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DC Dutta’s
Textbook of
Gynecology
including Contraception
DC Dutta's
Textbook of
neco o
including Contraception
Seventh Edition
Edited by
Hiralal Konar (Hons; Gold Medalist)
MBBS (Cal), MD (PGI), DNB (India)
MNAMS, FACS (USA), FRCOG (London)
Chairman, Indian College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2013)
Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology
Calcutta National Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
One-time Professor and Head, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
Midnapore Medical College and Hospital, West Bengal University of Health Sciences, Kolkata, India;
Rotation Registrar in Obstetrics, Gynecology and Oncology
Northern and Yorkshire Region, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
Examiner of MBBS, DGO, MD and PhD of different Indian Universities
and National Board of Examination, New Delhi, India and other International Colleges (MRCPI) and Universities
Overseas Offices
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DC Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology
Enlarged & Revised Reprint of Sixth Edition: November 2013
Seventh Edition: 2016
ISBN: 978-93-85891-59-5
Printed at
Dedicated to
The students of gynecology—
past and present
Preface to the Seventh Edition
Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology was first published in 1989. Over the years, it has been firmly established amongst the
medical fraternity. Each area of gynecology has evolved substantially due to concurrent progress in science, technology
and imaging. To fulfill the need of our readers, this edition has undergone extensive revision in the light of current wealth
of knowledge. Each chapter of this book is authoritative. Consistency and uniformity with updated information in all the
chapters are a special feature of this book.
Dutta’s Textbook of Gynecology has endured because over the years it has evolved to provide comprehensive updated
information in a concise and easy-to-read format. It has skillfully integrated the preclinical science and the clinical gynecology
from the very outset. With this edition, each chapter has been thoroughly revised and updated to ensure that it reflects the
cutting edge of medical knowledge and practice. It is prepared to meet the needs of the candidates for their examination at
national and international levels. The edition has been made more user-friendly in terms of updated text matters, graphics,
design and use of different color codes. Color codes help to highlight the core knowledge (must-know area). This book
provides profuse illustrations, high-quality photographs, anatomical drawing and imaging studies. This textbook has been
enriched with tables, diagrams, boxes, charts and algorithms, which could be studied and reproduced easily. Key points at the
end of each chapter are for quick and easy revision. The state-of-the-art in this book lies in the presentation, which is simple,
lucid, clear and concise. Above all, it provides a balanced distillation of evidence-based information upon which a student,
a trainee resident, a practitioner and a nurse can fully depend.
All the chapters have been exhaustively revised, updated and few thoroughly rewritten. New topics on Imaging Techniques
in Gynecology (Chapter 10) and Psychosexual Issues and Female Sexuality (Chapter 34) have been incorporated. Pelvic Organ
Prolapse (Chapter 16) has been rewritten, based on the latest concept of pelvic anatomy and the new concepts of repair.
Premalignant Lesions (Chapter 23) and Genital Malignancy (Chapter 24) have been exhaustively updated, based upon the
current knowledge and recommendation. Operative Gynecology (Chapter 35) is meant to provide the basic principles of
commonly performed gynecological surgery so as to guide an apprentice. More emphasis has been given on case selection
(indication), principal steps of operation and complications. The chapter on Endoscopic Surgery in Gynecology (Laparoscopic,
Robotic and Hysteroscopic) (Chapter 36) has been rewritten as it has gained much popularity in critical practice these days.
Practical Gynecology (Chapter 38) contains a huge number of high-quality photographs and plates of imaging studies.
Hundreds of examination-oriented questions along with their answers and explanations are presented. This chapter is
designed to help the students in their preparation for the clinical and viva-voce part of the examination. The self-assessment
questionnaire having an objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) format is to improve the clinical competence of
the students. The total information given in Chapter 38, amounts to a ‘mini-textbook-cum-color atlas’ of gynecology.
More than 450 high-quality colored photographs and illustrations have been incorporated. Considering the vast amount
of scientific information and the research, it is practically impossible to limit the subject matter within the few pages of this
book. Arrangements have been made through the electronic media (website, email) for the readers who wish to know
more. Information regarding the examination situation (theory, viva-voce, multiple-choice questions and answers, clinical
examination methods and operation video clips) has been provided through these electronic resources (www.dcdutta.
com/www.hiralalkonar.com).
My aim in this book has always been to help the students, residents and the clinicians to remain updated with the
knowledge that has passed the test of clinical relevance.
I do hope this comprehensive textbook will continue to be an immense educational resource to the readers as ever.
According to the author’s desire, the book, is therefore, dedicated once again to the students of gynecology—past and
present.
Hiralal Konar
P–13, New CIT Road
Kolkata–700014
Preface to the First Edition
Since my publication of Textbook of Obstetrics about 5 years back, I have been pressed hard by my esteemed colleagues
and the students all over the country and abroad to write a Textbook on Gynecology of similar style to fill up the deficit.
Initially, I was hesitant to proceed with the stupendous task but considering the fact that a compact, comprehensive and
practical-oriented fundamental book in gynecology is not available to the undergraduates, I have decided to comply with
their request.
The book has been written in a lucid language in author’s own style. Extensive diagrams, photographs, and flowcharts
(schemes) have been depicted throughout the text to give clarity of the subject. Due attention has been paid to project
the fundamental principles and practice of gynecology. As such, more emphasis has been given on medical gynecology.
But for that, indications, limitations, and principles of techniques of operations have received adequate consideration.
The book is thus made invaluable not only to the medical students but also the practising physicians and students of
nursing.
The author wishes to acknowledge gratitude to his esteemed colleague Dr N Chowdhury, MBBS, DGO, MO (Cal), for
his contribution to the topic “Hormone Therapy in Gynecological practice”. Dr Santosh Kr Paul, MBBS, DGO, MO(Cal), Prof
Dept of Obst and Gyne, NRS Medical College, Calcutta, deserves full appreciation for his contribution in a lucid way to the
topic “Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy in Gynecology”. The author has much pleasure in expressing grateful thanks to
Dr BN Chakravorty, MBBS, DGO, MO (Cal), FRCOG (Eng) and Dr KM Gun, MBBS, DGO, MO (Cal), FRCOG (Eng), FRCS (Edin),
FACS (USA), for their valued suggestions as and when required and their contribution of photographs to enrich the text.
