must be business-savvy as well

as technically competent, and be equally comfortable with managers and program-
mers, who sometimes have different points of view.
Most companies assign systems analysts to the IT department, but analysts
also can report to a specific user area such as marketing, sales, or accounting.
As a member of a functional team, an analyst is better able to understand the
needs of that group and how IT supports the department’s mission. Smaller
companies often use consultants to perform systems analysis work on an as-
needed basis.
On any given day, an analyst might be asked to document business processes, test
hardware and software packages, design input screens, train users, and plan ecom-
merce websites. A systems analyst may occasionally manage IT projects, including
tasks, resources, schedules, and costs. To keep managers and users informed, the ana-
lyst conducts meetings, delivers presentations, and writes memos, reports, and
documentation.
The last section in this chapter lists typical skills and education requirements, cer-
tifications, career opportunities, and the possible impact of future IT trends for sys-
tems analysts.
Case in Point 1.1: Cloud Nine Financial Advisors

Cloud Nine provides its clients with a monthly newsletter that offers recommendations
about stocks to buy or sell. Doug Layton, Cloud Nine’s president, has asked your opinion on
whether dot-com stocks might be good investments for the future. He specifically mentioned
Google, eBay, Amazon.com, and Yahoo!, but he said you could suggest other companies. Doug
wants you to do some Internet research to learn more about these web-based companies
and their future prospects.You can use a search engine or start by visiting the websites of
publications such as Forbes, Fortune Magazine, Business Week, or The Wall Street Journal,
among others.
1.3 Information System Components

A system is a set of related components that produces specific
results. For example, specialized systems route Internet traffic,
manufacture microchips, and control complex entities like the
Hubble Telescope, which took the amazing image shown in
Figure 1-4. A mission-critical system is one that is vital to a
company’s operations. An order processing system, for exam-
ple, is mission-critical because the company cannot do busi-
ness without it.
Every system requires input data. For example, a com-
puter receives data when a key is pressed or when a menu
command is selected. In an information system, data consists
of basic facts that are the system’s raw material. Information
is data that has been transformed into output that is valuable
to users.
An information system has five key components, as Figure 1-4 Consider the amazing technology that
shown in Figure 1-5: hardware, software, data, processes, enabled the Hubble telescope to capture this image.
and people. Courtesy of The Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA)
6 1.3 Information System Components
1.3.1 Hardware
Hardware
S
Hardware consists of everything in the physical layer of the information sys-
tem. For example, hardware can include servers, workstations, networks,
Software Y telecommunications equipment, fiber-optic cables, mobile devices, scanners,
digital capture devices, and other technology-based infrastructure. A large
S concentration of servers working together is called a server farm. As new
Data technologies emerge, manufacturers race to market the innovations and reap
T the rewards.
Processes Hardware purchasers today face a wide array of technology choices and
E decisions. In 1965, Gordon Moore, a cofounder of Intel, predicted that the
number of transistors on an integrated circuit chip would double about
People
M every 24 months. His concept, called Moore’s Law, has remained valid for
50 years. Fortunately, as hardware became more powerful, it also became
Figure 1-5 An information
much less expensive. Large businesses with thousands or millions of sales
system needs these components. transactions require company-wide information systems and powerful serv-
ers, which are often now in the cloud, such as those shown in Figure 1-6.
Figure 1-6 Server farms provide the enormous power and speed that modern IT systems need.
dotshock/Shutterstock.com
1.3.2 Software
Software refers to the programs that control the hardware and produce the desired
information or results. Software consists of system software and application software.
System software manages the hardware components, which can include a single
computer or a global network with many thousands of clients. Either the hardware
manufacturer supplies the system software or a company purchases it from a vendor.
Examples of system software include the operating system, security software that pro-
tects the computer from intrusion, device drivers that communicate with hardware
such as printers, and utility programs that handle specific tasks such as data backup
and disk management. System software also controls the flow of data, provides data
security, and manages network operations. In today’s interconnected business world,
network software is vitally important.
Application software consists of programs that support day-to-day business func-
tions and provide users with the information they need. Examples of company-wide
applications, called enterprise applications, include order processing systems, payroll
systems, and company communications networks. On a smaller scale, individual users
can boost productivity with tools such as spreadsheets, presentation software, and
database management systems.
Application software includes horizontal and vertical systems. A horizontal system
is a system, such as an inventory or a payroll application, that can be adapted for use
in many different types of companies. A vertical system is designed to meet the unique
requirements of a specific business or industry, such as an online retailer, a medical
practice, or an auto dealership.
Most companies use a mix of software that is acquired at various times. When
planning an information system, a company must consider how a new system will
interface with older systems, which are called legacy systems. For example, a new
human resources system might need to exchange data with a legacy payroll
application.
1.3.3 Data
Data is the raw material that an information system transforms into useful informa-
tion. An information system can store data in various locations, called tables. By link-
ing the tables, the system can display the specific information that the user needs—no
more, and no less. Figure 1-7 shows a payroll system that stores data in four separate
tables. Notice that the linked tables work together to supply 19 different data items
to the screen. A user can display any or all data items and filter the data to fit defined
limits. In this example, the user requested a list of employees who live in a certain city
and worked more than 40 hours in the last pay period. Jane Doe’s name was the first
to display.
1.3.4 Processes
Processes describe the tasks and business functions that users, managers, and IT staff
members perform to achieve specific results. Processes are the building blocks of an
information system because they represent actual day-to-day business operations. To
build a successful information system, analysts must understand business processes
and document them carefully.
1.3.5 People
People who have an interest in an information system are called stakeholders.
Stakeholders include the management group responsible for the system, the users
(sometimes called end users) inside and outside the company who will interact with
the system, and IT staff members, such as systems analysts, programmers, and net-
work administrators who develop and support the system.
Each stakeholder group has a vital interest in the information system, but most
experienced IT professionals agree that the success or failure of a system usually
depends on whether it meets the needs of its users. For that reason, it is essential to
understand user requirements and expectations throughout the development process.
8 1.4 Business Today
Jane Doe’s
Payroll
Data
Figure 1-7 In a typical payroll system, data is stored in separate tables that are linked to form an
overall database.
1.4 Business Today

