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The Mind's Machine
FOUNDATIONS OF BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
THIRD EDITION

Neil V. Watson • S. Marc Breedlove

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4
 The Mind's Machine EDmON

COMPANION WEBSITE
3e.mindsmachine.com
The Mind’s Machine Companion Website is a powerful
companion to the textbook that will help you learn the material
presented in the textbook through a variety of study tools and
multimedia resources. The website is tightly integrated with the text,
with in-text Web links that take you directly to specific online resources.
(See more at right.) Complex concepts and systems are made more
accessible through the use of animations, videos, and activities.

Animations Activities
Axon terminal

Mitochondrion
present complex help you learn
concepts in a and review
Ca24 clear, easy-to- key structures
channel
Synaptic
vesicle
follow narrative, and important
using a visual processes.
Transmitter Synaptic
cleft
style that closely
molecules
matches the
Receptors Postsynaptic cell textbook's Correct. The lens Is » structure in the ere that helps form an Image
lens Is controlled by the ciliary muscles Inside the ere.
figures.

Chapter 13 Visual Summary

Previous 4 of 10 Next

Surface Anatomy ; >1 Anator

Online versions of the Visual Summaries

provide a thorough review of each chapter The Brain Explorer offers an interactive
and include links to figures, animations, way to explore the brain anatomy
videos, and activities. discussed in each chapter, in both surface
and sectional views.
Additional Features
Chapter Outlines provide an overview of each chapter.
“A Step Further” topics, which expand on the material covered in the textbook.
Flashcards for each chapter offer a convenient way to learn and review the many new
terms introduced in the textbook.

Media Links
Using your smartphone
or computer, type in
the easy Web links that
appear throughout the
textbook to instantly
Several strains of dogs exhibit narcolepsy (Aldrich, 1993), complete with sudden
access animations, collapse and very rapid sleep onset (FIGURE 10.21) Just like humans who suffer from
narcolepsy, these dogs often show REM signs immediately upon falling asleep. Abrupt
collapse in these dogs is suppressed by the same drugs (discussed shortly) that are
videos, activities, and used to treat human cataplexy.
Finding the mutant gene responsible for narcoleptic dogs revealed a hypothalamic
system that is responsible for narcolepsy in people too. This was the gene for a neu­
CD

visual summaries on th ropeptide called orexin (also known as hypocretin; see Chapter 9) (L. Lin et al, 1999).
Mice with the orexin gene knocked out also display narcolepsy (Chemelli et al, 1999).
Genetically normal rats can be made narcoleptic if injected with a toxin that destroys
Companion Website. neurons possessing orexin receptors (Gerashchenko et al„ 2001). The narcoleptic dogs
start losing orexin neurons at about the age when symptoms of narcolepsy appear
(Siegel, Nienhuis et al. 1999).
Similarly, humans with narcolepsy have lost about 90% of their orexin neurons
(FIGURE 10.22) (Thannickal et al, 2000). This degeneration of orexin neurons seems
to cause inappropriate activation of the cataplexy pathway that normally happens only
during REM sleep. So, orexin normally keeps sleep at bay and prevents the transition
from wakefulness directly into REM sleep.
Video 2.1: Inside the Brain The neurons that produce orexin are found almost exclusively in the hypothala­
mus. Where do these neurons send their axons to release the orexin? Not so coinci •
dentally, the axons go to each of the three brain centers that we mentioned before:
basal forebrain, reticular formation, and locus coeruleus (Sutcliffe and de Lecea, 2002).
The orexin neurons also project axons to the hypothalamic tuberomammillary nucle­
us—the same structure that is inhibited by the basal forebrain to induce SWS. So, it
SIMPLE MOTOR AND looks as if the hypothalamus contains an orexin-based "switching station" (see Figure
10.19) that switches the brain between states, from wakefulness to non REM sleep to
REM sleep (Saper et al, 2010). This system normally triggers paralysis only during
SOMATOSENSORY TASKS REM, so loss of the system in narcolepsy leads to paralysis while awake (cataplexy).
r' —J The traditional treatment for narcolepsy was the use of amphetamines in the day
time. The drug GHB (gamma -hydroxybutyrate, trade name Xyrem) helps some narco­
leptics (although there are concerns about potential abuse of this drug [Tuller, 2002]).
A newer drug, modafinil (Provigil), is sometimes effective for preventing narcolep­
tic attacks and has been proposed as an "alertness drug" for people with attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder. There is also debate about whether modafinil should be

NORMAL SCHIZOPHRENIA
Videos present real-world examples of
some of the key concepts and conditions
T.xtboo* RifMnci: EMctocai Storm p 20
discussed in the textbook.