I gratefully record my thanks to Dr Subir Kumar Dutta, MBBS, DCP, MD (Path & Bact), Prof Dept of Pathology and Bacteriology,
University College of Medicine, Calcutta, for the microphotographs depicted throughout the text. The author records
his thanks to Dr SM Dali, Prof Obst and Gyne and Dr Bhola Rijal, Associate Prof Obst and Gyne of Teaching Hospital and
Dr (Mrs) Dibya S Malia, Director, Maternity Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal, for their contribution of few outstanding
photographs to enrich the text.
The author expresses much pleasure all the time to the House Surgeons, Internees and students of Nilratan
Sircar Medical College, Calcutta, for the help they have rendered in preparation of the final drafts of the manuscripts, check
up of the proofs and compiling the index. Their help is invaluable and unforgettable and without which the book could
never have been published.
The author wishes to thank Mr Biren Das for his exhaustive number of drawings and flowcharts which enrich the lucidity
of the book. The author also thanks Mr Ranjit Sen for preparation of photographs (black and white) depicted throughout
the text. The author has much pleasure in expressing his appreciation to Mr Bimal Bhattacharya, MSc, LLB (Cal), DSW, DHE,
Lecturer, Health Education and Family Welfare, Postpartum Unit, NRS Medical College, Calcutta for the patience shown in
dealing with correction of manuscripts and proofs.
In preparing the textbook, the author has utilized the knowledge of number of stalwarts in his profession and consulted
many books and publications. The author wishes to express his appreciation and gratitude to all of them including the
related authors and publishers.
The author still confesses that as a teacher, he has learnt a lot from the students and more so while writing this book
and as such he could not think to dedicate the book to anyone else than the students of gynecology—past and present.
DC Dutta
Acknowledgments
A textbook of this standard could never be completed without the help and advice of many. The editor has to thank
many distinguished persons for their support in updating the book. I have consulted many outstanding teachers in the
profession, multitude of eminent authors and many current evidence-based studies. The legacy is gratefully acknowledged.
I express my sincere thanks to many of my esteemed colleagues throughout the country and abroad for their valued
suggestions and criticisms. I sincerely acknowledge the support of all the students (undergraduates and postgraduates)
of different medical institutions in the country for their opinions and criticisms that have helped to enrich this book.
As before, I welcome the views of students and teachers who regularly write to me, offering their suggestions and ideas on
email: h.kondr@gmail.com.
At the outset, I am indebted wholeheartedly for the support provided by the Department of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of West Bengal: Prof S Banerjee, Director of Medical Education; Prof (Mrs) M Ray, Principal; Prof PB Chakravorty,
Medical Superintendent-cum-Vice-principal, Calcutta National Medical College, Kolkata.
I am specially grateful to Dr KM Gun, MD, FRCOG, FRCS, Prof (Rtd); Dr BN Chakravorty, MD, FRCOG, DSc, Prof (Rtd),
Director, Institute of Reproductive Medicine, Kolkata for their contributions on the topics; Reproductive Endocrinology
(Chapter 7); Infertility (Chapter 17); Disorders of Sexual Dysfunction (Chapter 34); Amenorrhea (Chapter 29) and Hormones in
Gynecology (Chapter 32). Thanks are due to Dr A Mazumder, MD, Prof for his support in revising the chapter—Radiotherapy
and Chemotherapy in Gynecology (Chapter 31). The editor sincerely thanks Dr Subir K Dutta, MD, Prof (Pathology) for the
microphotographs depicted in the text.
I sincerely acknowledge the following teachers across the country and abroad for their valuable feedback for Dutta’s
books. Their comments and suggestions have helped to shape this new edition. I hope I have listed all those who have
contributed and apologize if any name has been accidentally omitted.
My sincere thanks are due to Sir Prof Sabaratnam Arulkumaran, St George’s, University of London, President FIGO (Past);
Mr Michael O’Connel, Royal College of Physicians, Dublin; Prof PS Chakraborty, IPGMER, Kolkata; Prof P Mukherjee, Calcutta
Medical College; Prof C Das, NRSMCH; Prof A Majhi, RG Kar MC, Kolkata; Prof A Biswas, CNMC, Kolkata; Prof Habibullah,
Prof P Desari, JIPMER, Puducherry; Prof A Pedicaile, CMC Vellore; Prof A Kriplani, Prof KK Ray, AIIMS, New Delhi; Prof V Das,
KGMC, Lucknow; Prof RL Singh, RIMS, Imphal; Prof Ng Indra Kumar, Imphal; Prof Santa Singh, NEGRIMS, Shillong; Prof R
Chauhan NSCBMC, Jabalpur; Prof V Das, PGIMER, Chandigarh; Prof PC Mahapatra, Prof S Kanungo, SCBMC, Cuttack; Prof NR
Agarwal, Prof LK Pandey, Banaras Hindu University, Banaras; Prof Ava Rani Sinha, Patna; Prof Hemali Sinha, AIIMS, Patna;
Prof A Bhaniwad, JSS MCH, Mysore; Prof A Huria GMCH, Chandigarh; Prof R Shrivastava BRDMCH, Gorakhpur; Prof S Murthy
Davangare, Karnataka; Prof K Pandey, GSVMMCH, Kanpur; Prof S Minhans, IGMC, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh; Prof R Balusu,
MVJMCH, Bengaluru; Prof Jayanthi Kempegowda Medical College, Bengaluru; Prof S Rani, Thanjavur MCH, Tamil Nadu.