To design successful systems, systems analysts must understand a company’s business
operations. Each situation is different. For example, a retail store, a medical practice,
and a hotel chain all have unique information systems requirements. As the business
world changes, systems analysts can expect to work in new kinds of companies that
will require innovative IT solutions.
Business today is being shaped by three major trends: rapidly increasing globaliza-
tion, technology integration for seamless information access across a wide variety of
devices such as laptops and smartphones, and the rapid growth of cloud-based com-
puting and software services. These trends are being driven by the immense power of
the Internet.
1.4.1 The Internet Model

Internet-based commerce is called ecommerce (electronic commerce). Internet-based
systems involve various hardware and software designs, but a typical model is a series
of webpages that provides a user interface, which communicates with database man-
agement software and a web-based data server. On mobile devices, the user interacts
1.4 Business Today 9
with the system with an app, but the same back-end services are accessed. As Internet-
based commerce continues to grow, career opportunities will expand significantly for
IT professionals such as web designers, database developers, and systems analysts.
Ecommerce includes two main sectors: B2C (business-to-consumer) and
B2B (business-to-business). Within these broad categories, competition is dynamic,
extreme, and global. Every day brings new ideas, new players, and new ways to
involve customers, suppliers, and hordes of social network participants. The following
sections discuss this rapidly changing environment.
1.4.2 B2C (Business-to-Consumer)

Using the Internet, consumers can go online to purchase an enormous variety of
products and services. This new shopping environment allows customers to do
research, compare prices and features, check availability, arrange delivery, and
choose payment methods in a single convenient session. Many companies, such as
airlines, offer incentives for online transactions because web-based processing costs
are lower than traditional methods. By making flight information available online to
last-minute travelers, some airlines also offer special discounts on seats that might
otherwise go unfilled.
B2C commerce is changing traditional business models and creating new ones. For
example, a common business model is a retail store that sells a product to a customer.
To carry out that same transaction on the Internet, the company must develop an
online store and deal with a totally different set of marketing, advertising, and profit-
ability issues.
Some companies have found new ways to use established business models. For
example, eBay.com has transformed a traditional auction concept into a popular and
successful method of selling goods and services. Other retailers seek to enhance the
online shopping experience by offering gift advisors, buying guides, how-to clinics,
and similar features. In the ecommerce battles, the real winners are online consumers,
who have more information, better choices, and the convenience of shopping
at home.
1.4.3 B2B (Business-to-Business)

