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Cognitive Technologies
Christos Papakostas
Christos Troussas
Cleo Sgouropoulou
Special Topics
in Artificial
Intelligence and
Augmented
Reality
The Case of Spatial Intelligence
Enhancement
Editor-in-Chief
Daniel Sonntag, German Research Center for AI, DFKI,
Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany
Titles in this series now included in the Thomson Reuters Book Citation Index
and Scopus!
The Cognitive Technologies (CT) series is committed to the timely publishing of
high-quality manuscripts that promote the development of cognitive technologies
and systems on the basis of artificial intelligence, image processing and
understanding, natural language processing, machine learning and human-computer
interaction.
It brings together the latest developments in all areas of this multidisciplinary topic,
ranging from theories and algorithms to various important applications. The
intended readership includes research students and researchers in computer science,
computer engineering, cognitive science, electrical engineering, data science and
related fields seeking a convenient way to track the latest findings on the foundations,
methodologies and key applications of cognitive technologies.
The series provides a publishing and communication platform for all cognitive
technologies topics, including but not limited to these most recent examples:
• Interactive machine learning, interactive deep learning, machine teaching
• Explainability (XAI), transparency, robustness of AI and trustworthy AI
• Knowledge representation, automated reasoning, multiagent systems
• Common sense modelling, context-based interpretation, hybrid cognitive
technologies
• Human-centered design, socio-technical systems, human-robot interaction, cog-
nitive robotics
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ness applications and CT in mobile robotic systems
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Access mode.
Christos Papakostas • Christos Troussas •
Cleo Sgouropoulou
Special Topics in Artificial

Intelligence and Augmented
Reality
The Case of Spatial Intelligence
Enhancement
Christos Papakostas Christos Troussas
Department of Informatics and Computer Department of Informatics and Computer
Engineering Engineering
University of West Attica University of West Attica
Εgaleo, Greece Egaleo, Greece
Cleo Sgouropoulou
Department of Informatics and Computer
Engineering
University of West Attica
Egaleo, Greece
ISSN 1611-2482 ISSN 2197-6635 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-52004-4 ISBN 978-3-031-52005-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52005-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Foreword
In the pages of this book, titled Special Topics in Artificial Intelligence and
Augmented Reality with the subtitle The Case of Spatial Intelligence Enhancement,
lies a comprehensive exploration of AI and AR at the intersection of spatial intelli-
gence. This book offers an in-depth examination of both theoretical and practical
aspects, guiding the way toward enhancing spatial intelligence in the era of techno-
logical convergence. Readers will find valuable insights, diverse case studies, and a
roadmap for navigating the evolving landscape of technologies that enhance human
cognition.
This work spans various critical subjects, including the foundations and applica-
tions of AI and AR, their symbiotic relationship, and their combined impact on the
development of spatial intelligence. The authors have undertaken a commendable
effort to bring together expertise from diverse domains, providing a comprehensive
view of this captivating field. By addressing both the theoretical underpinnings and
real-world applications, this book serves as a bridge, connecting scholarly discourse
to practical implementation, offering a clear and comprehensive understanding of
the subject matter.
One of the notable strengths of this work is its ability to illuminate the vast poten-
tial of AI and AR in enhancing human spatial intelligence. The authors have curated a
collection that not only sheds light on the transformative impact of these technologies
but also encourages interdisciplinary discourse. Scholars, educators, and profession-
als alike will benefit from the diverse perspectives presented, fostering a deeper under-
standing of the profound influence of AI and AR on spatial intelligence enhancement.
In conclusion, this book represents a valuable resource that underscores the criti-
cal juncture of AI, AR, and spatial intelligence. The authors’ collective expertise
and their commendable effort in bringing together various facets of this field make
this work an essential asset for anyone seeking a comprehensive and insightful
exploration of the subject. It is my hope that this book will inspire, inform, and
spark further research in this dynamic and ever-evolving domain.
Professor of Computer Science, University of the Philippines Jaime Caro,

Quezon City, Philippines
v
Preface
In an ever-evolving world driven by technological advancements, the intersection of

spatial intelligence, augmented reality, and fuzzy logic user modeling has emerged
as a captivating frontier of research and innovation. These three interconnected
realms are not only at the forefront of technological development but also have the
potential to reshape and enhance a multitude of domains, including education, arti-
ficial intelligence, and industry. However, while these concepts have made waves in
academic circles and technology hubs, their integration into education remains rela-
tively uncharted territory.
This book sets out to bridge this gap and provide an insightful perspective on the
transformative power of spatial intelligence, augmented reality, and fuzzy logic user
modeling in the realm of education. In our pursuit of this endeavor, we propose an
innovative approach that combines adaptive hypermedia with mobile training appli-
cations. This groundbreaking method seeks to revolutionize the delivery of educa-
tional content by tailoring it to the specific needs and preferences of each learner.
The use of augmented reality in this approach is a cornerstone of our endeavor,
offering a dynamic and interactive learning environment. By superimposing digital
content onto the physical world, learners can engage with educational materials in a
manner that is not only immersive but also profoundly tangible. This approach not
only encourages active participation but also stimulates creativity and deepens
understanding through visualizations, simulations, and real-time feedback.
What truly sets this approach apart is its incorporation of spatial intelligence
training within the augmented reality experience. This facet enhances learners’ abil-
ity to perceive and comprehend spatial relationships, nurturing skills such as spatial
visualization, mental rotation, and spatial reasoning, which hold significant value
across various academic disciplines and real-world applications.
Further enhancing the learning experience is the integration of fuzzy logic user
modeling, which ensures that educational content adapts to the unique preferences,
learning pace, and strengths of each individual. This personalized approach custom-
izes the presentation and difficulty level of content based on the learner’s responses,
thus optimizing the learning journey, and making it not only more efficient but also
more effective.
vii
viii Preface
To comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness and impact of our proposed

approach, this book presents a multi-model evaluation based on Lynch and
Ghergulescu’s framework. This evaluation includes various methodologies such as
t-test analysis, control and experimental groups, and an extended technology accep-
tance model (TAM) for validation. The amalgamation of these diverse evaluation
methods empowers readers to draw robust conclusions about the significance of
integrating adaptive hypermedia into mobile training applications with augmented
reality.
Through this comprehensive evaluation, we seek to underscore the potential of
this approach to revolutionize education and contribute to advancements in
technology-enhanced learning and cognitive development. The findings of our
study offer valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers who
aspire to leverage emerging technologies to create personalized and impactful learn-
ing experiences. It is our belief that this approach has the power to transform the
way knowledge is disseminated and acquired, ushering in a new era of progress in
the fields of education, technology, and artificial intelligence, and opening up excit-
ing avenues for further research and exploration.
As you set off on this journey through the pages of this book, we invite you to
explore, learn, and imagine the future of education through the lens of spatial intel-
ligence, augmented reality, and fuzzy logic user modeling. Together, we will embark
on a transformative voyage that holds the promise of shaping a brighter and more
personalized educational landscape for generations to come.
Egaleo, Greece Christos Papakostas

Egaleo, Greece Christos Troussas
Egaleo, Greece Cleo Sgouropoulou
Contents
1 Introduction and Overview of AI-Enhanced Augmented Reality

in Education�� 1
1.1 Overview�� 1
1.2 Motivation �� 2
1.3 Research Questions�� 6
1.4 Approach and Structure�� 7
References�� 8
2 Review of the Literature on AI-Enhanced Augmented Reality
in Education�� 13
2.2 Spatial Ability: Review of Theories�� 14
2.2.1 Spatial Ability in Engineering�� 15
2.3 Augmented Reality in Education�� 20
2.3.1 AR in Engineering Education �� 21
2.4 Learning Theories �� 22
2.4.1 The Bloom’s Taxonomy�� 22
2.4.2 The SOLO Taxonomy�� 22
2.4.3 Comparison of the Learning Theories�� 23
2.5 Literature Review�� 25
2.5.1 Planning the Review (Review Protocol) �� 26
2.5.2 Conducting the Review�� 27
2.5.3 Screening of the Evaluation Papers�� 28
2.5.4 Advantages of AR in Spatial Ability Training (RQ1)�� 31
2.5.4.1 Learner Outcomes �� 31
2.5.4.2 Pedagogical Affordances �� 33
2.5.4.3 Technical Perspectives�� 33
2.5.5 Limitations of AR in Spatial Ability Training (RQ2) �� 34
2.5.6 Exploration of the Incorporation of Adaptivity
and Personalization in AR Applications (RQ3)�� 35
ix
x Contents
2.5.7 Aspects of Spatial Abilities Having Been Evaluated Using