Prof Hemant Deshpande, Prof Himadri Bal, Pune; Prof R Ahmed, Dibrugarh; Prof A Goswami, Guwahati; Prof S Dutta,
NBMCH, Siliguri; Prof M Sarkar MMCH, Malda; Prof J Mukherjee, NBMCH, Siliguri; Prof BK Kanungo, Gangtok; Prof
M Pradhan, Tripura; Prof DK Bhowmik, JNMCH, Maharashtra; Prof Renu Rohatgi, Patna; Prof Gita B Banerjee, Bankura; Prof
Farhana Dewan, Prof Kohinoor Begum, Dhaka; Prof Rokeya Begum, Chittagong; Prof Rowshan Ara Begum, Prof Sabera
Khatun, Dhaka; Prof S Nurjahan Bhuiyan, Chittagong; Prof Jyoti Bindal, GRMC, Gwalior; Prof Seema Hakim, AMU, Aligarh;
Prof RP Wadhwa, GMC, Mewat, Haryana; Prof Beena Bhatnagar, NIMS, Jaipur; Prof Manpreet Kaur, DMC, Ludhiana; Prof MG
Hiremath, Hubli; Prof MB Bellad, Belgium; Prof Ajith, Kannur; Prof Malik Goonewardene, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka;
Prof HR Seneviratne, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Prof Jyandip Nath, Guwahati; Prof Pratap Kumar, KMC, Manipal; Prof Nilesh Dalal,
MGMC, Indore; Prof Sudesh Agarwal, SPMC, Bikaner; Prof Pushpa Dahiya, Rohtak, PIMS; Prof Sumangala, GMC, Calicut; Prof
Mary Daniel, PIMS, Puducherry; Prof Sasikala, SMVMCH, Puducherry; Prof Atiya Sayed, AIMS, J&K; Prof N Chaudhury, HIMS,
Dehradun; Prof Shehnaz Taing, GMC, Srinagar; Prof Abha Singh, LHMC, Delhi; Prof S Nanda, PGI, Rohtak;, Prof N Chutani,
SMC and Prof SS Gulati, SMC, Greater Noida; Prof Raksha Arora, SMC, Ghaziabad; Prof Jaya Chaturvedi, AIIMS, Rishikesh;
Prof Abha Singh, JNMCH, Raipur; Prof Rehana Nazam, TMU, Moradabad; Prof Bharati Misra, MKCG, Berhampur; Prof Neelam
Pradhan, Prof Meeta Singh, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital (TU & TH), Kathmandu; Prof S Mishra, VMC, Nepal; Prof
Sujatha Sharma, GMC, Amritsar; Prof Madhu Nagpal, SGRDMC, Amritsar; Prof Promila Jindal; PIMS, Jalandhar.
I would like to extend my thanks to many readers, including the residents and students, who have contacted me with
suggestions and seeking clarifications through e-mails. Their inputs have been invaluable and much appreciated. I wish
I could mention their names individually.
I am grateful to many colleagues, who have generously provided few of the illustrations and photographs. They are duly
acknowledged.
I sincerely thank Dr A Ray, Professor (Rtd) for his professional guidance and suggestions. I am extremely grateful to
Mrs Madhusri Konar, MA, BEd for all her insightful secretarial accomplishments in support of the book through seven editions.
xii Textbook of Gynecology
I gratefully acknowledge the help of Mr Jitendar P Vij (Group Chairman), Mr Ankit Vij (Group President), Ms Chetna
Malhotra Vohra (Associate Director–Content Strategy), Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd, New Delhi for their all-
round support as and when needed.
I wish to thank all those in Jaypee Brothers who worked in this project. Ms Nitasha Arora (Project Manager) needs special
appreciation for her endless support and expertise in shaping and collation to bring out this enlarged and revised seventh
edition. I acknowledge the support of Md Jakir Hossain, who diligently and expertly worked with me to accomplish the
final phase of the seventh edition of this book.
Lastly, I am grateful to all who have taught me, most of all the patients and my beloved students.
I do hope this comprehensive Dutta’s text book of Gynecology will continue to be an essential educational resource to
the readers as ever.
Hiralal Konar
P–13, New CIT Road
Kolkata–700014
Contents
Chapter 2 Blood Vessels, Lymphatic Drainage and Innervation of Pelvic Organs 20-25
Pelvic Blood Vessels..................................................................................................................................................................................................20
Pelvic Lymphatics and Lymph Nodes.................................................................................................................................................................22
Pelvic Nerves ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................24
Menopause..................................................................................................................................................................................................................46
Abnormal Menopause.............................................................................................................................................................................................52
History...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................80
Examination.................................................................................................................................................................................................................81
xiv Textbook of Gynecology
Chapter 10 Imaging Techniques, other Diagnostic Procedures and Laser in Gynecology 97-104
Dysmenorrhea......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 146
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS).......................................................................................................................................................................... 149
Retroversion............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 163
Pelvic Organ Prolapse (POP)............................................................................................................................................................................... 165
Chronic Inversion.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 183
Definition................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 186
Causes......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 186
Contents xv
Investigations........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 189
Treatment.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 197
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)................................................................................................................................................... 204
Micromanipulation................................................................................................................................................................................................ 206
Gestational Carrier Surrogacy............................................................................................................................................................................ 207
Prognosis of Infertility........................................................................................................................................................................................... 207
Endometriosis.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 248
Adenomyosis............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 256
Radiotherapy............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 418
Chemotherapy......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 423
Immunotherapy...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 430
Genetics and Gynecologic Malignancy.......................................................................................................................................................... 430
Tumor Markers......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 432
Nomenclatures........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 433
Hypothalamic Hormones.................................................................................................................................................................................... 433
Gonadal Hormones................................................................................................................................................................................................ 439
Adrenocortical Homones..................................................................................................................................................................................... 445
Thyroid Hormones................................................................................................................................................................................................. 446
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 448
Common Clinical Problems................................................................................................................................................................................. 448
Neonates........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 448
Premenarchal.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 450
Perimenarchal to Adolescence................................................................................................................................................................. 451
Neoplasm.................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 452
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)............................................................................................................................................................. 454
Miscellaneous Problems...................................................................................................................................................................................... 454
History........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 503
Basic Instruments................................................................................................................................................................................................... 504
Surgical Techniques............................................................................................................................................................................................... 508
Operative Laparoscopy........................................................................................................................................................................................ 509
Robotic Surgery in Gynecology......................................................................................................................................................................... 510
Hysteroscopy............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 510
Instruments............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 517
Suture Materials...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 537
Specimens................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 538
Plates: Skiagraphs, Ultrasonographs, Computed Tomographs, and Magnetic Resonance Imagings..................................... 549
Index....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 559
1
CHAPTER OUTLINE
■ External Genital Organs ► Female Urethra ■ Pelvic Muscles
■ Internal Genital Organs ■ Other Internal Organs ■ Perineum
► Vagina ► Urinary Bladder ■ Pelvic Fascia and Cellular Tissue
► Uterus ► Pelvic Ureter ■ Ligaments
► Fallopian Tube ► Rectum
► Ovary ► Anal Canal
Fig. 1.1: The virginal vulva (External genitalia) Fig. 1.2: Mucous lining of Bartholin’s duct
of varying sizes, called the carunculae myrtiformes. On columnar epithelium but near its opening by stratified
both sides, it is lined by stratified squamous epithelium. squamous epithelium (Fig. 1.2). The Bartholin’s gland
corresponds to the bulbourethral gland of male.