Although the business-to-consumer (B2C) sector is more familiar to retail customers,
the volume of business-to-business (B2B) transactions is many times greater. Industry
observers predict that B2B sales will increase sharply as more firms seek to improve
efficiency and reduce costs.
Initially, electronic commerce between two companies used a data sharing arrange-
ment called electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI enabled computer-to-computer
data transfer, usually over private telecommunications lines. Firms used EDI to plan
production, adjust inventory levels, or stock up on raw materials using data from
another company’s information system. As B2B volume soared, company-to-company
transactions migrated to the Internet, which offered standard protocols, universal
availability, and low communication costs. The main advantage of the web is that it
offers seamless communication between different hardware and software environ-
ments, anywhere and anytime.
Because it allows companies to reach the global marketplace, B2B is especially
important to smaller suppliers and customers who need instant information about
prices and availability. In an approach that resembles an open marketplace, some B2B
sites invite buyers, sellers, distributors, and manufacturers to offer products, submit
specifications, and transact business.
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side of America: It is always hazy, says he, nigh Land, to 20 degr. of
Latitude.
WHYDAH.
This Country is governed by an absolute King, who lives in Negrish
Majesty at a Town called Sabbee, six Miles from the Sea. His Palace
is a dirty, large Bamboo Building, of a Mile or two round, wherein he
keeps near a thousand Women, and divides his time in an indolent
manner, between Eating and Lust; he is fatned to a monstrous Bulk;
never has been out since he became King (nigh twelve years) which
some say, is because a large Dole being due to the People on the
Demise of one, and the Accession and first Appearance of another
new Prince, his Covetousness keeps him within doors: Others, that
there is a Sword wanted (the Emblem of his Power); which should,
but is not yet delivered him, by some grand Fetish-Man beyond
Jaqueen. If any Subjects want Audience, they ring a Bell to give
notice; and if admitted, must prostrate before him, as likewise to his
grand Fetish-Man, or High-Priest, if present. The same Humility and
Subjection is required of Inferiours to rich and powerful Men, without
doors: They prostrate to as many as they meet of these in the Street,
and stir not till a Sign is given to get up; so that the meanest may
sometimes be two or three hours walking the length of the Town.
White People are seldom or never admitted to Presence, but at
the times they pay their Customs; very considerable from
Europeans, who drive here the greatest Slave-Trade of any on the
whole Continent: Besides these Dues, the King augments his
Revenue by a Duty on every thing bought or sold by his People. To
his Women, he gives entirely the Privilege of making and selling a
Beer brewed from Indian Corn, pretty much in use here, called Putto.
The King of Ardra is his potent and warlike Neighbour; a populous
Country, full of large Crooms or Towns, and all of them obsequious
Slaves, who dare not sell or buy any thing without Licence, and both
ways he exacts a Custom. It is by means of this Country that so
great a number of Slaves are brought down to Whydah and sold to
the Europeans naked; the Arse-clouts they had, I fancy, having been
the Plunder of the Populace: for altho’ they are kept strictly under, in
respect to the Great-ones among themselves, they have in
recompence, a thievish, unlicensed Behaviour to others.
Both Sexes squat when they make water, and the Women may
obtain a Palaaver and Fine against any Man, who at such time
should indecently discover his Privities.
Travelling is in [27]Hammocks, called here Serpentines; they are
with Curtains to draw round, against Heat or Flies, slung cross a
Pole and bore up at each end by a Negro, two others attending in
the Journey, to relieve alternately: The Heat makes it dangerous for
Englishmen to travel without them, and they are hired at six Shillings
a day.
Provisions are plentiful above any place on the whole Coast, but
neither very cheap nor large. A Cow of 300lib. weight is reckoned a
fine Beast, and will sell for two grand Quibesses; a Calf of 80lib.
weight for one grand Quibess; a Sheep of 12lib. for eight Gallinas;
Fowls, five for a Crown; a Dozen Wild-fowl, or a Hog, for the same
Money: but it’s convenient on this Voyage always to provide Cowrys
or Booges (little Indian Shells, called in England Blackamoors Teeth,
bought at 1s. and sold here at 2s. 6d. per lib.) as the readiest for this
sort of Traffick. Coin is the dearest way of buying, at distance from
Europe.
Whydah Currency.
40 Cowrys make a Toccy.
Toccys ——
5 Gallina.
a
Grand Quibess, which answers to 25
20 Gallinas —— a
Shillings.
Horses, are what I never saw any where else on the Continent.
The most curious of their Customs, and peculiar to this Part, is
their Snake-Worship, which, according to my Intelligence, is as
follows. This Snake, the Object of their Worship, is common in the
Fields, and cherished as a familiar Domestick in their Houses, called
Deyboys; they are yellow, and marbled here and there, have a
narrow Swallow, but dilatable (as all of the Serpent Kind are) to the
thickness of your Arm on feeding. It is the principal Deity or Fetish of
the Country, and brought into more Regularity than others, by the
superiour Cunning of their Fetishers, who have one presiding over
them, called the grand Fetisher, or High-Priest, who is held in equal
Reverence with the King himself; nay, sometimes more, through
gross Superstition and Fear: for they believe an Intercourse with the
Snake, to whom they have dedicated their Service, capacitates them
to stop or promote the Plagues that infest them. He hath the craft by
this means, to humble the King himself on all occasions for their
Service, and to drain both him and the People, in supplying their
Wants. It is Death for a Native to kill one of these Snakes, and
severe Punishments to Europeans. When Rains are wanted at
Seed-time, or dry Weather in Harvest, the People do not stir out after
it is night, for fear of the angry Snake, which, provoked with their
Disobedience, they are taught, will certainly kill them at those times,
if abroad, or render them Ideots.
They have Fetish-Women, or Priestesses, that live separated with
a number of Virgins under their Care, devoted to the Snake’s
Service: I have heard, the rich Cabiceers do often buy the Consent
of these Women to debauch their Pupils; they pretend to the Girls,
they have had some late Correspondence with the Snake, who
intimates the agreeableness of her favouring such or such a Man’s
Addresses; teach her to act Fits and Distortions at the sight of him,