AR (RQ4)�� 37
2.5.8 Evaluation Methods Considered for AR Applications
in Educational Scenarios (RQ5)�� 39
2.6 Summary �� 40
References�� 41
3 AI-Driven and SOLO-Based Domain Knowledge Modeling
in PARSAT AR Software �� 51
3.2 Domain Model�� 52
3.2.1 Objectives�� 52
3.3 Domain Knowledge Alongside SOLO Taxonomy�� 54
3.4 Examples of Learning Activities of Each SOLO Level�� 56
References�� 61
4 Fuzzy Logic for Modeling the Knowledge of Users in PARSAT
AR Software�� 65
4.2 Fuzzy Logic Algorithm �� 66
4.3 Initialization Process�� 68
4.4 Fuzzy Sets �� 69
4.5 Fuzzy Rule Base �� 72
4.6 Mamdani’s Inference System�� 79
4.7 Defuzzification�� 80
4.8 Adaptation of the Learning Activities Based on Fuzzy Weights�� 84
4.8.1 Decision Making�� 86
References�� 89
5 Artificial Intelligence-Enhanced PARSAT AR Software:
Architecture and Implementation�� 93
5.2 System Architecture�� 94
5.2.1 Hardware Layer�� 95
5.2.1.1 Tracking�� 95
5.2.1.2 Processing�� 96
5.2.1.3 Interacting�� 97
5.2.2 Software Layer�� 97
5.2.2.1 User Interface�� 97
5.2.2.2 3D Rendering Engine�� 100
5.2.3 Data Layer�� 106
5.2.3.1 Marker Database�� 106
5.2.3.2 3D Models Database�� 110
5.2.3.3 Interaction Model�� 114
Contents xi
5.3 Implementation of the System�� 119

5.3.1 User Interface of PARSAT�� 119
5.3.2 Fuzzy Logic Controller Implementation with
C# Scripting�� 124
5.3.2.1 System Initialization�� 124
5.3.2.2 Linguistic Variables and Membership
Functions �� 125
5.3.2.3 Fuzzification Process Implementation�� 126
5.3.2.4 Rules of the System �� 126
5.3.2.5 Evaluation of the Rules�� 127
5.3.2.6 Defuzzification�� 128
5.4 Summary �� 128
References�� 129
6 Multi-model Evaluation of the Artificial Intelligence-Enhanced
PARSAT AR Software �� 131
6.2 Evaluation Framework�� 132
6.2.1 Research Sample�� 132
6.2.2 Training Preparation �� 133
6.3 t-Test Analysis of Students’ Feedback�� 134
6.4 Comparative Analysis of Pre-test/Post-test Model in Achieving
the Learning Outcomes �� 136
6.4.1 Discussion of the Results�� 138
6.5 Extended Technology Acceptance Model for Detecting
Influencing Factors�� 139
6.5.1 Existing Acceptance Models�� 139
6.5.2 Proposed Extended Model�� 141
6.5.3 Research Model and Hypotheses�� 141
6.5.4 Research Instruments�� 143
6.5.5 Data Analysis�� 144
6.5.6 Model Validation�� 145
6.5.6.1 Measurement Model�� 145
6.5.6.2 Structural Model�� 147
6.6 Summary �� 150
7 onclusions of AI-Driven AR in Education��
C 157
7.2 Conclusions and Discussion �� 158
7.3 Contribution to Intelligent Tutoring Systems�� 163
7.4 Contribution to Domain Knowledge Model �� 166
7.5 Contribution to Student Modeling�� 169
7.6 Contribution to Electronic Assessment �� 172
7.7 Future Work�� 173
Chapter 1
Introduction and Overview
of AI-Enhanced Augmented Reality
in Education
Abstract This chapter of this book serves as an introductory chapter, offering read-
ers a comprehensive overview of the research. It begins with an “Overview” section
that outlines the main sections to provide readers with a roadmap of what to expect
in the subsequent sections. The “Motivation” section explores the reasons behind
conducting this research, emphasizing the significance of spatial ability in human
intelligence and its connection to success in scientific and educational fields. It also
discusses the potential benefits of augmented reality in enhancing spatial ability and
the importance of adaptivity in training systems, which serves as a motivation for
the study. In the “Research Questions” section, specific research questions are intro-
duced, designed to address gaps in existing literature and examine the impact of a
proposed blended mobile system on fostering spatial ability. These questions pro-
vide a clear focus for the study and guide the subsequent chapters. It highlights the
iterative nature of the research and presents the overall structure of the book, help-
ing readers understand how the subsequent chapters build upon each other.
1.1 Overview
The first chapter introduces the purpose of the research presented in the current
book. More specifically, Sect. 1.2 argues the research motivation and outlines the
problem, Sect. 1.3 defines the research questions, and the final section defines the
approach and structure of the book.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2024
C. Papakostas et al., Special Topics in Artificial Intelligence and Augmented
Reality, Cognitive Technologies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52005-1_1
2 1 Introduction and Overview of AI-Enhanced Augmented Reality in Education
1.2 Motivation
Einstein, Newton, Faraday, Maxwell, and Tesla are scientists who left their mark on
the history of physics and technology, and they all claimed that the development of
their ground-breaking theories involved the utilization of spatial visualization [1–5].
For instance, Albert Einstein gained notoriety for his utilization of creative think-
ing and his capacity to mentally comprehend challenging mathematical concepts. In
order to create his laws of motion and gravitation, Isaac Newton also possessed a
keen visual imagination and the ability to visually picture the motion of celestial
bodies. The inception of the principle of the electromagnetic field and Michael
Faraday’s research into electromagnetic induction are his two most notable accom-
plishments. Utilizing Faraday’s findings as a foundation, James Clerk Maxwell cre-
ated a series of formulas that clarify the operation of electric and magnetic fields.
These equations are known as Maxwell’s equations. The evolution of modern inno-
vations like radio and television was facilitated by these equations. His research on
alternating current (AC) electrical systems and his innovations linked to wireless
communication and electricity transmission are what made Nikola Tesla, a contem-
porary of Faraday and Maxwell, so widely recognized. Tesla was also renowned for
his prodigious visualization skills, which he allegedly used to plan and create a
number of his inventions.
Spatial visualization is the ability to mentally rotate, manipulate, and twist two-
and three-dimensional stimulus objects [6]. For scientists and engineers, spatial
visualization is a crucial ability since it may be utilized to develop new ideas, design
new technologies, and comprehend complex data. It is an ability that can be acquired
and refined with practice, and scientific and engineering education frequently
emphasizes it.
Psychologists and cognitive researchers have scrutinized and delineated the con-
cept of “spatial ability” through numerous perspectives across several decades.
Spatial ability, one of the most extensively studied human aptitudes, has undergone
various interpretations over time [6–16].
While definitions of spatial ability may vary, most researchers concur that it
entails the skill to manipulate visual and spatial data mentally. This encompasses
the ability to mentally rotate or manipulate objects, comprehend spatial connections
between objects, and navigate physical environments.
Extensive research has established a connection between spatial ability and aca-
demic performance [17, 18]. In the past decade, studies have underscored the sig-
nificant importance of spatial ability in achieving academic excellence, notably
within the realms of STEM disciplines (science, technology, engineering, and math-
ematics) [19–24]. Spatial cognition has also shown relevance across a spectrum of
vocations, encompassing STEM careers, as well as everyday tasks such as driving
and navigation.
While having better spatial skills as a child can predict a person’s future success
in STEM fields [25], a meta-analysis of the research on spatial ability by [1] revealed
that spatial skills can develop over time with the right kind of training [26].
1.2 Motivation 3
According to research, spatial ability may be developed via practice and instruction
and is not a set characteristic. Although there is some research that indicates that
spatial ability may have genetic roots, contextual elements including exposure to
spatially demanding activities and experiences can also have a significant impact on
how spatial ability develops.
There are several ways to train one’s own spatial skills, including playing spe-
cific video games, engaging in mental rotation and visualization exercises, and get-
ting specialized spatial instruction in school settings. For children’s spatial ability to
develop, early exposure to challenging spatial tasks and situations can be very
helpful.
The importance of spatial ability, in engineering education, has been highlighted
by several studies [26–30]. The visualization of abstract concepts, such as the geom-
etry of three-dimensional objects, has been of great interest in engineering educa-
tion [27]. Technical drawing design is considered to have a role in the training of
spatial skills [30, 31]. The development of multimedia software, for improving 3-D
spatial visualization skills, is based on the manipulation of physical models, provid-
ing kinaesthetic learners with a convenient way to absorb information [28].
Engineering education often involves the visualization and manipulation of com-
plex three-dimensional objects and structures, and the ability to think spatially is
critical for solving many engineering problems [32–34]. Technical drawing design
is one way in which spatial skills can be developed in engineering education.
Technical drawing involves the use of specialized software to create detailed draw-
ings and schematics of engineering designs and requires a high degree of spatial
visualization ability. By practicing technical drawing and other spatially challeng-
ing activities, engineering students can improve their spatial skills and better pre-
pare themselves for success in their future careers.
The advancement of multimedia software and other digital technologies in recent
years has provided new possibilities for enhancing spatial ability in engineering
education. These resources offer students the ability to engage with three-
dimensional models and representations on the display of their devices, making
learning more engaging and immersive. For kinesthetic learners, who learn best
through hands-on experience and physical manipulation of items, this can be
extremely helpful. Overall, the improvement of spatial ability through focused
training and instruction can have a positive impact on students’ future success in
their chosen field. Engineering education places a high value on this goal.
The challenge of student retention usually has an impact on engineering studies
too, particularly concerning first-year university students [35]. Sorby [36] argues
that students are more likely to lose motivation and abandon their engineering stud-
ies if they struggle with the course material right on. However, if they attend a
course with significant spatial abilities and maintain putting up the effort to improve
them as the course proceeds, there is a significantly lower chance that they would
drop out.
Students who struggle with the course material or lack confidence in their abili-
ties are more likely to drop out of engineering studies, particularly in the first year
of university. However, enhancing spatial skills might be crucial for increasing
student retention in their coursework. Universities and educational programs can