BARTHOLIN’S GLAND
Vestibular Bulbs
The Bartholin’s glands are situated in the superficial These are bilateral elongated masses of erectile tissues
perineal pouch, close to the posterior end of the vestibular situated beneath the mucous membrane of the vestibule.
bulb. They are pea-sized, of about 0.5 cm and yellowish- Each bulb lies on either side of the vaginal orifice in front
white in color. During sexual excitement, it secretes of the Bartholin’s gland and is incorporated within the
abundant alkaline mucus which helps in lubrication. bulbocavernosus muscles. They are homologous to the
Contraction of bulbocavernosus helps squeeze the single bulb of the penis and corpus spongiosum in the
secretion. The glands are compound racemose variety male. They are likely to be injured during childbirth with
brisk hemorrhage (Fig. 1.3).
and are lined by columnar epithelium. Each gland has got
a duct which measures about 2 cm and opens into the
PERINEUM
vestibule, outside the hymen at the junction of the anterior
two-thirds and posterior one-third in the groove between The details of the anatomy of perineum are described later
the hymen and the labium minus. The duct is lined by in this chapter (see p. 15).
Fig. 1.3: Exposition of superficial perineal pouch with vestibular bulb and Bartholin’s gland
Chapter 1 xAnatomy of the Female Pelvic Organs 3
A B
Figs 1.4A and B: A. Relation of the anterior and posterior vaginal wall; B. ‘H’ shaped on cross-section
Fig. 1.5: Mid-sagittal section of the female pelvis showing relative positions of the pelvic organs
Epithelium
The vaginal epithelium is under the action of sex
hormones (Fig. 1.8). At birth and upto 10–14 days, the
epithelium is stratified squamous under the influence of
maternal estrogen circulating in the newborn. Thereafter,
upto prepuberty and in postmenopause, the epithelium
becomes thin, consisting of few layers only.
From puberty till menopause, the vaginal epithelium
is stratified squamous and devoid of any gland. Three
distinct layers are defined—basal cells, intermediate
cells, and superficial cornified cells. The intermediate
and superficial cells contain glycogen under the influence
of estrogen. These cells become continuous with those
covering the vaginal portion of the cervix and extend
upto the squamocolumnar junction at the external os.
The superficial cells exfoliate constantly and more so in
inflammatory or neoplastic condition. Replacement of
the superficial cells occurs from the basal cells. When the
Fig. 1.7: Structure of vaginal wall epithelium is exposed to the dry external atmosphere,
Chapter 1 xAnatomy of the Female Pelvic Organs 5
Fig. 1.8: Estrogenic effect on vaginal epithelium and flora at different ages
keratinization occurs. Unlike skin, it does not contain Doderlein’s bacillus: It is a rod-shaped gram-positive
hair follicle, sweat, and sebaceous gland. bacillus which grows anaerobically on acid media. It
appears in the vagina 3–4 days after birth and disappears
Secretion
after 10–14 days. It appears again at puberty and disappears
The vaginal secretion is very small in amount, sufficient to
after menopause. It probably comes from the intestine. Its
make the surface moist. Normally, it may be little excess
in mid-menstrual or just prior to menstruation, during presence is dependent on estrogen, and its function is to
pregnancy, and during sexual excitement. The secretion convert the glycogen present in the vaginal mucosa into
is mainly derived from the glands of the cervix, uterus, lactic acid so that the vaginal pH is maintained towards
transudation of the vaginal epithelium, and Bartholin’s acidic side. This acidic pH prevents growth of the other
glands (during sexual excitement). pathogenic organisms (Fig. 1.8).
The pH is acidic and varies during different phases of
life and menstrual cycle. Conversion of glycogen in the
Blood Supply
exfoliated squamous cells to lactic acid by the Doderlein’s The arteries involved are: (1) cervicovaginal branch of
bacilli is dependent on estrogen. As such, the pH is more the uterine artery, (2) vaginal artery—a branch of anterior
towards acidic during childbearing period and ranges division of internal iliac or in common origin with the
between 4 and 5.5 with average of 4.5. The pH is highest in uterine, (3) middle rectal, and (4) internal pudendal.
upper vagina because of contaminated cervical secretion These anastomose with one another and form two azygos
(alkaline). The vaginal secretion consists of tissue arteries—anterior and posterior.
fluid, epithelial debris, some leukocytes (never contains Veins drain into internal iliac and internal pudendal
more than an occasional pus cell), electrolytes, proteins, veins.
and lactic acid (in a concentration of 0.75%). Apart
from Doderlein’s bacilli, it contains many a pathogenic Nerve Supply
organism including Cl. welchii. The glycogen content is The vagina is supplied by sympathetic and parasympa-
highest in the vaginal fornix to the extent of 2.5–3 mg% thetic nerves from the pelvic plexus. The lower part is
and is lowest in the lower-third being 0.6–0.9 mg%. supplied by the pudendal nerve.
6 Textbook of Gynecology
THE UTERUS part of the cervix is conical with the external os looking
circular, whereas in parous, it is cylindrical with the
The uterus is a hollow pyriform muscular organ situated external os having bilateral slits. The slit is due to invariable
in the pelvis between the bladder in front and the rectum tear of the circular muscles surrounding the external os
behind (Fig. 1.5). and gives rise to anterior and posterior lips of the cervix.