to enhance the Price, and that for this Compliance, she shall be
amply rewarded in the Snakes Country, far pleasanter than this she
breaths in, and he then more amiable, having here put on his worst
Shape, that Obedience might have the more Merit. A Discovery in
the Girl would be certain Death, and none would believe; or if they
did, would dare openly to assert such Murder against the Assertion
of the Fetish-Men or Women.
It is probable that King Solomon’s Navy of Tharshish (1 Kings Ch.
x.) did coast from Ezion Geber (the bottom of the red Sea) round
Cape Bon Esperance [28]to Sofalu, by some thought Ophir; and if so,
why not to the Gold-Coast? or that King Hiram’s Navy from Tyre,
might on the North and Western side together have encompassed
this Continent; tho’ afterwards, on the destruction of each State, the
Navigation might be lost with the Trade. This is probable, I say, from
the length of the Voyage (three years) no unreasonable time in the
infancy of Sailing, Ignorance of the Compass, and dilatory Methods
of Trading in Fleets, and in their Returns, Gold, Ivory, and Apes. The
Peacocks mentioned in this Text, might possibly be the Crown-Birds;
beautiful, of the same bigness, and a greater Rarity. One of them we
had from Gambia (a Present to the Duke of Chandois) had a fine
Tuft of stiff speckled Feathers on the Head; the Wings, red, yellow,
white and black, with a black Down on the fore-part of it’s Head.
Granting this, whether or no it’s too foreign to imagine, some
traditional Story might be derived from them concerning the old
Serpent, the Deceiver of Mankind? or that fiery one lifted up by
Moses in the Wilderness? Gordon in his Geography, p. 327, says,
the Mosaical Law was once introduced into some parts of Negro-
land, strengthned by the Affinity of some Names and Customs they
retain with the Jews, particularly Circumcision, practised at most, if
not all parts of the Coast. Bosman on this, says even Girls have their
Clitoris stripp’d. The Ægyptians (on this their own Continent,) were
the first we read of that circumcised, from whom Abraham borrowed
it, and the Patriarchs Posterity might as well have transmitted the
use of it with their Trade, to this opposite side of Africa; the only
Objections are, the easier Method of borrowing it from the Mallays,
black Turks that inhabit about the middle of Africa, with whom they
communicate by Trade; and because the Practice here, like as with
the Mahometans, is not taken up of Precept, but Tradition. Be it how
it will, they are found tenacious of their Customs and Opinions: A
Woman, from whose greater Flexibility and Subjection as a Consa to
any European, might be expected a Change, never relinquishing her
Country-Gods, tho’ she had cohabited for years, as has been
frequently tried at our Factories.
Others think this Snake-Worship might be taken up as of old the
Ægyptians did their Ox and Cow, their Crocodile and Cat, &c. They
had some moral Reason, tho’ overwhelmed in Fable and ridiculous
Superstition. The Ox and Cow were Emblems of Tillage, taught to
them by Osiris and Isis, whom they feigned changed into those
Creatures, and in that form worshipped them.
The Crocodile and Cat preyed upon those Reptiles that devoured
the Fruits of their Husbandry, like as these very Snakes are said to
kill the black and poisonous sort, and to destroy various Species of
Vermin, injurious to their Fields and Grain.
We bear (far from Egypt) a Reverence to many Creatures, Beasts
and Birds; eat some, and cherish others; I believe, often on no other
Foundation than Heathen Fable. The Fetish is this Reverence
improved, and if we laugh at [29]Sambo for inflicting Fine or Death on
whoever hurts or kills the Snake, may not he in his turn, as justly
laugh to hear that in some Countries it is Death to steal a Sheep, a
Horse, &c. or Penalties to kill Pidgeons, Wild-fowl, &c. tho’ never so
much in want of them: For it is all according to the Fashion of the
Country, and doubtless proceeds from a profound Veneration to
those Creatures.
Many and ridiculous are the Stories formed upon the Foundation
of the Snake, over-acted to the Prejudice of Beliefs, which in
unletter’d Countries should be short, and have the Design and
Import of Laws; such Laws as in their nature are best fitted to awe or
persuade Men into the Practice of what is good: but here they are
multiplied with silly Circumstances, or stretch beyond Memory, and
spoil their Use; for which reason, I am firmly of opinion the Snake-
Worship will never endanger our Factories, or propagate far, it has
made such Rogues of them.
Besides the Snake, they have two other principal Deities, and
other small Fetishes. The former are their Groves, and the high Sea;
addressing either upon the Peculiarity, I suppose, of their Affairs, or
rather, these Groves are consecrated to the Snake, most of them
having a square Tower built in a retired part of it, to which they carry
Dashees, and Presents. There is one in this Neighbourhood pre-
eminent to all in the Country, and to which the Prince and People
annually make rich Offerings.
Their smaller Fetishes, like as at other parts, are numberless, and
for smaller Concerns made of Stone, Bone, Wood, or Earth; but
herein they differ from others, that this small Fetish is the first thing
they see, after they are determined upon some Affair or Business,
and sometimes determines them to that Affair, whence it is taken up
and invoked: If the Business ends luckily, it is lain by in honour to the
chief Idol, and dasheed now and then; but if not, they throw it away.
I should have done now with Whydah, but the surprizing
Revolution brought about here in 1727, by the victorious King of
Dauhomay, turning things topsy turvy, and entirely destroying our
Slave-Trade, deserves some Remarks.
This Prince was probably incited to the Conquest from the
generous Motive of redeeming his own, and the neighbouring
Country People from those cruel Wars, and Slavery that was
continually imposed on them by these Snakes and the King of Ardra;
each helped the other to propagate the Mischief far and wide, and
differ’d between themselves, only in sharing the Booty. That this
spurred on their Catastrophe, I think, First, Because it is agreeable to
Capt. Snelgrave’s Character of that King, a Gentleman well
acquainted with that part of Guinea, and who has given the latest
Account of those People: He says in that Tract, he made a Journey
in company with some of the English Factory to the Camp of the
King of Dauhomay (40 or 50 miles up the Country,) and informs us,
“that in the Conversation and Business he had to transact, he had
experienced him just and generous; in his Manners, nothing
barbarous, but contrarily, the most extraordinary Man of his Colour.”
The natural Consequence from such Qualities in a Prince, being, I
think, to extend them towards all that are oppressed, and against
those in particular, his Resentments were fired: First, on account of