assist students in addressing the difficulties they may encounter in their studies and
help them remain engaged and motivated by offering opportunities for students to
enhance their spatial ability as well as support and guidance to help them succeed.
Moreover, training in spatial abilities can be particularly effective in improving
student retention in engineering studies. Teachers can assist students in developing
the abilities and self-assurance they need to excel in their studies by giving them
specialized instruction and expertise in spatial visualizing activities.
Overall, addressing the issue of student retention in the classroom necessitates a
multifaceted strategy [37] that includes offering students the chance to develop their
spatial ability, providing them with support and advice to help them succeed, and
developing a welcoming and inclusive learning environment that fosters engage-
ment and motivation.
All levels of education have examined augmented reality (AR), which offers
considerable benefits like student motivation and learning effectiveness [38–42].
AR is on the verge of transforming the human–computer relationship. AR contrib-
utes to interactivity and facilitates co-creation [43]; thus, AR has the potential to
create training environments and scenarios that are cost-effective, safe and person-
alized [22, 44–49]. This represents a good fit with the spatial ability training carried
out for engineers. The immersive nature of the training using mixed reality offers a
unique realistic quality, which is not generally present in traditional education in the
classroom yet retains considerable cost advantages over large-scale real-life labora-
tories and is gaining increasing acceptance [50].
Personalized training offers great pedagogical affordances, as it provides an
enhanced learning experience, improves student engagement, and promotes knowl-
edge acquisition [51]. The adaptive systems integrate built-in components in order
to offer knowledge domain adaptivity and deliver different learning activities, tai-
lored to the student’s profile.
By tailoring learning activities to a student’s individual needs and preferences,
adaptive systems can improve student engagement and motivation. This approach
can also help to promote knowledge acquisition by providing students with targeted
feedback and support. Furthermore, adaptive technologies can offer instantaneously
evaluations of a student’s progress, enabling teachers to spot potential trouble spots
and offer extra assistance as necessary. As a whole, employing adaptive technolo-
gies in engineering education has an upside of enhancing student learning outcomes
and delivering a more efficient and tailored learning environment.
The learning material’s pedagogical potential increases with how adaptable it is
to the cognitive needs and capabilities of the students. For instance, in the case of a
student who studies a specific domain concept, having a high knowledge level, and
has been given many learning activities that are not appropriate for that level, then
the learning process may not go as expected and the student would feel frustrated
[52]. Providing inappropriate learning activities can lead to disengagement, which
may negatively affect the student’s motivation and learning outcomes. Maintaining
student involvement and facilitating the learning process can be achieved by tailor-
ing the learning activities to the students’ knowledge and cognitive capacities. This
1.2 Motivation 5
is where personalized learning comes into play since it enables specialized training
that is catered to each student’s unique requirements and talents.
The creation of AR applications that take use of the portable qualities and quick
access to information that are gained with mobile devices has become popular over
the past few years due to the trend of mixing mobile technologies with AR [53]. The
convergence of mobile technology and augmented reality has ushered in fresh pros-
pects for education and training by granting users access to augmented reality
encounters and materials via their mobile devices. This has the potential to make
learning more adaptable, personalized, and engaging [54–60].
However, the combination of AR and its application in educational settings
remains an open area research. The elaboration of educational content based on
augmented reality approaches or methods for the design and construction of highly
interactive materials so that it can offer tailored learning in any location and at any
time are not subject to any predefined rules. The potential of augmented reality
(AR) in education has been the subject of some studies and trials, but there is still
much to learn and investigate in terms of setting standards and best practices for
creating efficient AR-based learning experiences. Additionally, there is a need for
deeper and thorough evaluation techniques to determine how AR affects learning
results. It is anticipated that new approaches and frameworks will emerge to direct
the development and application of augmented reality in education as the area con-
tinues to grow.
In light of the aforementioned, the major objective of this research is to utilize
the advantages of augmented reality and the technology of adaptive systems by fus-
ing them in a novel way to provide optimized and customized spatial ability train-
ing. By combining AR technology with adaptive systems, it may be possible to
create a highly interactive and engaging learning environment that can provide per-
sonalized training in spatial ability. This could have important implications for edu-
cation in fields such as engineering, where spatial ability is a key skill.
Given that the undergraduate students of the Departments of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, Biomedical Engineering, Industrial Design and Production
Engineering, Informatics and Computer Engineering, Surveying and Geoinformatics
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Naval Architecture, and Civil Engineering
of the School of Engineering of the University of West Attica, are offered at their
curriculum, courses such as the technical drawing, which is highly correlated with
an advanced level of spatial ability, this research developed a mobile application for
spatial ability training. The mobile application, namely PARSAT (personalized spa-
tial ability training application), incorporates learning theories to support the peda-
gogical features of the system, and fuzzy expert system for personalization and
adaptivity. The incorporation of learning theories and a fuzzy expert system for
personalization and adaptivity can help optimize the training experience for each
individual student.
In particular, PARSAT incorporates the following:
• the use of the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) learning
theory, for the instructional design of learning content, providing a framework
for organizing and assessing student learning outcomes based on increasing lev-
els of complexity;
• the use of fuzzy logic in an AR system in engineering education, a mathematical
tool for dealing with uncertain and imprecise information, to personalize the
learning experience based on the student’s performance;
• the adaptive delivery of the learning activities taught to students in the AR sys-
tem, which adjusts the difficulty and type of activities based on the student’s
progress and needs.
Students can provide highly engaging content that is individualized to their charac-
teristics and requirements by integrating these applications into an adaptable and
accessible learning process. As a result, students are able to comprehend the con-
tents and correlate them to the actual world.
Each student can benefit from a customized learning experience that takes into
account their cognitive demands, skills, and preferences by integrating PARSAT
with an adaptable and accessible learning process. By allowing students to apply the
learning content to actual situations, this personalized learning experience can
increase student engagement, knowledge acquisition, and the practical applicability
of their learning. By incorporating AR technology, PARSAT can provide a more
immersive and engaging learning experience, which can enhance spatial ability
training in engineering education.
1.3 Research Questions
The current research has the purpose to design and develop a system for training
students’ spatial skills, in an innovative mobile environment, using augmented real-
ity technology, and adaptive tutoring techniques. The research objective is to
develop and evaluate a novel mobile system for spatial ability training using aug-
mented reality technology.
Hence, the research questions are formulated as follows:
1. What is the current state of research on spatial ability training through aug-
mented reality technology? (RQ1);
2. How can the use of mobile devices enhance the effectiveness of the system for
training spatial skills? (RQ2);
3. What are the key components of an effective system for training spatial skills
using augmented reality technology and adaptive tutoring techniques? (RQ3);
4. What are the most effective instructional strategies and techniques for training
spatial skills in a mobile augmented reality environment? (RQ4);
5. How effective is the developed AR-based spatial ability training system in
improving participants’ spatial abilities? (RQ5);
6. How does the developed AR-based spatial ability training system compared to
traditional spatial ability training methods in terms of effectiveness and effi-
ciency? (RQ6);
1.4 Approach and Structure 7
7. What is the impact of the system on students’ academic achievement and moti-
vation to train spatial skills? (RQ7);
8. What are the participants’ perceptions of the usability and effectiveness of the
developed AR-based spatial ability training system? (RQ8).
1.4 Approach and Structure
In essence, the aim of this research is to enhance the realm of spatial ability training
by investigating the capabilities of augmented reality (AR) technology in creating a
mobile training system that is both effective and efficient while also capturing the
user’s engagement. The research will encompass the following activities:
• a comprehensive literature review
• a design phase
• an implementation phase
• an evaluation phase
to answer the research questions and achieve the research objective.
The structure of this book is well-organized and follows a logical progression.
Following is a brief synopsis of each chapter:
• Chapter 2 “Review of the Literature on AI-enhanced Augmented Reality in
Education”: This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of the related literature
on the topic of the book. It attempts to highlight the research’s current deficien-
cies and offer an extensive overview of the research setting. The chapter will also
discuss the state of the art at the point in time and offer a critical assessment of
earlier research.
• Chapter 3 “AI-driven and SOLO-based Domain Knowledge Modeling in
PARSAT AR Software”: This chapter describes the domain knowledge model
used in the book and the integration of the SOLO taxonomy. In-depth analysis of
the taxonomy and domain knowledge used, as well as their applicability to the
research question, will also be provided in this chapter.
• Chapter 4 “Fuzzy Logic for modeling the Knowledge of Users in PARSAT AR
Software”: This chapter describes the student model used in the book and the
integration of fuzzy logic. The student model and the fuzzy logic employed will
also be thoroughly examined in this chapter, along with their applicability to the
subject of the study.
• Chapter 5 “Artificial Intelligence-enhanced PARSAT AR Software: Architecture
and Implementation”: This chapter provides a detailed description of the archi-
tecture and implementation of the proposed system. It will also discuss the soft-
ware tools and technologies used, the design decisions made, and the
implementation challenges faced.
• Chapter 6 “Multi-Model Evaluation of the Artificial Intelligence-Enhanced
PARSAT AR Software”: This chapter evaluates the proposed system using a
multi-model approach. Additionally, it will go through the design decisions

made, the implementation difficulties encountered, and the software tools and
technologies employed. The chapter will also compare the proposed system to
existing approaches.
• Chapter 7 “Conclusions of AI-driven AR in Education”: This chapter presents
and discusses the conclusions of the book. It will highlight the research’s contri-
butions, provide a summary of the findings, and make suggestions for additional
study. The chapter will also discuss the research’s shortcomings and the ramifi-
cations of its findings.
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Chapter 2
Review of the Literature on AI-Enhanced
Augmented Reality in Education
Abstract This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature regarding