Position Cavity
Its normal position is one of the anteversion and anteflexion. The cavity of the uterine body is triangular on coronal
The uterus usually inclines to the right (dextrorotation) so section with the base above and the apex below. It
that the cervix is directed to the left (levorotation) and measures about 3.5 cm. There is no cavity in the fundus.
comes in close relation with the left ureter. The cervical canal is fusiform and measures about 2.5 cm.
Thus, the normal length of the uterine cavity including the
Measurements and Parts cervical canal is usually 6–7 cm (Fig. 1.9).
The uterus measures about 8 cm long, 5 cm wide at the
fundus and its walls are about 1.25 cm thick. Its weight Relations
varies from 50–80 g. It has got the following parts (Fig. 1.9). Anteriorly: Above the internal os, the body forms the
x Body or corpus posterior wall of the uterovesical pouch. Below the
x Isthmus internal os, it is separated from the base of the bladder by
x Cervix loose areolar tissue.
Body or corpus: The body is further divided into fundus— Posteriorly: It is covered by peritoneum and forms the
the part which lies above the openings of the uterine tubes. anterior wall of the pouch of Douglas containing coils of
The body properly is triangular and lies between the intestine.
openings of the tubes and the isthmus. The superolateral Laterally: The double folds of peritoneum of the broad
angles of the body of the uterus project outwards from the ligament are attached laterally between which the uterine
junction of the fundus and body and are called the cornua artery ascends up. Attachment of the Mackenrodt’s ligament
of the uterus. The uterine tube, round ligament, and extends from the internal os down to the supravaginal
ligament of the ovary are attached to each cornu. cervix and lateral vaginal wall. About 1.5 cm away at the
Isthmus: The isthmus is a constricted part measuring about level of internal os, a little nearer on the left side is the
0.5 cm situated between the body and the cervix. It is limited crossing of the uterine artery and the ureter. The uterine
above by the anatomical internal os and below by the artery crosses from above and in front of the ureter, soon
histological internal os (Aschoff). Some consider isthmus as before the ureter enters the ureteric tunnel (Fig. 1.10).
a part of the lower portion of the body of the uterus.
Cervix: The cervix is the lowermost part of the uterus. Structures
It extends from the histological internal os and ends at Body
external os which opens into the vagina after perforating The wall consists of 3 layers from outside inwards:
the anterior vaginal wall. It is almost cylindrical in shape Perimetrium: It is the serous coat which invests the entire
and measures about 2.5 cm in length and diameter. It is organ except on the lateral borders. The peritoneum is
divided into a supravaginal part—the part lying above the intimately adherent to the underlying muscles.
vagina and a vaginal part which lies within the vagina,
each measuring 1.25 cm. In nulliparous, the vaginal
Fig. 1.9: Coronal section showing different parts of uterus Fig. 1.10: The relation of the ureter to the uterine artery
Chapter 1 xAnatomy of the Female Pelvic Organs 7
Myometrium: It consists of thick bundles of smooth
muscle fibers held by connective tissues and are
arranged in various directions. During pregnancy,
however, three distinct layers can be identified—outer
longitudinal, middle interlacing, and inner circular.
Endometrium: The mucous lining of the cavity is called
endometrium. As there is no submucous layer, the
endometrium is directly apposed to the muscle coat. It
consists of lamina propria and surface epithelium. The
surface epithelium is a single layer of ciliated columnar
epithelium. The lamina propria contains stromal cells,
endometrial glands, vessels and nerves. The glands
are simple tubular and lined by mucus secreting non-
ciliated columnar epithelium which penetrate the
stroma and sometimes even enter the muscle coat. All
the components are changed during menstrual cycles
(see Ch. 8). The endometrium is changed to decidua
during pregnancy.
The cervix is insensitive to touch, heat and also about 2.5 cm (1") in length and 2.5 mm in diameter; (3)
when it is grasped by any instrument. The uterus, too is ampulla—tortuous part and measures about 5 cm (2s) in
insensitive to handling and even to incision over its wall. length which ends in wide; (4) infundibulum measuring
about 1.25 cm (1/2s) long with a maximum diameter of 6
Changes of Uterus with Age mm. The abdominal ostium is surrounded by a number of
At birth, the uterus lies in the false pelvis; the cervix radiating fimbriae, one of these is longer than the rest and
is much longer than the body. In childhood, the is attached to the outer pole of the ovary called ovarian
proportion is maintained but reduced to 2:1. At puberty, fimbria (Fig. 1.13).
the body is growing faster under the action of ovarian Structures—It consists of 3 layers:
1. Serous: Consists of peritoneum on all sides except
steroids (estrogens) and the proportion is reversed to
along the line of attachment of mesosalpinx.
1:2 and following childbirth, it becomes even 1:3. After
2. Muscular: Arranged in two layers—outer longitudinal
menopause the uterus atrophies; the overall length is and inner circular.
reduced; the walls become thinner, less muscular but 3. Mucous membrane is thrown into longitudinal
more fibrous (see Fig. 5.1). folds. It is lined by columnar epithelium, partly
ciliated, others secretory nonciliated and ‘Peg cells’.
Position of the Uterus The epithelium rests on delicate vascular reticulum
The normal position of the uterus is anteversion and of connective tissue. There is no submucous layer nor
anteflexion. Anteversion relates the long axis of the cervix any glands. Changes occur in the tubal epithelium
to the long axis of vagina which is about 90°. Anteflexion during menstrual cycle but are less pronounced and
relates the long axis of the body to the long axis of the there is no shedding (Fig. 1.13).
cervix and is about 120°. In about 15–20%, normally the Functions: The important functions of the tubes are—
uterus remains in retroverted position. In erect posture, (1) transport of gametes, (2) to facilitate fertilization, and
the internal os lies on the upper border of the symphysis (3) survival of zygote through its secretion.
pubis and the external os lies at the level of ischial spines. Blood supply: Arterial supply is from the uterine and
ovarian. Venous drainage is through the pampiniform
FALLOPIAN TUBE (SYN: UTERINE TUBE) plexus into the ovarian veins.