their publick Robberies, and Man-stealing, even to his Dominions;
and Secondly, That Contempt the King of Whydah had expressed
towards him, saying publickly, “that if the King of Dauhomay should
invade him, he would not cut off his Head (the Custom of
Conquerors) but keep him alive, to serve in the vilest Offices:” a
Specimen both of his Vanity and Courage, which he had soon after
Occasion to try; and then instead of the haughty Revenge he
purposed, dastardly deserted his Kingdom, he and the Subjects of
Ardra becoming in a few days miserable Fugitives.
2. The King of Dauhomay at this Interview with Captain Snelgrave,
which was after the Conquest of Ardra and Whydah, agrees with him
in the Character of these Enemies: “That they were Villains to both
white and black People, and therefore had been punished by his
hands;” a Text that ought to have been regarded more heedfully by
the Factory than it was: For what were they Villains more than others
of the Colour, unless for this illegal and unjust Trade? And if he
himself declared his Victories in punishment of their Crimes, what
might not they expect in their turn, who differed only as the
Pawnbroker and the Thief? Mr. Testesole, the Company’s
Governour, we find when Opportunity presented, was seized by
them, and cruelly sacrificed: “The Crime alledged being, that he had
used the Dahomes on all Occasions in his power, very ill, on account
of the bad Trade they had occasioned:” and afterwards they went on,
surprized and plundered all the European Merchants at Jaqueen,
finishing in that, the Destruction of the Slave-trade, the little
remaining being now at Appah, a place beyond the bounds of his
Conquest. Yet in all this, could we separate our Idea of the Sufferers,
and the temporary Views of Traders; the King’s Actions carry great
Reputation, for by the destruction of this Trade, he relinquished his
own private Interests for the sake of publick Justice and Humanity.
Lastly, that this destruction of the Trade was designed in the King
of Dauhomay’s Conquest, seems confirmed by Captain Bulfinch
Lamb’s Proposal from him to our Court.
This Gentleman, on some Business of the Factory, was at Ardra
when the Dahomes came down upon them, was made a Prisoner,
detained near four years with the Emperor, and came to England at
last by his Permission or rather Direction, having given him 320
Ounces of Gold, and 80 Slaves to bear his Charges. In his Scheme
of Trade, said to be proposed from that Emperor and laid before our
Commissioners of Trade, some of the Articles run thus;——That the
Natives would sell themselves to us, on condition of not being
carried off.——That we might settle Plantations, &c. a Foundation
quite foreign to the former Slave-trade, and carried no Temptation
but the empty one of Instruction and Conversion, which he himself
might have laid down there, and had given some room to expect,
agreeably to the Judgment he made of the King’s Sentiments, and
his own view of getting away; an additional Honour to the King in this
way of thinking indeed; “but the Inconsistency made it unsuccessful,”
and Captain Lamb, tho’ under a solemn Promise to return, never
gave any Account of his Embassy to that Prince.
Captain Snelgrave’s Account leads me still a little farther, on his
suggesting these conquering Dahomes to be Men-eaters; I beg an
Animadversion or two on that Head.—Common Report has settled
Cannibals at several parts of Africa. Dapper in the Geographical
Atlas says, the Ausicans or Gales in Æthiopia, and many of the
Natives of Quiloa, Melinda, and Mombaza, on the East side of Africa
are such, and that human Flesh is sold in the Shambles. Gordon, in
his Geographical Grammar, conveys it modestly as a Report, that
the Kingdom of Loango in South-Africa has many Cannibals, and
that human Flesh in several places is sold publickly in the Shambles,
as we do Beef and Mutton. That the Caffres, (tho’ abounding with
Provisions) also are such, and will eat even nasty Hottentots their
Neighbours; who tho’ accounted the most brutish People upon the
Globe in their Manners and Feeding, are at the same time excused
by all Travellers so inhuman a Custom. Bosman reports the same of
Drewin. The Observation I shall make on these and the like Stories I
have heard from other parts of the World, is their being reported of
Countries remote from our Correspondence, abounding with
Provisions, by Persons who never were in the Places they relate
their Wonders; or where they have, their Testimony is on hear-say, or
their Reasons inconclusive, and against later Experience. I am
prejudiced indeed against the Opinion of Cannibals, and very much
doubt whether there be any such Men on the face of the Earth,
unless when provoked by Famine, as has unfortunately happened in
Voyages: Or possibly with Savages, single Instances may have
been, as their way to express an intense Malice against a particular
Enemy, and in terrorem; or to cement with a Bond of Secrecy some
very wicked Societies of Men: but that there should be a common
Practice of it, Nations of Men-eaters, to me looks at present
impossible. Captain Snelgrave’s being the newest Account of this
Affair, and on his own personal Knowledge, I shall amuse the
Reader with a short Extract from him, and then my Objections.
“This Gentleman, by an Invitation from the King of Dahome or
Dauhomay, went in company with some other of the Factory from
Jaqueen, to pay him a Visit at his Camp, 40 miles inland; there he
was an Eye-witness of their human Sacrifices, Captives from the
Kingdoms of Ardra, Whydah, Tuffoe, and other Conquests: the King
chose them out himself. The first Victim I saw, says he, was a well-
looking Man, of 50 or 60, his Hands tied, he stood upright by a Stage
five foot from the Ground. The Fetisher or Priest laying his Hand on
the Head, said some Words of Consecration for about two Minutes;
then giving the Sign, one behind with a broad Sword hit on the Nape
of his Neck, and carried off the Head at one Blow, the Rabble giving
a Shout. Others of these Captives he made his Servants, or sold for
Slaves.——”
The Story thus far is not over-marvellous; whether the Sacrifices
be considered as a Thanksgiving to their Fetish, or God (as an
Acknowledgment, he was told) or an Honour to the Manes of his
deceased Heroes, because such Practice is supported both by
Scripture and History. The Captives in War under the Jewish Law,
which fell to the Lord’s Share, were to be slain (Levit. xxvii. v. 28, 29.)
and the Custom of many Pagan Countries has been, and still
continues in many parts of the World to this day (if we may credit
History or Travellers) to attend the Obsequies of their Princes and
great Men with human Sacrifices, particularly at some other Parts of
Guinea. The Emperor of Feton’s Funeral (Miscell. Curiosa, Vol. 3. p.
356.) was accompanied with a great number, and remarkably
barbarous. Montezuma, (Antonio Solis says,) sacrificed 20000
Enemies a year. The present Dahomes follow it from political