AI-enhanced Augmented Reality (AR). It serves as the foundational knowledge
base for the study, offering insights into relevant theories, concepts, and prior
research studies. The chapter begins with an “Overview” section, outlining the pur-
pose and significance of the literature review in establishing a robust theoretical
framework. It emphasizes the necessity of exploring spatial ability, AR technology,
and learning theories to comprehend their interconnections and implications for the
development of a mobile training system. The subsequent section, “Spatial Ability:
Review of Theories,” delves into the concept of spatial ability, particularly within
engineering disciplines. Various theories and models that elucidate spatial ability, its
components, and its relevance in the context of success in engineering are discussed
in detail, providing a theoretical underpinning. The “Augmented Reality in
Education” section explores the use of AR in educational settings, with a focus on
engineering education. It discusses the advantages and potential of AR technology
in enhancing spatial ability and facilitating learning, considering both pedagogical
and technical aspects. The “Learning Theories” section introduces different learn-
ing theories, notably Bloom’s taxonomy and the Structure of Observed Learning
Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy. It outlines these taxonomies’ principles, stages, and
hierarchical levels, emphasizing their relevance to instructional design and assess-
ing learning outcomes. The “Literature Review” section elucidates the methodology
employed in conducting the literature review, including the evaluation paper screen-
ing process. Findings from the review are presented, addressing various research
questions, such as the benefits and drawbacks of AR in spatial ability training, adap-
tive features in AR applications, evaluation methods, and the specific aspects of
spatial abilities assessed using AR.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 13

Switzerland AG 2024
C. Papakostas et al., Special Topics in Artificial Intelligence and Augmented
Reality, Cognitive Technologies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52005-1_2
14 2 Review of the Literature on AI-Enhanced Augmented Reality in Education
2.1 Overview
This chapter presents an overview of the relevant literature and is organized into five
sections. More specifically, the first section of this chapter introduces the term “spa-
tial ability”, its multiple definitions, and its components. The second section of the
chapter emphasizes in the importance of spatial ability in various fields, more spe-
cifically in engineering training. The third section evaluates the use of augmented
reality technology to improve spatial skills. The fourth section presents a systematic
literature review (SLR) on the exploration of relevant training, based on augmented
reality technology, that has been used to improve spatial ability. The last section
summarizes the review of the literature.
2.2 Spatial Ability: Review of Theories
Spatial ability, as a factor of human intelligence, was initially recognized and stud-
ied by [1]. Thorndike levelled criticism against the formulation of two-factor theory
of intelligence [2], whose theory was based on the existence of a general intelli-
gence factor. Thorndike’s proposed model consisted of three mutually independent
abilities, namely abstract (maintained from Spearman’s theory), mechanical and
social intelligence, while mechanical ability was defined as the ability to visualize
the objects’ relations and understanding of the physical world. Thorndike’s theory
served as the early-stage research for later studies on spatial ability and highlighted
the importance of designing measuring tools for it.
In [3] the author also acknowledged spatial ability as a separate independent fac-
tor, opposed to Spearman’s [2] theory. Koussy researched spatial intelligence and
contributed to the creation of tools for assessing it. Koussy identified the term factor
“K”, as the ability to acquire and use visual spatial images. The manipulation of
spatial relations was introduced as an additional separate component of spatial
ability.
In [4] the author also came to a different conclusion about the nature of intelli-
gence than [2]. Thurstone suggested that the intelligence consists of seven interre-
lated primary mental abilities, rather than a single general one. These primary
mental abilities include a) associative memory; b) numerical ability; c) perceptual
speed; d) reasoning; e) spatial visualization; f) verbal comprehension; and g) word
fluency, while spatial visualization was defined as the factor involved in visualizing
and manipulating objects. Thurstone’s theory of multiple factors [4] was the basis
for creating each factor’s measuring tests.
Thurstone [5] defined three core components of spatial ability, namely mental
rotation, spatial visualization, and spatial perception. Mental rotation refers to the
capacity to identify an object as it undergoes various orientations or angles of move-
ment; spatial visualization entails the capability to discern the components of an
object when it is shifted or relocated from its initial position; and spatial perception
2.2 Spatial Ability: Review of Theories 15
involves the ability to utilize one’s own bodily orientation to engage with the sur-
rounding environment, thereby influencing spatial awareness [6].
In [7] the author put forth the theory of multiple intelligences, which challenges
the idea of intelligence as a singular, overarching capability. Instead, he suggested
the existence of eight distinct intelligences, each rooted in specific skills and apti-
tudes. Gardner’s argument stated that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, not
necessarily correlated between them, namely musical, visual-spatial, linguistic-
verbal, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalistic. Visual-spatial intelligence is defined as the ability to accurately inter-
pret the visual environment, to alter and modify one’s first perception, and to recre-
ate some aspects of one’s visual experience, even in the lack of appropriate
physical input.
In [8] the author extensively studied the factor structure of spatial ability, defin-
ing two main factors, namely a) spatial visualization; and b) spatial orientation.
Spatial visualization is the ability to mentally rotate, manipulate, and twist two- and
three-dimensional stimulus objects [8], while spatial orientation is the comprehen-
sion of the agreement of elements within a visual stimulus pattern and the aptitude
to remain unconfused by the changing orientation in which a spatial configuration
may be presented [9].
Linn and Petersen[10] researched the gender differences in the aspects of spatial
ability and labeled the spatial ability factors as: a) spatial perception; b) mental rota-
tion; and c) spatial visualization, separating mental rotation from spatial visualiza-
tion. In [11] the author also proposed three factors for spatial ability, giving them the
slightly different names: a) spatial visualization; b) spatial orientation; and c)
speeded rotation.
Many recent theories proposed additional factors or cognitive processes, in their
effort to better understand spatial ability [12, 13]. Each research has added signifi-
cantly to the definition of spatial ability, as a form of intelligence, where a person
demonstrates the capacity to mentally generate, transform, and rotate a visual image
and thus, understand and recall spatial relationships between real and imagined
objects. Table 2.1 summarizes the definitions of spatial ability and its structure
factors.
2.2.1 Spatial Ability in Engineering
In [14] the author reported a list of 84 different occupations that require top-level
spatial ability, and that engineering, and graphics-related occupations were well-
represented on this list. 26 out of 84 occupations were related to engineering, while
14 of them were related to graphics (Table 2.2). There is a significant correlation
between spatial ability and many scientific fields, such as geometry, physics and
technical drawing [15, 16].
Spatial ability stands as a pivotal cognitive prowess significantly applicable
across numerous scientific and technical domains such as engineering, graphics,
Table 2.1 Spatial ability definitions

Spatial
Author(s) factor(s) Definition
[1] Mechanical The ability of visualizing the objects’ relations and understanding
ability the physical world.
[3] “K” factor The ability of acquiring and using visual spatial images
[4] Spatial Visualizing and manipulating objects
visualization
[5] Mental The ability to recognize an object being moved in different
rotation directions or angles
Spatial The ability to recognize the parts of an object when it is moved or
visualization displaced from its original position
Spatial The ability to use the human’s own body orientation to interact with
perception the environment
[8] Spatial The ability to mentally rotate, manipulate, and twist two- and
visualization three-dimensional stimulus objects
Spatial The comprehension of the agreement of elements within a visual
orientation stimulus pattern and the aptitude to remain unconfused by the
changing orientation in which a spatial configuration may be
presented
[10] Spatial The ability to determine spatial relationships with respect to the
perception orientation of the subject’s own body
Mental Rotation of a two- or three-dimensional figure rapidly and
rotation accurately
Spatial The ability to involve complicated, multi-step manipulations of
visualization spatially presented information
[13] Spatial The ability in manipulating visual patterns, as indicated by level of
visualization difficulty and complexity in visual stimulus material that can be
handled successfully, without regard to the speed of task solution
Spatial Speed in manipulating relatively simple visual patterns by whatever
relations means (mental rotation, transformation, or otherwise)
Closure speed Speed in apprehending and identifying a visual pattern, without
knowing in advance what the pattern is, when the pattern is
disguised or obscured in some way
Closure Speed in finding, apprehending, and identifying a visual pattern,
flexibility knowing in advance what is to be apprehended, when the pattern is
disguised or obscured in some way
Perceptual Speed in finding a known visual pattern, or in accurately comparing
speed one or more patterns, in a visual field such that the patterns are not
disguised or obscured
physics, and geometry [17, 18]. Those possessing robust spatial abilities are inclined
toward triumph in these areas, and fostering spatial competence becomes a para-
mount objective for educational initiatives focused on equipping students for STEM
careers.
Beyond its significance in achieving success within the realm of engineering,
spatial ability also plays a vital role in advancing innovative technologies. Engineers
possessing robust spatial skills are more adept at conceptualizing and crafting novel
Table 2.2 Occupations requiring top-level spatial ability [14]