Nerve supply: The nerve supply is derived from the uterine
The uterine tubes are paired structures, measuring about and ovarian nerves. The tube is very much sensitive to
10 cm (4") and are situated in the medial three-fourth of handling.
the upper free margin of the broad ligaments. Each tube
has got two openings, one communicating with the lateral THE OVARY
angle of the uterine cavity, called uterine opening and
measures 1 mm in diameter, the other is on the lateral end The ovaries are paired sex glands or gonads in female
of the tube, called pelvic opening or abdominal ostium which are concerned with:
and measures about 2 mm in diameter (Fig. 1.12). i. Germ cell maturation, storage and its release
Parts: There are four parts, from medial to lateral, they ii. Steroidogenesis.
are—(1) intramural or interstitial lying in the uterine Each gland is oval in shape and pinkish gray in color
wall and measures 1.25 cm (1/2s) in length and 1 mm and the surface is scarred during reproductive period. It
in diameter; (2) isthmus almost straight and measures measures about 3 cm in length, 2 cm in breadth and 1 cm
Fig. 1.12: Half of uterine cavity and fallopian tube of one side are cut open to show different parts of the tube. The vestigial structures
in the broad ligament are shown
Chapter 1 xAnatomy of the Female Pelvic Organs 9
Fig. 1.13: Cut section of the tube showing complex mucosal pattern
in thickness. Each ovary presents two ends—tubal and Posterior border is free and is related with tubal ampulla.
uterine, two borders—mesovarium and free posterior and It is separated by the peritoneum from the ureter and the
two surfaces—medial and lateral. internal iliac artery. Medial surface is related to fimbrial
The ovaries are intraperitoneal structures. In part of the tube. Lateral surface is in contact with the
nulliparae, the ovary lies in the ovarian fossa on the lateral ovarian fossa on the lateral pelvic wall.
pelvic wall. The ovary is attached to the posterior layer of The ovarian fossa is related superiorly to the external
the broad ligament by the mesovarium, to the lateral pelvic iliac vein, posteriorly to ureter and internal iliac vessels
wall by infundibulopelvic ligament and to the uterus by and laterally to the peritoneum separating the obturator
the ovarian ligament. vessels and nerves (Fig. 1.14).
Relations: Mesovarium or anterior border—A fold of
peritoneum from the posterior leaf of the broad ligament Structures
is attached to the anterior border through which the The ovary is covered by a single layer of cubical cell known
ovarian vessels and nerves enter the hilum of the gland. as germinal epithelium. It is a misnomer as germ cells are
Fig. 1.14: The structures in the lateral pelvic wall of ovarian fossa
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tranquille, elle me reconnut et prononça mon nom. Ce qui se passa
en moi alors est impossible à décrire; je me jetai à genoux, la tête
appuyée contre son lit, et je me mis à pleurer comme un enfant. En
ce moment le docteur entra, et craignant pour elle les émotions, il
exigea que je me retirasse; je voulus résister; mais Pauline me serra
la main, en me disant d’une voix douce:
—Allez!...
J’obéis. Il y avait huit jours et huit nuits que je ne m’étais couché,
je me mis au lit, et, un peu rassuré sur son état, je m’endormis d’un
sommeil dont j’avais presque autant besoin qu’elle.
En effet, la maladie inflammatoire disparut peu à peu, et au bout
de trois semaines il ne restait plus à Pauline qu’une grande
faiblesse; mais pendant ce temps la maladie chronique dont elle
avait déjà été menacée un an auparavant avait fait des progrès. Le
docteur nous conseilla le remède qui l’avait déjà guérie, et je résolus
de profiter des derniers beaux jours de l’année pour parcourir avec
elle la Suisse et de là gagner Naples, où je comptais passer l’hiver.
Je fis part de ce projet à Pauline: elle sourit tristement de l’espoir
que je fondais sur cette distraction; puis, avec une soumission
d’enfant, elle consentit à tout. En conséquence, vers les premiers
jours de septembre, nous partîmes pour Ostende: nous traversâmes
la Flandre, remontâmes le Rhin jusqu’à Bâle; nous visitâmes les lacs
de Bienne et de Neuchâtel, nous nous arrêtâmes quelques jours à
Genève; enfin nous parcourûmes l’Oberland, nous franchîmes le
Brunig, et nous venions de visiter Altorf, lorsque tu nous rencontras,
sans pouvoir nous joindre, à Fluelen, sur les bords du lac des
Quatre-Cantons.
Tu comprends maintenant pourquoi nous ne pûmes t’attendre:
Pauline, en voyant ton intention de profiter de notre barque, m’avait
demandé ton nom, et s’était rappelé t’avoir rencontré plusieurs fois,
soit chez madame la comtesse M..., soit chez la princesse Bel... A la
seule idée de se retrouver en face de toi, son visage prit une telle
expression d’effroi, que j’en fus effrayé, et que j’ordonnai à mes
bateliers de s’éloigner à force de rames, quelque chose que tu
dusses penser de mon impolitesse.
Pauline se coucha au fond de la barque, je m’assis près d’elle, et
elle appuya sa tête sur mes genoux. Il y avait juste deux ans qu’elle
avait quitté la France ainsi souffrante et appuyée sur moi. Depuis ce
temps, j’avais tenu fidèlement l’engagement que j’avais pris: j’avais
veillé sur elle comme un frère, je l’avais respectée comme une sœur,
toutes les préoccupations de mon esprit avaient eu pour but de lui
épargner une douleur ou de lui ménager un plaisir; tous les désirs de
mon âme avaient tourné autour de l’espérance d’être aimé un jour
par elle. Quand on a vécu longtemps près d’une personne, il y a de
ces idées qui vous viennent à tous deux en même temps. Je vis ses
yeux se mouiller de larmes, elle poussa un soupir, et, me serrant la
main qu’elle tenait entre les siennes:
—Que vous êtes bon! me dit-elle.
Je tressaillis de la sentir répondre aussi complétement à ma
pensée.