Principles, to awe the Conquered, and secure the Conquest; for the
captive King was always one, and next him the Men of Experience
and Influence, such as already had, or were most likely to disturb his
future Peace; answering more justly than that Argument à posteriori,
of the Bow-string or Halter, when Men rise for the Recovery of a lost
Country, &c.
Contending Princes do to this day frequently sacrifice with less
honourable Views, if we may credit Captain Gulliver, who says, one
King has lost his Life, another the Crown, only in a Contest about the
primitive way of breaking Eggs.
I say this is not so over-marvellous; but when we come to the
Carcases of these Men, how the Dahomes had made a Festival of
their Flesh in the night, it swells to Incredibility. “Captain Snelgrave
was not an Eye-witness of this indeed; he says, the Bodies lay a little
while on the ground to drain the Blood, and then were carried by
Slaves to a place nigh the Camp, and laid in a Heap; he saw two of
these Heaps over night, containing he judged about 400, who had
been chose out by the King that Morning, for Sacrifice. On the next
Morning they were gone, and asking the Linguist what had become
of them, he answered, the Vulturs (ravenous Birds very plentiful in
the Country) had eaten them. Not satisfied with this Answer, (seeing
nothing remain but Blood) we asked for the Bones, and then he
confessed, the Priest had divided the Carcases among the People in
the night, who had boiled and feasted on them, as holy Food; the
Head is for the King, (continues the Linguist) the Blood for the
Fetish, and the Body for the common People.”
I make no doubt of the truth of this Relation, and yet think the
Circumstances not conclusive enough, to charge the Dahomes as
Anthropophagites.
1. Because the truth depends too much on the Linguist, (Butteno,
a Negro of Mr. Lamb’s, brought up at the Factory) how well he knew
to render the Language to our Ideas: and to his Veracity and his
Courage. He might think with his Country-men that it was their best
Excuse to the white People, for that cowardly and ignominious Flight
of Thousands from 200 of the Dahomes at Sabbee (the Whydah’s
head City) where, instead of eating them, they pretended a Fright of
being eat, and with the King, took precipitately to their heels,
deserting in a shameful manner their Country: and makes something
like the Story of our Saracens Heads of old; when the English had
been threshed heartily for their silly Croisade, they represented their
Adversaries thus large, to insinuate none but Monsters or Devils
could have done it. However the Linguist tells his Masters first, that
the Vulturs had eaten those Bodies, but perceiving them diffident of
this, and prone to another Persuasion (which, by the way, is some
excuse for him) he tells them frankly, that the People had eaten them
in the night, &c. The Bones, which were wanting, and that had drawn
this Secret from him, are to me a Confirmation that they were buried.
Otherways, as these Cormorants could not chew or digest them,
they should have been found strewed somewhere, as the Roads
were in his Journey: The Fellow might also in his turn propose some
advantage in this Belief; for Captain Snelgrave tells us, he met with
great Impositions and Cheats at his return to Jaqueen, by the Lord
there, and others in Trade, notwithstanding the kind Reception he
had met with at Camp, and that King’s Charge to the contrary.
2. A Portuguese who resided there, that spoke their Language,
and which is very remarkable, had married a woolly white Woman
born of black Parents, who had never seen any other Colour: this
Gentleman talked highly of the King’s Policy and Generosity, that his
Sacrifices were a Proof of it; that he was just, strictly obeyed, and
never eat any human Flesh. If so, according to my way of thinking,
he would hinder so barbarous a Custom in others his Subjects; or it
would be a Contradiction to his Character, a Sufferance being the
same, as doing it himself.
3. If the Sacrifices were designed for eating, one would think they
should have been all young People, not thrown in a Heap, which is
an Objection to their spending well; and now and then I should have
expected they would have been prompted by Novelty to have tasted
a white Man: but it is the King’s Character of being far from
barbarous, and of delicate Wit and Policy: Lamb lived three years
and a half with them, and never was eat.
4. If Men were thus eat, and liked by a Nation, there would be less
occasion and Inclination to sell them us for Slaves; they at least must
lose a Breakfast by it now and then; and it would fall heavier on such
Captives they had made their Servants, (for some were made so at
the same time the others were sacrificed) who I am in some doubt
whether they would wait tamely for the turn of having their Throats
cut. This Man-Eating therefore probably might be an Imposition on
the Credulity of the Whites; as the Persuasion amongst some of
them is, that they are bought by us to fat and eat: the Belief in my
opinion is equally grounded. Theirs (if any) is better; for the next
Cruelty to buying human Flesh, one would naturally think, should be
to eat it; especially with Negroes, who cannot conceive how their
Labour can be used, that want so little for their own support.
5. Some Places reported on the Coast to be Men-Eaters are by
latest Accounts much doubted, if not contradicted. At Loango they
are found with better Manners, and mixed with Portuguese. At Cape
St. Mary’s, the Starboard Entrance of the River Gambia, generally
said to be Men-Eaters, were found by our Boat’s Crew as civilized as
any People on the whole Coast, tho’ their Number exposed them an
easy Prey. To this we may add, that all Negroland, by the
Observations I could make, are very abstemious of Flesh in
comparison of us; they have very few tame Creatures (Kid, Sheep,
Kine, &c.) among them; their Country is mostly Woods cleared away
a little at their Cooms, to sow as much Indian Corn and Rice as they
imagine will serve them; which, with Banana’s, Plantanes, Palm-
Nuts, Pine-Apples, and now and then a little stinking Fish, or a Fowl,
is the chief of their Diet.
6. As Slave-Cargoes are a Compound of different Nations, it is
more than probable they are mixed from these Men-eating
Countries; and therefore on their rising and murdering a Ship’s
Company, they would have shewn us e’er now a Precedent,
especially those who believed we were to eat them.
7. Men in this horrid Practice would, with the distinguishing
Characteristick of Reason about them, be more brutish than any part
of the Creation; no Creatures of the greatest Ferocity preying upon
their own Species.
8. If such Custom were taken up to intimidate their Neighbours,
and facilitate Conquests, the Practice should be more publick; not in
the Night, but Day, and openly: Custom in any People familiarizing
all Barbarities, and more so, when an Interest is proposed.