Occupation Occupation
1. Air-plane Designer 43. Engineer, Safety
2. Architect, Marine 44. '' Salvage
3. Botanist 45. '' Sanitary
4. Cartoonist 46. '' Sheet-metal
5. Cartoonist, Motion Picture 47. '' Systems
6. Chemist, Metallurgical 48. '' Time-study
7. Chemist, Physical 49. '' Traffic
8. Detailer 50. '' Utilization
9. Die Checker 51. '' Welding
10. Die Designer 52. Geophysicist
11. Draughtsman, Aeronautical 53. Industrial Designer
12. '' Apprentice Marine 54. Int. Combustion Engine Designer
13. '' Architectural 55. Machinery and Tool Designer
14. '' Construction 56. Manager, Tarde Mark and ©
15. '' Hull 57. Mathematician
16. '' Marine 58. Memorial Designer
17. '' Mechanical 59. Modeller
18. '' Mine 60. Neurologist
19. '' Patent 61. Obstetrician
20. '' Refrigeration 62. Oculist
21. '' Ship Detail 63. Oral Surgeon
22. '' Ship Engineering 64. Orthodontist
23. '' Structural 65. Orthopedic Surgeon
24. '' Tool Design 66. Osteopath
25. Engineer, Agricultural 67. Painter
26. '' Air-conditioning 68. Pattern Checker
27. '' Automotive 69. Pattern Lay-out Man
28. '' Ceramic 70. Pediatrician
29. '' Chemical Research 71. Physicist
30. '' Combustion 72. Production Planner
31. '' Electrical Reearch 73. Psychiatrist
32. '' Gas Distribution 74. Psycologist, Industrial
33. '' Hydraulic 75. Public Health Officer
34. '' Methods 76. Sculptor
35. '' Mining 77. Stage-scenery Designer
36. '' Petroleum 78. Surgeon
37. '' Plant 79. Tool Designer
38. '' Steam-power Plant 80. Urologist
39. '' Production 81. Veterinarian
40. '' Radio 82. Veterinarty, Bacteriologist
41. '' Railroad 83. '' Pathologist
42. '' Refrigeration 84. '' Surgeon
technologies that align with societal requirements. To illustrate, in the domain of

robotics, spatial ability is indispensable for crafting robotic systems capable of tra-
versing intricate surroundings and executing precise object manipulation.
Spatial ability performs as an indicator for success in engineering students. In
[19] the author designed a 52-h course aiming to develop skills in representing spa-
tially visualized objects through projections. The authors of [20] also launched a
fast-remedial course based on three-dimensional modeling for improving spatial
abilities of engineering students. Designing three-dimensional objects is highly
considered to be a crucial factor in the development of spatial skills [21, 22].
In engineering university education, the enhancement of the visualization skills
of the students is essential for the development of the design skills in many fields of
engineering [23, 24]. Spatial skills are the most crucial indicator of success in
objects’ manipulation and interaction [25]. Students, who have the opportunity to
enhance their spatial skills, exhibit higher levels of self-efficacy, achieve better
results in the fields of math and science and are more likely to maintain in engineer-
ing [26]. In [27] the author identified the challenge of improving the spatial ability
of engineering students. In [28] the author reported that students’ spatial ability
level is directly correlated to the success in the fields of engineering, mathematics,
and architecture.
Engineering drawing plays an important role in the efforts in improving stu-
dents’ spatial ability. The School of Engineering includes first-year university pro-
grams for various departments, such as Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Biomedical Engineering, Industrial Design and Production Engineering, Informatics
and Computer Engineering, Surveying and Geoinformatics Engineering, Mechanical
Engineering, Naval Architecture, and Civil Engineering. In these programs, stu-
dents are primarily exposed to courses like engineering drawing, technical drawing,
and computer-aided design (CAD).
According to a study by [29], courses related to technical drawing instruct stu-
dents in the utilization of manual tools like pencils, paper, and drafting boards to
create two-dimensional designs. Students must sketch the appropriate views of an
object, such as a construction building, using orthographic and isometric projection
techniques, as well as fundamental engineering graphics rules. First-year engineer-
ing students have difficulties in drawing orthographic views (such as the front view,
the top view, and the right-side view), and perspectives of a 3D view (Fig. 2.1),
since they find it difficult to understand 3D shapes from 2D views [30, 31].
Engineering students often struggle with identifying some of the views of a struc-
ture and recognizing the hidden lines [32]. This is because spatial ability, which is
necessary for accurately visualizing and manipulating objects in the mind, is not a
skill that comes naturally to everyone.
In particular, understanding engineering drawings and technical diagrams
requires a high level of spatial ability. Students need the capacity to mentally con-
struct three-dimensional objects from two-dimensional representations, compre-
hend diverse views and projections of structures (Fig. 2.1), and identify concealed
lines and other critical elements. These proficiencies are fundamental for success in
engineering but can pose difficulties in attainment.
Fig. 2.1 Spatial orthographic projections (a, b, c, d) of a 3D construction
To tackle these challenges, educators and instructional designers have devised an