—Trouvez-vous que j’aie fait ce que je devais faire? lui dis-je.
—Oh! vous avez été pour moi l’ange gardien de mon enfance,
qui s’était envolé un instant, et que Dieu m’a rendu sous le nom d’un
frère!
—Eh bien! en échange de ce dévoûment, ne ferez-vous rien pour
moi?
—Hélas! que puis-je maintenant pour votre bonheur? dit Pauline;
vous aimer?... Alfred, en face de ce lac, de ces montagnes, de ce
ciel, de toute cette nature sublime, en face de Dieu qui les a faits,
oui, Alfred, je vous aime! Je ne vous apprends rien de nouveau en
vous disant cela.
—Oh! oui, oui, je le sais, lui répondis-je; mais ce n’est point
assez de m’aimer, il faut que votre vie soit attachée à la mienne par
des liens indissolubles; il faut que cette protection, que j’ai obtenue
comme une faveur, devienne pour moi un droit.
Elle sourit tristement.
—Pourquoi souriez-vous ainsi? lui dis-je.
—C’est que vous voyez toujours l’avenir de la terre, et moi
l’avenir du ciel.
—Encore!... lui dis-je.
—Pas d’illusions, Alfred: ce sont les illusions qui rendent les
douleurs amères et inguérissables. Si j’avais conservé quelque
illusion, moi, croyez-vous que je n’eusse point fait connaître à ma
mère que j’existais encore? Mais alors il m’aurait fallu quitter encore
une seconde fois ma mère et vous, et c’eût été trop. Aussi ai-je eu
d’avance pitié de moi-même et me suis-je privée d’une grande joie
pour m’épargner une suprême douleur.
Je fis un mouvement de prière.
—Je vous aime! Alfred, me répéta-t-elle: je vous redirai ce mot
tant que ma bouche pourra prononcer deux paroles; ne me
demandez rien de plus, et veillez vous-même à ce que je ne meure
pas avec un remords...
Que pouvais-je dire, que pouvais-je faire en face d’une telle
conviction? prendre Pauline dans mes bras et pleurer avec elle sur
la félicité que Dieu aurait pu nous accorder et sur le malheur que la
fatalité nous avait fait.
Nous demeurâmes quelques jours à Lucerne, puis nous partîmes
pour Zurich; nous descendîmes le lac et nous arrivâmes à Pfeffers.
Là nous comptions nous arrêter une semaine ou deux; j’espérais
que les eaux thermales feraient quelque bien à Pauline. Nous
allâmes visiter la source féconde sur laquelle je basais cette
espérance. En revenant, nous te rencontrâmes sur ce pont étroit,
dans ce souterrain sombre: Pauline te toucha presque, et cette
nouvelle rencontre lui donna une telle émotion, qu’elle voulut partir à
l’instant même. Je n’osai insister, et nous prîmes sur-le-champ la
route de Constance.
Il n’y avait plus à en douter pour moi-même, Pauline s’affaiblissait
d’une manière visible. Tu n’as jamais éprouvé, tu n’éprouveras
jamais, je l’espère, ce supplice atroce de sentir un cœur qu’on aime
cesser lentement de vivre sous votre main, de compter chaque jour,
le doigt sur l’artère, quelques battemens fiévreux de plus, et de se
dire, chaque fois que, dans un sentiment réuni d’amour et de
douleur, on presse sur sa poitrine ce corps adoré, qu’une semaine,
quinze jours, un mois encore, peut-être, cette création de Dieu, qui
vit, qui pense, qui aime, ne sera plus qu’un froid cadavre sans parole
et sans amour!
Quant à Pauline, plus le temps de notre séparation semblait
s’approcher, plus on eût dit qu’elle avait amassé pour ces derniers
momens les trésors de son esprit et de son âme. Sans doute mon
amour poétise ce crépuscule de sa vie; mais, vois-tu, ce dernier
mois qui s’écoula entre le moment où nous te rencontrâmes à
Pfeffers et celui où, du haut de la terrasse d’une auberge, tu laissas
tomber au bord du lac Majeur ce bouquet d’oranger dans notre
calèche, ce dernier mois sera toujours présent à ma pensée, comme
a dû l’être à l’esprit des prophètes l’apparition des anges qui leur
apportaient la parole du Seigneur.
Nous arrivâmes ainsi à Arona. Là, quoique fatiguée, Pauline
semblait si bien renaître aux premières bouffées de ce vent d’Italie,
que nous ne nous arrêtâmes qu’une nuit; car tout mon espoir était
maintenant de gagner Naples. Cependant le lendemain elle était
tellement souffrante, qu’elle ne put se lever que fort tard, et qu’au
lieu de continuer notre route en voiture, je pris un bateau pour
atteindre Sesto-Calende. Nous nous embarquâmes vers les cinq
heures du soir. A mesure que nous nous approchions, nous voyions
aux derniers rayons tièdes et dorés du soleil la petite ville, couchée
aux pieds des collines, et sur ces collines ses délicieux jardins
d’orangers, de myrtes et de lauriers-roses. Pauline les regardait
avec un ravissement qui me rendit quelque espoir que ses idées
étaient moins tristes.
—Vous pensez qu’il serait bien doux de vivre dans ce délicieux
pays? lui demandai-je.
—Non, répondit-elle: je pense qu’il serait moins douloureux d’y
mourir. J’ai toujours rêvé les tombes ainsi, continua Pauline, placées
au milieu d’un beau jardin embaumé, entourées d’arbustes et de
fleurs. On ne s’occupe pas assez, chez nous, de la dernière
demeure de ceux qu’on aime: on pare leur lit d’un jour, et on oublie
leur couche de l’éternité!... Si je mourais avant vous, Alfred, reprit-
elle en souriant, après un moment de silence, et que vous fussiez
assez généreux pour continuer à la mort les soins de la vie, je
voudrais que vous vous souvinssiez de ce que je viens de vous dire.
—Oh! Pauline! Pauline! m’écriai-je en la prenant dans mes bras
et en la serrant convulsivement contre mon cœur, ne me parlez pas
ainsi, vous me tuez.