Therfore, lastly, the strongest Proof produced for it is, that one Mr.
More saw human Flesh sold at Dahome’s Market-place.
If the Person mentioned does not mean human Flesh alive, and in
way of Trade, yet without a good interior Sight, he might mistake it
for that of Monkeys, there being an awkard Resemblance to the
Moorish Race, in the Hands and Phiz; and I have given one Example
purposely, among many (at the beginning of this Chapter) to shew
they are a common Diet at some places; our Sailors frequently eat
them. What inclines me more to this Opinion is, First, the Force of
Pre-possession and Fear, which many Readers may experience in
their own Constitution. Second, That I never saw a Flesh-Market of
any sort, tho’ I have been on shore at many places on the Coast of
Guinea, not even among the English, the most carnivorous in the
World; but when they do kill, lend it out. Thirdly, What is my greatest
Objection, is, that the Captain should bring another to assert what he
might have done himself, since he was at Dahome’s Camp, (the
same place,) and more inquisitive and discerning; unless this Market
was kept one Voyage, and not another.
I have bestowed these Objections, purely in respect to the King of
Dahomay, whom, tho’ I never saw, nor expect to be advanced in his
Court, I have a natural Propensity to wish well, since he has
redeemed his Country-Men from being sold as Slaves. I would feign,
after such an Action, excuse them from being Men-eaters; a Charge
full as bad for the People, a jumping out of the Frying-pan into the
Fire. Their Guilt herein is less likely, because it happens that this
conquered Country abounds more with Neat Cattle, than all other
parts of the Coast.
Currents on the Coast of G U I N E A .
The incomparable Sir Isaac Newton solves all the Phænomena of
the Tides upon the sole Principle of Gravity. The Earth, Sun, Moon,
and all the celestial Bodies, says he, have a Gravitation towards their
Centers, in proportion to the quantitys of Matter in each of them. Our
Earth being within the Activity of the Sun and Moon’s Attractions; the
fluid part of this Globe, the Ocean, feels it, and necessarily swells:
and this, by taking off or abating the force of Gravity, wherever the
Moon is perpendicular in the Ecliptick; whereby the greater Pressure
of Gravity without, carries the Water thitherward, &c. (See the Theory
of the Tides, Philos. Transact.) Currents seem to be the same thing
(at least on this Coast) and on the same Principle I shall lay down
the Facts, and then draw the Conclusions.
The Rivers of Gambia, Sierraleon, Gabon, the Straits and
Channels of Benin, and thro’ the whole Coast, the flowings are
regular on the Shores, with this difference, that in Rivers or Channels
where two Shores contract the Waters into a narrow Compass, the
Tides are strong and high, as well as regular; but on the dead Coast,
slow and low, not to above two or three foot, increasing as you
advance towards the Bay and Channels of Benin; and this is farther
evident at Cape Corso, Succonda, Commenda, and other places: for
wherever the Land rounds and cheques, the Flowings there will be a
Foot or two more than on an evener Coast, tho’ next adjoining.
The Currents here set sometimes two knots an hour along Shore,
sometimes with, sometimes against the Wind; tho’ generally to
Leeward; sometimes off, sometimes on, ripling like a Tide, at other
times a smooth unmoved Surface for days together, and never felt,
or imperceptible at 8 or 10 Leagues Offing.
The Currents set in on both Shores, to the Bay of Benin; from the
Southward, about and beyond Cape Lopez; and from the Westward
along the Papau Coast, that is, to Leeward; for the Winds are as
commonly deflected along Shore, as the Currents. This all Ships
experience in their Passage to Angola, if they hold the Land on
board, or if they endeavour getting Westward on the Papau or Gold
Coast.
The reason of this Diversity, I imagine, proceeds from the
Formation of the Land, together with the Weather, and the Winds.
The Land being on a strait Line, without Gulphs or Bays, unless
that remarkably large one of Benin and Callabar, the Flux of the Sea,
when it comes to be bounded by the Shores, have a natural
Tendency there, seen in growing stronger as they advance towards it
on both sides; because such Gulphs, in a Contraction of the Waters,
bear some Resemblance to Channels, which every where in
proportion to their Breadth and Depth, and the Sea they stand open
with, have more or less Current or Tide along their Shores inward;
assisted partly by the Winds, which, as I have observed, are
deflected, and tend also on both sides towards the Bay; and partly,
by the Weather; clear and hot Sunshines drawing more Vapours
from the Seas next Shores in all places, (and especially in Bays with
Shoals) to be expended in Exhalations, Mists, Fogs, and Rains; the
Rains again may, by being incessant for a Month or six Weeks, and
in a Rotation upon different parts of the Coast, contribute to some
little diversity of Strength.
Another reason of Currents tending mostly to Leeward here, is the
Flood being propagated from a vast Southern Ocean, takes it’s
Course along Shore; but the Ebbs revert easily and equally from all
parts to the Ocean, and therefore make so little an Alteration of the
Stream, as is seldom and scarcely felt at a very little distance from it.
The most that we found was open with this Bite of Benin. We left
Whydah the latter end of July, where tho’ the Currents in the Road
were very strong to Leeward, and the Winds altogether S. W. yet we
found we could with ease have weathered any of the Islands; which
would have been impossible, had the same Current in the Road
extended across the whole Bay; nay, our getting so far to the
Southward (i. e. Windward) will be very difficult to account for, unless
the Waters received into this Bay by those Currents are allowed to
reverberate in the middle Space, tho’ insensibly, towards the main
Ocean.
From these light Observations, I think it may be concluded, First,
that in all Places, Currents and Tides have a very great affinity. That
it is principally the Formation of the Lands drives them into the one
or the other; if contracted between two Shores so as to form a
Channel, the diurnal Elevation of the Ocean, by the Attraction of the
Moon, will make there a Tide, rapid in proportion to it’s Breadth,
Depth, and Sea it is open to: And if an open Coast, as Guinea, those
Tides become Currents. This agrees with the Voyages I have met to
those Parts, and particularly the sixth general one set forth by the
India Company of that Channel, made by the Eastern side of the
Continent, and the Island of Madagascar; for being too deep and
broad for the Direction of a Tide, there are Northern and Southern
Currents, as the elevated Sea rowls round the North or South end of
the Island: and which is still more agreeable, they are strongest