array of pedagogical techniques and tools aimed at enhancing the spatial ability of
engineering students. These methods encompass the utilization of visual aids like
three-dimensional models, computer-based simulations, and virtual reality environ-
ments. Moreover, educators may incorporate spatial visualization training programs
and exercises to facilitate students in enhancing their spatial ability.
Moreover, it’s crucial to acknowledge that students possess diverse learning
styles and varying strengths and weaknesses [33, 34]. Spatial ability may be a chal-
lenge for some students, while others may demonstrate exceptional proficiency in
this domain. Hence, educators should offer a range of instructional approaches and
materials to support students in honing their spatial skills, guaranteeing that every
student has the chance to thrive in the field of engineering.
The creation of accurate engineering drawings requires a specific set of technical
guidelines and spatial skills. The technical guidelines are typically covered in engi-
neering departments’ drawing courses. Consequently, having strong spatial skills is
essential for producing high-quality engineering drawings [35]. Numerous studies
have emphasized the significance of spatial ability and have suggested various peda-
gogical approaches to enhance the development of this ability in engineering stu-
dents [23, 24, 36]. In [37] the authors emphasize the importance of strong spatial
skills, as a basic competency for future engineers, including the ability to visualize
the rotation of objects and their different perspectives.
A large number of studies has indicated that integrating the appropriate training
materials, can result in the enhancement of the training of spatial skills [35, 38–40].
Freshmen engineering students, attending engineering graphics courses, showed
substantive improvement in their spatial visualisation skills [41–44].
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opening the flap without leaving a trace, but the task was
accomplished at last.
“Now!” he exclaimed, his face flushed and his eyes gleaming, “we’ll
see what this great message is all about!”
From the envelope he took several sheets of parchmentlike paper,
which were covered with writing. Then, by the light of the lamp, he
settled himself to read the message that had never been intended for
other eyes than those of Frank Merriwell.
As Packard read he showed signs of surprise. At first he whistled
softly, then he uttered an exclamation, and at last he exclaimed
aloud:
“Well, by Jove! this is interesting!”
When he had finished reading, he started up, exclaiming:
“Frank Merriwell’s fate is in my hands! Almighty goodness! What a
ten-strike! With the aid of this I can turn him out into the world a
pauper! Roland Packard, this is the greatest piece of work you ever
did. Five hundred dollars! Why, this is worth five million dollars!”
He was wildly excited, and could hardly repress wild shouts of joy.
Indeed, he executed a savage dance of exultation.
“At last!” he panted. “Now I am able to obtain revenge for every
injury Merriwell has done me! Oh, but my revenge will be a sweet
one!”
The rascal was so excited and interested that he again read the
wonderful message from beginning to end.
“Now,” he said, “to fool Mescal first. He must pay me the five
hundred, for I need it.”
There was some writing-paper on a table near. He took several
sheets, folded them, and thrust them into the envelope from which
the message had been removed. Then he stuck down the flap with
care and brought out his sealing-wax and the ring he had purchased.
Removing the chimney from the lamp, he heated the wax in the
flame and dropped it on exactly the spot where the original seal had
been. At the proper time he pressed the ring on the wax, and an
exact reproduction of the first seal was made.
Packard surveyed his work with pride, examining it closely to see if a
casual observer could detect that the envelope had been tampered
with.
“It’s all right,” he decided. “I’ll defy anybody to tell that it has been
opened. Oh, I’m a clever devil! Mr. Merriwell is in the midst of his
glory now, but he shall go out from Yale a beggar! If he only knew!
Some time he shall know. When it is too late, I’ll tell him all, and that
shall be my triumph.”
Then he set about fixing the other envelope, into which he placed the
message, sticking down the flap and putting on the seal.
“All that is necessary is to soil it a little,” he said. “Then it will be
exactly like the original. No—by George, no!”
He had turned the original envelope and seen the writing upon it.
“Well,” muttered the fellow, after a few moments. “I’m rather clever at
imitating handwriting, so I’ll see what I can do in this case.”
Finding pen and ink, he set about the task. At first he imitated on a
sheet of paper the writing on the original envelope. The first trial was
not perfectly satisfactory, so he made another attempt.
“There,” he said, as he examined it, “if I can do as well as that on the
envelope it will be a first-class job.”
Without delay he set at work on the envelope, and the result was
greatly to his liking.
“It’s all right,” he decided, as he blotted it. “I believe it would fool
Merriwell himself.”
He destroyed the sheet on which he had been practising, and then
placed the envelope containing the message in his pocket, where it
would be safe.
“Now to get the five hundred!” he laughed, as he picked up the other
envelope. “Hamlet’s ghost! but won’t Mr. Anton Mescal be hot under
the collar when he opens this and finds nothing but blank paper in it!”
There was a slight sound at the door. A key turned in the lock, and
Packard leaped to his feet, turning in time to see the door swing
open. Quick as a flash, he thrust the envelope into his pocket.
Oliver Packard stepped into the room.
“You?” exclaimed Roland.
“Yes!” said Oliver.
He stepped in, closed the door, and locked it.
“Why the devil are you here?” snarled Roland.
“To find you,” said Oliver quietly.
“What do you want of me?”
“I want that message.”
“What message?”
“The one you snatched from Merriwell.”
“What ails you? Are you nutty?”
“Hand it over!” commanded Oliver.
“You go die!” sneered Roland. “You’re silly.”
“I am here to take it, and I shall,” declared Oliver.
“I don’t know what you’re talking about.”
“What did you put in your pocket just as I entered?”
“None of your business!”
“I know what it was.”
“Then if you know so much, why do you ask me?”
“It was the message.”
“What are you giving me about a message?”
“It’s no use to play innocent with me, Roll.”
Roland uttered a savage exclamation.
“You get out of here!” he cried, taking a step.
Oliver did not stir.
“I’ll go when you give me what I am after,” he said.
“I’ll give it to you—in the neck!”
“Roll,” said Oliver quietly, “you can’t bluff me. I know you snatched a
message from Frank Merriwell’s hand to-night, and you have it with
you. I was accused, but Merriwell believed me on my word of honor.”
“That’s more than he would me,” said Roland, with a harsh laugh.
“You have only yourself to blame if no one will believe your word of
honor,” said Oliver.
“Sermon, is it?” cried the other. “You’re always preaching nowadays,
Oll.”
“It’s no sermon now, for I have no time to waste.”
“I’m glad of it. Get out and let me alone.”
“I shall not go till I get what I came for. I will clear myself of suspicion,
and I will restore to Merriwell what rightfully belongs to him.”
“You’ve tackled a big job.”
“I shall do it.”
“How?”
“Somehow—anyhow. You have disgraced me time and again, Roll,
and I have stood it for mother’s sake. She loves you more than she
does me, and——”
“Oh, cut it out! You’ve told me this before.”
“But for me you would have broken her heart already.”
“Good little Oliver! he was his mammy’s precious boy!” mocked Roll.
“Oh, you make me sick!”
“You know what I say is true. But for me you would have been
expelled in disgrace before this. I have saved you when Frank
Merriwell was ready to punish you for your wrong-doing. How have
you repaid me! To-day you have done something that has filled me
with intense shame and humiliation. Yet I do not believe you care a
snap.”
“What’s the use?”
“Ingrate!” panted Oliver, aroused.
“Bah!” returned the other, snapping his fingers.
Oll advanced into the room, his eyes flashing.
“Before this I have shouldered the blame that you should have
taken,” he cried. “Your actions have caused me to be dropped by my
best friends, with the exception of Merriwell. Your actions caused me
to lose my chance of making the nine again this year. I have endured
all that I can. The limit is reached.”
“Now what?”
“I’m going to cut clear from you.”
“I’m glad of it!”
“But first I am going to restore that stolen message to Merriwell.”
“Are you?”
“Yes.”
“Well, go ahead.”
Roland was defiant.
“Give it to me!” panted Oliver, his hands clenched, while he trembled
in every limb. “I demand it!”
“Well, you’ll have to demand. You won’t get it.”
“You can’t get out without giving it to me, Roll,” asserted Oliver
grimly, as he now advanced upon his brother.
“What do you think you are going to do?” demanded the young
rascal. “Don’t make an idiot of yourself!”
Oliver clutched his brother by the collar.
“Give it up!” he commanded. “I’ll take it if I have to strip your clothes
off to do so.”
Roland laughed defiantly. Then he suddenly broke Oliver’s hold and
struck the hand of his brother aside.
A moment later Oliver flew at Roland with terrible fury, grasping him
by the throat.
Then began a desperate encounter between the brothers. Roland
found Oliver desperate and determined. For at least ten minutes they
fought, and at last Oliver had thrown his brother to the floor and
pinned him there. Then he thrust his hand into Roland’s pocket and
drew out the envelope that the youthful villain had prepared to
deceive Anton Mescal.
“I have it!” exclaimed Oliver triumphantly.
“Well, keep it!” grated Roland, inwardly delighted over the fact that
the message was safe and Oliver was deceived. “Let me up! You
ought to be satisfied.”
Having put the letter in his pocket, Oliver quickly leaped to his feet
and backed away, saying:
“I am satisfied in getting the message, but I’d had it even though you
had forced me to kill you!”
“You’re a nice one!” snapped Roland, sitting up. “You’re a fine
brother to have!”
“I can return the compliment with interest. But never again will I
shoulder any of your wrong-doing, Roland. If you get into a bad
scrape in the future through your actions, you must not look to me for
assistance.”
“Oh, I won’t! Don’t worry about that. After to-night we are no longer
brothers! You are my enemy!”
“I have been your best friend. You have made your choice by your
conduct.”
Oliver had retreated to the door, still watching Roland, who now
laughed and said:
“Get out if you want to; I sha’n’t try to stop you. I’ll not fight again
over that old message. I don’t believe it amounts to anything,
anyhow.”
Oliver unlocked the door cautiously, for he did not trust Roland, even
then.
“I shall tell Merriwell the truth,” he said, “and I shall not ask him to let
you off without punishment, as I have in the past. He may punish you
or not, as he chooses. If he does not, it will be because he is the soul
of generosity.”
Then he opened the door and disappeared quickly, closing it behind
him.
Roland Packard laughed in noiseless triumph.
“Go it, you fool!” he whispered. “I have the message, and you have
nothing but an envelope containing a lot of blank paper. I’d like to
see Merriwell’s face when he opens that envelope!”
CHAPTER V.
CELEBRATION OF THE OLD GRADS.
The celebration was in progress. Frank Merriwell, with Inza Burrage