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY NewsLink BioPsychology . ■ A r-----g—

—- Npwd ink
3e.mindsmachine.com/news
I
*

This invaluable online resource helps you make

connections between the science of biological
psychology and your daily life, and keeps you
apprised of the latest developments in the field.
The site is updated 3-4 times a week and contains
thousands of news stories organized both by
keyword and by textbook chapter.
COMPANION WEBSITE Resources (3e.mindsmachine.com)
The Mind’s Machine Companion Website includes animations, videos, and activities for each chapter (listed below) as well
as an interactive version of each chapter's visual summary. All three media categories are referenced throughout the book with the
"eye" icon and direct Web addresses, on the textbook pages listed below. They are also referenced in each chapter's summary.
Animations & Videos
1.1 Nature and Nurture, p. 3
1.2 Brain Explorer, p. 4
2.1 Inside the Brain, p. 23
2.2 Brain Explorer, p. 24
2.3 Brain Development, p. 41
2.4 Visualizing the Living Human Brain, p. 48
3.1 Electrical Stimulation of the Brain, p. 55
3.2 Brain Explorer, p. 56
3.3 The Resting Membrane Potential, p. 59
3.4 The Action Potential, p. 61
3.5 Action Potential Propagation, p. 63
3.6 Spatial Summation, p. 68
3.7 Synaptic Transmission, p. 70
4.1 Synaptic Transmission, p. 83
Brain Explorer, p. 84
KI
4.3 Neurotransmitter Pathways, p. 89
4.4 Agonists and Antagonists, p. 93
5.1 Sensory Systems, p. 119
5.2 Brain Explorer, p. 120
5.3 Somatosensory Receptive Fields, p. 124
5.4 The Stretch Reflex Circuit, p. 142
6.1 Inside the Ear, p. 153
6.2 Brain Explorer, p. 154
6.3 Sound Transduction, p. 158
6.4 Mapping Auditory Frequencies, p. 161
6.5 The Vestibular System, p. 170
6.6 The Human Olfactory System, p. 176
7.1 Object Recognition, p. 183
7.2 Brain Explorer, p. 184
7.3 Visual Pathways in the Human Brain,
p. 192
7.4 Receptive Fields in the Retina, p. 196
7.5 Spatial Frequencies, p. 200
8.1 Gender, p. 217
8.2 Brain Explorer, p. 218
8.3 Chemical Communication Systems, p. 220
Activities
8.4 Mechanisms of Hormone Action, p. 222
8.5 The Hypothalamus and Endocrine
Function, p. 228
8.6 Organizational Effects of Testosterone,
p. 249
9.1 Regaining the Weight, p. 263
9.2 Brain Explorer, p. 264
9.3 Negative Feedback, p. 265
9.4 Thermoregulation in Humans, p. 266
9.5 Anorexia, p. 283
10.1 Narcolepsy, p. 289
10.2 Brain Explorer, p. 290
10.3 Biological Rhythms, p. 291
10.4 A Molecular Clock, p. 295
10.5 Animal Sleep Activity, p. 310
10.6 Narcoleptic Dachshund, p. 312
10.7 REM Behavior Disorder, p. 314
11.1 The Case of S.M., p. 319
11.2 Brain Explorer, p. 320
11.3 Stress, p. 342
12.1 Lobotomy, p. 347
12.2 Brain Explorer, p. 348
12.3 Tardive Dyskinesia, p. 357
13.1 Memory, p. 379
13.2 Brain Explorer, p. 380
13.3 AMPA and NMDA Receptors, p. 399
13.4 Morris Water Maze, p. 401
13.5 Stages of Neuronal Development, p. 404
13.6 Migration of a Neuron along a Radial
Glial Cell, p. 406
14.1 Attention and Perception, p. 419
14.2 Brain Explorer, p. 420
14.3 Inattentional Blindness, p. 421
14.4 From Input to Output, p. 425
14.5 Reconstructing Brain Activity, p. 440
15.1 Global Aphasia, p. 451
15.2 Brain Explorer, p. 452
15.3 Split-Brain Research, p. 453
15.4 Face Blindness, p. 458
A.1 Gel Electrophoresis, p. A-2
2.1 Major Components and Classification
of Neurons, p. 27
2.2 The Cranial Nerves, p. 34
2.3 Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord, p. 35
2.4 Concept Matching: Sympathetic vs.
Parasympathetic, p. 36
2.5 Gross Anatomy of the Human Brain:
Lateral View, p. 39
2.6 The Developing Brain, p. 41
2.7 The Basal Ganglia, p. 43
2.8 The Limbic System, p. 43
2.9 Gross Anatomy of the Human Brain:
Midsaggital View, p. 44
2.10 Gross Anatomy of the Human Brain:
Basal View, p. 44
2.11 The Cerebral Ventricles, p. 46
3.1 Distribution of Ions, p. 57
4.1 Families of Transmitters, p. 91
5.1 Receptors in Skin, p. 122
5.2 Ascending Pain Pathways in the CNS,
p. 133
5.3 Subcortical Systems Involved in
Movement, p. 148
6.1 Organ of Corti, p. 159
6.2 Taste Buds and Taste Receptor Cells,
p. 173
7.1 The Structure of the Eye, p. 184
8.1 Major Endocrine Glands, p. 218
9.1 An Appetite Controller in the
Hypothalamus, p. 279
10.1 Stages of Sleep, p. 298
10.2 Sleep Mechanisms, p. 310
11.1 Conditioned Fear Response, p. 331
11.2 The Stress Response and Consequences
of Prolonged Stress, p. 342
12.1 Concept Matching: Psychopathology,
p. 375
13.1 The "Tower of Hanoi" Problem, p. 386
13.2 Learning and Memory, p. 388
13.3 Development of the Nervous System,
p. 403
14.1 Subcortical Sites Implicated in Visual
Attention, p. 433
14.2 Cortical Regions Implicated in the
Top-Level Control of Attention, p. 434
15.1 Speech and Language Areas, p. 461
15.2 The Connectionist Model of Aphasia,
p. 464
15.3 Song Control Nuclei of the Songbird
Brain, p. 475
 The Mind's Machine
Foundations of Brain and Behavior
THIRD EDITION
The Mind's Machine
FOUNDATIONS OF BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
THIRD EDITION