where the Channel is narrowest, and less, and vary on different
Points of the Compass, as the Sea spreads more in the Passage
cross the Line.
2. That all Currents and Tides are found only on Shores, and
indiscernible at 10 Leagues distance from a Coast, or the Mouth of
any Channel; are also variable from the same Influence of the Moon,
and Change of Weather.
R A I N S .
There is a Return of Vernal and Autumnal Rains through the whole
Coast. The former, whether on this or the other side the Equator, are
longer and more incessant. They begin on this side at Sierraleon, in
May; at the Gold Coast and Whydah, in April, preceded by S. and S.
E. Winds. On the other side the Line again, the Vernal Rains fall at
Cape Lopez, in October; at Angola in November, &c. And as these
Seasons are attended with the Interposition of Clouds thro’ both, the
Air is cooler, and therefore by the stewed Inhabitants denominated
Winter.
What conduces to such annual and regular Returns, is perhaps
inscrutable: It is only a general Observation, that the Sun, on or nigh
the Æquinox, inclines to rain every where. Dr. Clayton says, (Philos.
Trans.) that there are frequent and great Rains at Virginia in April
and September, and other Countries observe the same. The ultimate
end is to embrue the Land with Fertility, where the Inhabitants have
Sense and Willingness to co-operate with Providence.
At Cape Corso this year, they ceased the end of May; they had
fell, we understood, for six Weeks before, almost without
intermission, only some hours they were heavier, and chiefly in the
Nights, with continued Thunder, Lightning, and Calms. Whenever
they felt a Breeze, it was Southerly, (directly upon the Land) the
Clouds that contained the Rains succeeding one another from the
Ocean, as it were orderly. If the Horizon brightened as it does by
Spirts at these Seasons, the Sun is felt with redoubled Heat and
Fervour.
[30]
The Mist and Haziness of the Horizon (always on the Coast)
and those great Dews which out of the rainy Seasons fall every night
on the Shore, and rarely or never two Miles from it where the Ships
anchor, are corroborating Proofs of what is just before hinted under
the Article of Currents, that the Vapours supplying these, or Rains,
are extracted from Coasts and Shallows more abundantly than from
the main Ocean; which would otherways be seen and felt, and in
greater measure at Sea, from so large a Body of Waters
surrounding; but is so far from happening, that Exhalations of all
sorts diminish, as is the Distance from Land.
Again, the Winds from Sea, which are the Winds that usher in
these Rains, are known to spring up but a few Leagues from Shore;
(the Trade obtaining in all these Latitudes:) and tho’ I say, any
regular Periods of it under this Vicinity of the Sun all the year may be
inscrutable, yet when they do come, they visibly bring on the Land-
Clouds loaded with aqueous Vapors; a more rarified Air there
naturally attracting them, and helping their fall.
Both Ships came to Isle Del Principe the end of July, 1721, where
we felt dreadful Effects from the excessive Heats and Irregularity of
the Seamen, during our Careening; for although we arrived very
healthy, the Island furnishing Palm-Wines and the means of
debauching at easy Rates, and our Tents giving opportunity; they
soon run into Excess, which brought on an epidemical malignant
Fever, that reduced us in a short Stay of two Months, to some
Deliberations whether we could proceed to Sea safely without a
return of Men from England; the Weymouth not being able to
purchase her Anchors, and we in the Swallow with difficulty. My
Judgment, as Surgeon, was by all means to go, tho’ in the most
sickly Condition, because thus removed from the chief Causes of our
Misfortune (Calms, excessive Heats, and a disorderly Living)
whoever were visited with the Distemper, would by that method find
a Crisis in Recovery or Death, and stop the infection: We therefore,
with the Assistance of some Men from a Dutch East-India Ship that
happened to put in, got under Sail and left the Island; the effect I
have related elsewhere more at large, and shall only observe here,
that our Fevers for want of Necessaries turned in many to Fluxes,
and pursued us, tho’ with less Cruelty. The Weymouth, who brought
out of England a Compliment of 240 Men, having at the end of the
Voyage 280 dead upon her Books.
Princes was the Birth-place of Africanus and Moulee, of whom
they give this tragical Relation; That she becoming a Favourite of her
Patron, was forced from Africanus, and having a Child whose
Complexion betray’d the true Father, Africanus murdered both, and
afterwards himself, to avoid Punishment.
We touched at [31]St. Thome, the chief of these Portuguese Islands
for fresh Provisions, purchased cheap; the Profit of half a dozen
Hogs fed two or three Months, and sold at the Gold Coast, will
maintain the best Mess in a Ship a whole year.
It was lucky for Mr. Rowry, Master of a Bristol Vessel, that the Man
of War came in; his Men had made him Prisoner, and were disposing
of the Slaves at a very easy Rate with the Governor, who rejects no
Schemes of Profit. Rowry, who had been discountenanced by him
upon his Men’s Complaints, was now heard indeed; but not knowing
rightly the Method of getting Men to bring away his Brigantine in our
Company, he was obliged to take what Price the Governor would set
on her and her Cargo, and took Passage with us for Cape Corso;
where, upon Demand, he accompanied his Leave with a handsome
Acknowledgment for his Diet, and went home with the Account.
We regained the Gold Coast in fifteen days from this Island,
having met in the Passage some Sprinklings that we understood had
been heavy showers on Shore.

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Systems Analysis and Design 11th

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Systems Analysis and Design (9th Edition) Kenneth E.

Thermal Energy Systems: Design and Analysis Steven G

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A Question of Ethics 65 PHASE 2 : SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

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Ronald R. Savilla, MBA

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1.2 What Is Information Technology? 3­

1.2.1 The Changing Nature of Information Technology

in its people and tries to hire the best tal-

1.2.2 Systems Analysis and Design

Figure 1-3 Monster.com is an example of an online job search website that IT

1.2.3 What Does a Systems Analyst Do?

1.3 Information System Components 5­

transform business requirements into IT projects, they must be business-savvy as well

Case in Point 1.1: Cloud Nine Financial Advisors

1.3 Information System Components

1.3 Information System Components 7­

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1.2 What Is Information Technology? 3

1.3 Information System Components 5

1.3 Information System Components 7

1.4 Business Today 9