at his side, was watching the fun from Vanderbilt. Frank’s heart was
troubled because of the loss of the message, but his face was
smiling.
The class of ’Umpty-six was celebrating its silver-wedding. Twenty-
five years had passed since these hilarious old grads received their
sheepskins. They were back in force, and they had set out to make
things lively.
The great dinner at Heibs’ was over. But, unless one eats the dinner,
what profit to describe it. So the class of ’Umpty-six made merry on
this occasion of hilarious good cheer. After twenty-five years the
class had returned to dear old Yale, dined in the shadow of her
buildings, and drunk often and lovingly to the memory of bygone
days.
A band awaited those sons of ’Umpty-six outside the door. The
toasts were over, so that now they were ready to start upon their
night of fun. What though their hair is streaked with gray! What
though some are bewhiskered to the eyes! Have they not left dignity,
business cares, and such minor matters at home?
The band struck up, “For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow.” The ’Umpty-
sixers came out of Heibs’, arm in arm. They caught up the song,
and, in full blare, the band moved toward Chapel Street, the grads
following. They turn into Chapel Street, which, even at this hour, is
brilliantly lighted, for no one thinks of sleep to-night. And thus they
move toward Osborne Hall.
On that corner, where is now the sober recitation hall, for half a
century stood the old Yale fence, the focus of college life, the scene
of storied struggles, the theater of evening glees, the symbol of
happy days at Yale.
But now the old fence is gone. However, nothing will do for these old
grads but that a substitute, propped up by iron supports, must be set
in front of Osborn, and thither the jolly old ’Umpty-sixers direct their
course.
“To the fence! Clear the road! Let off the red fire! Turn loose the sky-
rockets and Roman candles, and cram the night full of blooming
noise!”
Up Chapel Street they come in a flare of colored fire, with the rockets
hissing skyward, the Roman candles popping aloft their gleaming
balls of colored flame, while torpedoes and giant crackers add to the
racket.
The windows of the New Haven House are filled with women and
pretty girls who had been watching the hilarious crowd of grads
across the street all the evening. This is a new and wild scene to
them, and now, when they behold the ’Umpty-sixers come singing
and dancing up to the fence, not a few are more than ever
impressed by the fact that it is a dangerous thing to turn a Yale
graduate loose on old New Haven town upon the occasion of one of
his class reunions.
“’Umpty-sixers, take the fence!” goes up the cry.
There follows a rush of the old fellows, all eager to gain a place on
the fence.
Then the band plays all the old college songs, and for several hours
to come these hilarious old gray-beards will bawl and howl to the
strains of the band.
But ’Umpty-six is not the only class mixed up in this general blow-
out. Other and younger classes are there, back for occasions of
lesser significance than the silver-wedding. Nearly a thousand Yale
men are surging about Osborn corner, which is kept brilliantly lighted
by the glare of Egyptian red lights. Judging by the deafening noise, it
would seem that the entire stock of fireworks in the city must have
been set off already. But they will keep coming in wagon-loads.
And in the midst of all this tumultuous rejoicing the man who has
won for Yale the baseball championship of the season is not
forgotten.
“Long cheer for Merriwell!” shrieks an ’Umpty-sixer.
Then the whole vast crowd of Yale men pause to roar out the cheer
for a Yale man who to-night is more famous than all others.
No wonder that Merriwell himself felt a thrill. No wonder some of his
friends laughed while their eyes were dimmed with tears.
And on his arm was the pressure of a hand—the hand of the girl he
loved. And at his side was a radiantly beautiful girl, who felt that on
this day of his glory her joy must be even greater than his.
Hans Dunnerwurst was sobbing.
“Whut in thunder is the matter with yeou?” blurted Ephraim Gallup,
giving the Dutch youth a punch.
“I don’d knew vot id vos,” answered Hans, “but I veel like I vos peing
tickled a fedder by till I couldn’t stood him no longer alretty.”
“Begorra! Oi fale loike Oi’d nivver get over it!” said Barney Mulloy.
“Oi’ll drame av this fer a year.”
Elsie is there. She is saying nothing, but the joy in her blue eyes
speaks. She looks at Frank as that mighty cheer for him rolls up to
the rocket-riven sky. She sees Inza’s hand on Frank’s arm, and then
—then she turns to Hodge.
Bart, once called selfish, feels that he is far happier than he would be
were those men cheering for him. A good, true friend Bart had been,
and in this hour there is nothing of envy in his heart.
Why should there be? Elsie was beside him, and, somehow, he felt
that for all of Frank’s great glory, for all of bewildering, dark-eyed
Inza, he—Bart—had won the prize of prizes.
“Speech!” shouted an ’Umpty-sixer, as the cheering subsided.
“Speech! Speech!” roared the others.
“Speech by Billy Bilton, the only and original windmill of ’Umpty-six!”
cried an old grad. “Put him up—put him in the wagon with the
fireworks! Shoot off your face, Billy! Billy Bilton!”
“Billy Bilton! ’Umpty-six!” roared the crowd.
Billy Bilton was the Honorable William P. Bilton, representative in
Congress for the great and glorious Commonwealth of Maine. Billy
smiled, and that smile was something worth beholding! He removed
the cigar from his mouth and held it between his fingers.
“My contemporaries,” he began, pointing with the cigar toward the
fireworks in the wagon, “have been doing such good work that I feel
handicapped. But I want to say that the greatest thing in this great
university on this great night, next to the great class of ’Umpty-six, is
the great Frank Merriwell!”
Then they cheered again.
“Now,” said Billy, when he could again be heard, “I want to tell you
what Frank Merriwell has done for Yale. He has made for her the
proudest athletic record of any college in the country. Since the day
that he was placed in command not one important game has been
taken from us. It was he who arose in time to lift Yale from the slough
of despond into which she had fallen, and it was he who has led her
to the dazzling heights of glory where she now stands. That’s not all.
While he has uplifted Yale he has risen himself, until to-day he is
known from the broad Atlantic to the blue Pacific. Yea, wherever the
flag of our country floats, the glorious Stars and Stripes, there has
spread the name and fame and glory of Merriwell, of Yale.”
It was impossible for him to continue until they had cheered again.
“Even to foreign lands his glory has spread,” the speaker went on.
“Wherever the English language is spoken the name of Merriwell
may be heard. From the Klondike to Patagonia, from the Philippines
to South Africa, he is known and admired and reverenced as the
model American youth. Old men commend him to the young, the
young try to model after him, and even the child at its mother’s knee
lisps the name of Merriwell.”
“Oh, say!” muttered Frank; “he’s putting it on too thick! I can’t stand
this!”
But Billy was ready to switch now, although he had no thought of
stopping. He waved his hand, and sparks flew from his glowing cigar.
“Now,” he shouted, “I want to tell you what ’Umpty-six has done for
Yale. ’Umpty-six is the greatest class that ever graduated from Yale!”
he declared, with another wild gesture that caused him to drop his
cigar. “’Umpty-six is——”
Bang—barked a cannon cracker in the wagon.
“’Umpty-six——”
Bang! bang! bang!
A series of terrible explosions set William to dancing in a lively
manner, for his fallen cigar had ignited the fireworks in the wagon.
The horse attached to the wagon was frightened and broke away,
despite all efforts to hold him.
Immediately the Honorable William lost his footing and fell upon his
knees in the wagon, while away pranced the horse at a mad gallop.
The orator was kneeling in the midst of a pyrotechnic display of
hissing Roman candles, flaming red lights, bursting cannon crackers,
and screaming rockets. Jack Ready afterward declared that it was a
grand and awe-inspiring spectacle.
“There goes Windy Billy!” shouted the crowd, and every man, to the
last one, started after the blazing wagon and the most startling piece
of set fireworks ever seen in New Haven, which was long
remembered by the name of “The American Representative in All
His Glory.”
As the wagon disappeared Frank Merriwell, who was laughing at the
astonishing climax, felt a hand on his shoulder. He turned and saw
Oliver Packard.
“I have found you at last,” said Packard. “I’ve been hunting for you
more than two hours.”
“I have been right here all along,” said Frank. “What do you want,
Oliver?”
“I have brought it,” was the triumphant answer, as Packard put his
hand into his pocket and drew out the sealed oilskin envelope. “Here
it is, Merriwell.”
“Good!” exclaimed Merry, in great satisfaction, as he immediately
thrust it into his pocket. “I’ll take care it is not snatched from me
again. I’ll ask you no questions, Oliver, and I’ll not forget what you
have done.”
CHAPTER VI.
ANTON MESCAL STRIKES.
Roland Packard had fancied he might be forced to destroy the