—Eh bien! non, me répondit-elle; mais je voulais vous dire cela,
mon ami, une fois pour toutes; car je sais qu’une fois que je vous
l’aurai dit, vous ne l’oublierez jamais. Non, vous avez raison, ne
parlons plus de cela.... D’ailleurs, je me sens mieux; Naples me fera
du bien. Il y a longtemps que j’ai envie de voir Naples...
—Oui, continuai-je en l’interrompant, oui, nous y serons bientôt.
Nous prendrons pour cet hiver une petite maison à Sorrente ou à
Résina; vous y passerez l’hiver, réchauffée au soleil, qui ne s’éteint
pas; puis, au printemps, vous reviendrez à la vie avec toute la
nature.... Qu’avez-vous? mon Dieu!...
—Oh! que je souffre! dit Pauline en se raidissant et en portant sa
main à sa poitrine. Vous le voyez, Alfred, la mort est jalouse même
de nos rêves, et elle m’envoie la douleur pour nous réveiller!....
Nous demeurâmes en silence jusqu’au moment où nous
abordâmes. Pauline voulut marcher; mais elle était si faible, que ses
genoux plièrent. Il commençait à faire nuit; je la pris dans mes bras
et je la portai jusqu’à l’hôtel.
Je me fis donner une chambre près de la sienne. Depuis long-
temps il y avait entre nous quelque chose de saint, de fraternel et de
sacré qui faisait qu’elle s’endormait sous mes yeux comme sous
ceux d’une mère. Puis, voyant qu’elle était plus souffrante que je ne
l’avais vue encore, et désespérant de pouvoir continuer notre route
le lendemain, j’envoyai un exprès en poste, dans ma voiture, pour
aller chercher à Milan et ramener à Sesto le docteur Scarpa.
Je remontai près de Pauline: elle était couchée; je m’assis au
chevet de son lit. On eût dit qu’elle avait quelque chose à me
demander et qu’elle n’osait le faire. Pour la vingtième fois, je surpris
son regard fixé sur moi avec une expression inouïe de doute.
—Que voulez-vous? lui dis-je; vous désirez m’interroger et vous
n’osez pas le faire. Voilà déjà plusieurs fois que je vous vois me
regarder ainsi: ne suis-je pas votre ami, votre frère?
—Oh! vous êtes bien plus que tout cela, me répondit-elle, et il n’y
a pas de nom pour dire ce que vous êtes. Oui, oui, un doute me
tourmente, un doute horrible! Je l’éclaircirai plus tard... dans un
moment où vous n’oserez pas me mentir; mais l’heure n’est pas
encore venue. Je vous regarde pour vous voir le plus possible... je
vous regarde, parce que je vous aime!
Je pris sa tête et je la posai sur mon épaule. Nous restâmes ainsi
une heure à peu près, pendant laquelle je sentis son souffle haletant
mouiller ma joue, et son cœur bondir contre ma poitrine. Enfin elle
m’assura qu’elle se sentait mieux et me pria de me retirer. Je me
levai pour lui obéir, et, comme d’habitude, j’approchais ma bouche
de son front, lorsqu’elle me jeta les bras autour du cou, et appuyant
ses lèvres sur les miennes: Je t’aime! murmura-t-elle dans un baiser,
et elle retomba la tête sur son lit. Je voulus la prendre dans mes
bras; mais elle me repoussa doucement, et sans rouvrir les yeux:
Laisse-moi, mon Alfred, me dit-elle: je t’aime!... je suis bien... je suis
heureuse!...
Je sortis de la chambre; je n’aurais pas pu y rester dans l’état
d’exaltation où ce baiser fiévreux m’avait mis. Je rentrai chez moi; je
laissai la porte de communication entr’ouverte, afin de courir près de
Pauline au moindre bruit; puis, au lieu de me coucher, je me
contentai de mettre bas mon habit, et j’ouvris la fenêtre pour
chercher un peu de fraîcheur.
Le balcon de ma chambre donnait sur ces jardins enchantés que
nous avions vus du lac en nous approchant de Sesto. Au milieu des
touffes de citronniers et des massifs de lauriers-roses, quelques
statues debout sur leurs piédestaux se détachaient aux rayons de la
lune, blanches comme des ombres. A force de fixer les yeux sur une
d’elles, ma vue se troubla, il me sembla la voir s’animer et qu’elle me
faisait signe de la main en me montrant la terre. Bientôt cette illusion
fut si grande, que je crus m’entendre appeler; je portai mes deux
mains à mon front, car il me semblait que je devenais fou. Mon nom,
prononcé une seconde fois d’une voix plus plaintive, me fit tressaillir;
je rentrai dans ma chambre et j’écoutai; une troisième fois mon nom
arriva jusqu’à moi, mais plus faible. La voix venait de l’appartement à
côté, c’était Pauline qui m’appelait, je m’élançai dans sa chambre.
C’était bien elle... elle, expirante, et qui n’avait pas voulu mourir
seule, et qui, voyant que je ne lui répondais pas, était descendue de
son lit pour me chercher dans son agonie; elle était à genoux sur le
parquet... Je me précipitai vers elle, voulant la prendre dans mes
bras, mais elle me fit signe qu’elle avait quelque chose à me
demander. Puis, ne pouvant parler et sentant qu’elle allait mourir,
elle saisit la manche de ma chemise, l’arracha avec ses mains, mit à
découvert la blessure à peine refermée, que trois mois auparavant
m’avait faite la balle du comte Horace, et me montrant du doigt la
cicatrice, elle poussa un cri, se renversa en arrière et ferma les yeux.
Je la portai sur son lit, et je n’eus que le temps d’approcher mes
lèvres des siennes pour recueillir son dernier souffle et ne pas
perdre son dernier soupir.
La volonté de Pauline fut accomplie; elle dort dans un de ces
jardins qui dominent le lac, au milieu du parfum des orangers et sous
l’ombrage des myrtes et des lauriers-roses.
—Je le sais, répondis-je à Alfred, car je suis arrivé à Sesto quatre
jours après que tu l’avais quitté; et, sans savoir qui elle renfermait,
j’ai été prier sur sa tombe.
M U R AT.