original oilskin envelope in removing the message from it, and for
that reason he had secured a duplicate. When he succeeded in
getting the message out without destroying the original envelope, he
decided that the best thing to do was to place the blank paper in that
same envelope, as the clean newness of the other might betray the
trick. Then he was seized by a desire to put the message in the other
envelope and copy as accurately as possible the writing upon it,
which he did.
The villainous student chuckled gleefully as he thought how his
brother had been deceived.
“I have the message safe in my pocket,” he muttered, “while Oll is
taking the fake to Merriwell. But must I give up this genuine article in
order to get the five hundred from Mescal?”
He was not at all pleased by the thought. In fact, he quickly decided
not to give up the message, if he could help it. He set to thinking the
matter over, and it was not long before he had decided on his course
of action. He left the club-room and skulked away to his own room,
taking care to attract as little attention as possible.
The following morning Roland secured another oilskin envelope.
Knowing Oliver would be off to the exercises of the day, he sought
his own room and prepared the envelope there.
When he came out the seniors, in caps and gowns, were assembling
at the chapel, into which a crowd of visitors was flowing.
“Merriwell will be there in all his glory!” muttered Packard to himself.
“He will be the cynosure of all eyes. Oh, he’ll feel proud and fine, but
little he’ll dream that it is my hand that will send him forth from Yale a
pauper.”
The chapel was thronged with visitors when the exercises began,
and Packard was right in thinking that Merriwell would be the center
of attraction.
In the meantime Packard had sought Anton Mescal, whom he finally
found in a room at the Tontine. Mescal had a bottle of wine on the
table at his elbow, and was smoking a Spanish cigarette. His face
was flushed and his eyes gleamed wolfishly when Roland entered.
He did not rise, but regarded the student grimly.
“I’ve come,” said Packard, with an air of triumph.
“I see you have,” said Mescal coldly, showing his white teeth after
the manner of a wolf.
“You do not appear glad to see me.”
“But I am glad—very glad,” said the man from the West, in a very
singular way.
Packard paused, and a shiver ran over him. There was something
deadly in the atmosphere.
“Sit down,” invited Mescal, in that same awesome manner, making a
slight gesture toward a chair.
“I had a hard time getting the message,” began Packard awkwardly.
“Then you did get it?” asked Mescal.
“Yes. When I set out to do a thing, I have a way of doing it. But you
do not seem much pleased.”
“I am pleased—very pleased. Go on. How did you get it?”
“I went straight to Merriwell’s room in the tracks of the man you bade
me follow.”
“To Merriwell’s room?”
“Yes. I could not get a chance to tackle the fellow and secure the
message. You know the streets were full.”
“Yes.”
“If I had tackled him on the street I must have failed, and I would
have been lodged in the jug.”
“Possibly. Go on.”
The manner of the Westerner had not changed in the least, and
Roland felt that those daggerlike eyes were piercing him through and
through.
“Merriwell’s room was packed with his friends, who were there to
congratulate him. I walked right in after the messenger.”
“Very bold of you!”
“The messenger took the message from his pocket and handed it
over to Merriwell.”
“And you?”
“I was near enough to spring forward and snatch it from Merriwell’s
hand.”
“But you did not?”
“I did! I snatched it and fled. I eluded the pursuers and got away with
it. Of course, they were searching for me last night, so I was
compelled to lay low. But I am here now.”
“And you have the message?”
“I have.”
Mescal rose to his feet, and the look on his face seemed to become
more dangerous than ever.
“Where is it?”
“Here,” said Packard, also rising.
From his pocket he took the fake envelope, which he held in his
hand.
“Give me the five hundred dollars,” he demanded. “It is yours the
moment you pay me the money.”
Mescal stepped clear of the table, and by a sudden spring placed
himself between Packard and the door. He was like a panther in his
movements.
“What’s the matter with you?” asked Roland, in alarm. “What are you
doing? Don’t think for a moment that you can take the message from
me without paying the money.”
“You fool!” said Mescal, in a low tone. “You liar! You traitor!”
Packard saw there was trouble in the air. He wondered if in any
manner this man could have discovered his trick.
“What do you mean by calling me such names?” he blustered.
“I mean just what I have said; you are a fool, a liar, and a traitor. You
came here to deceive me!”
“To deceive you?”
“Yes.”
“How?”
“With that thing!” said the man, pointing at the oilskin envelope. “It
does not contain the message!”
Packard was astounded, but he resolved to make a good bluff.
“What are you saying?” he exclaimed, pretending to be much
astonished. “What do you mean?”
“I mean that I know your game to beat me out of five hundred
dollars! I mean that I was watching you last night! I mean that I saw
you when you went to Merriwell and gave the message to him with
your own hand!”
Roland gasped.
“Went to him—and gave him—the message?” he faltered. “Why,
man, you are——” Then he paused, uttering a little cry, as a sudden
light broke on him.
It was Oliver this fellow had watched! It was Oliver he had seen give
the fake envelope to Merriwell!
“You are mistaken,” he said swiftly, although he could not quite see
how he was going to make things clear. “I have a twin brother who
looks exactly like me. You saw him.”
For one moment Mescal seemed surprised, and then a dangerous
laugh came from his lips.
“And what was your twin brother doing with the message?” he
demanded.
Roland choked and hesitated. That hesitation seemed to fan the
man to a burst of fury.
“Fool!” he hissed, crouching. “You have tried to deceive the wrong
man! Had you known me better you would not have done so! In my
body flows the blood of the Spaniard, and I never forgive an injury!
You betrayed me, and I will settle with you as we settle such scores
in the West!”
Out flashed a slender dagger in his hand. Roland uttered a cry of
fear as Mescal leaped upon him. The student tried to defend himself,
but Mescal’s blade rose and fell.
“You devil!” gasped Packard. “You have stabbed me.”
Then, as Roland sank to his knees, Mescal broke away, flung the
blood-stained dagger on the floor, and bounded to the door. One
backward look he took as he disappeared, seeing the bleeding youth
upon the floor.
Then he fled from the hotel and from New Haven.
Packard was not fatally wounded. The dagger had pierced the
muscle of his arm, and the point had penetrated his side as far as a
rib. The wound in the arm was the most painful, and the other was
not dangerous. In the hospital Roland was skilfully treated, but he
persistently refused to tell how or by whom he had been wounded.
Nor would he stay in the hospital when he found that his wound was
not at all dangerous if properly cared for. He came out that afternoon
and returned to the college.
He found the afternoon exercises on the campus taking place. The
place was like an open arena, with temporary seats rising in tiers all
round it. Those seats were packed with human beings, spectators
and friends of the students. Already the classes had marched in, led
by the band, and assembled on the benches in the middle of the
arena, where they now sat sedately smoking long clay pipes and
wearing caps and gowns. They were listening to the historians of the
class, who were reading the class histories.
Packard looked on, feeling that something was occurring in which he
had no part and no interest. His arm was in a sling, and this last
enemy of Merriwell at Yale looked a forlorn and wretched figure.
The histories read by the different historians had been full of hits
upon the various members of the class. As a man’s name was called
his companions lifted him upon their shoulders, while his history was
given to the strained ears of the gathering. He was compelled to
submit gracefully, but some of those sharp hits caused the victims to
look like fresh-boiled lobsters.
The historian was reading when Packard reached a spot where he
could see and hear. Bruce Browning was held aloft upon the
shoulders of his fellows. When it was finished, Browning was
lowered, and up came Bart Hodge as his name was mentioned.
“Merriwell’s friends!” muttered Packard bitterly. “Everybody seems to
be Merriwell’s friend to-day. I’m the only one of the whole howling
pack who has remained his enemy. He has conquered them all, but
I’ll conquer him!”
Then Hodge was lowered. There was a stir. The name of Merriwell
came from the lips of the historian. Instantly something remarkable
took place. Merry was lifted and held aloft, but every man on these
benches rose to his feet. It was a tribute to Frank, and the great
crowd of watching spectators caught the feeling. Up rose that mass
of men and women and youths and girls in one great surge, standing
for the moment to do honor to the most famous college man in the
world. It was a spectacle never forgotten at Yale.
Then those students who were not holding Frank aloft sat down, and
the spectators followed their example.
The historian, his voice ringing out clear and strong, delivered a
blood-stirring eulogy on Merriwell.
“Bah!” muttered Packard, and, sick at heart, he slunk away, unwilling
to listen to those words of adulation for one he hated with undying
intensity.
Late that afternoon, when the exercises were all over, Oliver Packard
found Roland in the room they had occupied together. Oliver was
surprised when he saw his brother’s arm in a sling, and he asked
what had happened.
“None of your business!” answered Roland surlily.
“You are hurt?” exclaimed Oliver, forgetting that he had vowed he
would take no further interest in his wayward brother. “What is it,
Roll! Won’t you tell me how badly you are hurt?”
“Go to the devil!” snarled Roland.
Oliver sat down, a look of sadness on his face. For some time he sat
in silence; but he spoke at last.
“Where were you while the exercises were taking place to-day?” he
asked.
“That’s my business,” said Roland.
“You should have been there. If you had, it’s possible your arm would
not be in a sling now. Roland, I have returned the message to
Merriwell, and I feel that he will take no action against you. I did not
ask him not to do so, for I have been forced to ask him so many
times before that I was ashamed.”
“Then I owe you no thanks.”
“No; but you do owe him something. Is the last spark of honor and
the last particle of justice driven from your heart? Can’t you see
where you have placed yourself by your conduct toward this man,
who to-day has been honored as no Yale man ever before was
honored?”

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Special Topics in Artificial Intelligence

and Augmented Reality: The Case of

Augmented Exploitation Artificial Intelligence

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence Undergraduate

AI IA 2016 Advances in Artificial Intelligence XVth

Handbook of Artificial Intelligence and Wearables:

Distributed Computing and Artificial Intelligence,

The Psychoanalysis of Artificial Intelligence 1st

Playing Smart: On Games, Intelligence, and Artificial

AI Meets BI: Artificial Intelligence and Business

Special Topics in Artificial

ISSN 1611-2482 ISSN 2197-6635 (electronic)

Paper in this product is recyclable.

Professor of Computer Science, University of the Philippines Jaime Caro,

In an ever-evolving world driven by technological advancements, the intersection of

To comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness and impact of our proposed

Egaleo, Greece Christos Papakostas

1 Introduction and Overview of AI-Enhanced Augmented Reality

2.5.7 Aspects of Spatial Abilities Having Been Evaluated Using

5.3 Implementation of the System���������������������������������������������������������� 119

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

student retention in their coursework. Universities and educational programs can

1.4 Approach and Structure

multi-model approach. Additionally, it will go through the design decisions

1. D. Uttal et al., “The Malleability of Spatial Skills: A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies,”

Abstract This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature regarding

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 13

2.2 Spatial Ability: Review of Theories

2.2.1 Spatial Ability in Engineering

Table 2.1 Spatial ability definitions

Table 2.2 Occupations requiring top-level spatial ability [14]

technologies that align with societal requirements. To illustrate, in the domain of

Fig. 2.1 Spatial orthographic projections (a, b, c, d) of a 3D construction

To tackle these challenges, educators and instructional designers have devised an

The celebration was in progress. Frank Merriwell, with Inza Burrage

Roland Packard had fancied he might be forced to destroy the

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Professor of Computer Science, University of the Philippines Jaime Caro,

Egaleo, Greece Christos Papakostas

1 Introduction and Overview of AI-Enhanced Augmented Reality

2.5.7 Aspects of Spatial Abilities Having Been Evaluated Using

5.3 Implementation of the System�� 119

1.4 Approach and Structure

2.2 Spatial Ability: Review of Theories

2.2.1 Spatial Ability in Engineering