J*

6*

Neil V. Watson Marc Breedlove

Simon Fraser University Michigan State University

KJ SINAUER ASSOCIATES

NEW YORK OXFORD

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Mind's Machine
FOUNDATIONS OF BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
THIRD EDITION
Neil V. Watson • S. Marc Breedlove
&
About the Cover and
Chapter Opener Images
Bruno Mallart is one of the most talented
European artists, his work having appeared
in some of the world's premier publications:
The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal,
and the New Scientist, to name a few. A
freelance illustrator since 1986, Mallart
first worked for several children's book
publishers and advertising agencies, using
a classical realistic watercolor and ink style.
Some years later he began working in a
more imaginative way, inventing a mix of
drawing, painting, and collage. His work
speaks of a surrealistic and absurd world
and engages the viewer's imagination and
sense of fun. Despite the recurring use of
the brain in his art, Mallart's background
is not scientific—though his parents were
both neurobiologists. He uses the brain
as a symbol for abstract concepts such
as intelligence, thinking, feeling, ideas,
and knowledge. Attracted to all that is
mechanical, Mallart's art frequently includes
machine parts such as gears and wheels that
imply movement and rhythm. These features
together, in their abstract representation,
beautifully illustrate the topics discussed in
The Mind's Machine, Third Edition. To see
more of Bruno Mallart's art, please go to his
website: www.brunomallart.com.
The Mind s Machine: Foundations of Brain and Behavior, Third Edition
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Watson, NeilV. (NeilVeme), 1962- author. | Breedlove, S. Marc,
author.
Title: The mind's machine : foundations of brain and behavior / NeilV.
Watson (Simon Fraser University), S. Marc Breedlove (Michigan State
University).
Description: Third edition. | Sunderland, Massachusetts : Sinauer Associates,
Inc., [2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018032509 | ISBN 9781605357300 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Brain--Textbooks. | Brain--Physiology--Textbooks. | Human
behavior--Physiological aspects--Textbooks. | Psychobiology--Textbooks. |
Neurophysiology--Textbooks. | Neuropsychology--Textbooks. | LCGFT:
Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QP376 .W26 2019 | DDC 612.8/2-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018032509
987654321
Printed in the United States of America
 N.V.W. S. M. B.
For my friend Marc, who has made For my rabbi,
possible many wonderful things in my life, Irving Zucker
including this book.
 1 An Introduction to Brain and Behavior 2

2 Cells and Structures The Anatomy of the Nervous System 22

3 Neurophysiology The Generation, Transmission,

and Integration of Neural Signals 54

4 The Chemistry of Behavior Neurotransmitters

and Neuropharmacology 82

5 The Sensorimotor System 118

6 Hearing, Balance, Taste, and Smell 152

7 Vision From Eye to Brain 182

8 Hormones and Sex 216

9 Homeostasis Active Regulation of the Internal Environment 262

10 Biological Rhythms and Sleep 288

11 Emotions, Aggression, and Stress 318

12 Psychopathology The Biology of Behavioral Disorders 346

13 Memory, Learning, and Development 378

14 Attention and Higher Cognition 418

15 Language and Lateralization 450

Table of Contents
SSO 1 An Introduction to Brain and Behavior 2
______________________________________
PART I The Birth of a Science of Brain
and Behavior 4
Behavioral Neuroscience Spans Past, Present,
and Future 4
An understanding of the brain’s role in behavior has
developed over centuries 4
The future of behavioral neuroscience is in
interdisciplinary discovery and knowledge
translation 9
PART II Research Design 13
Careful Design of Studies Is Essential for Progress
in Behavioral Neuroscience 13
and Structures The Anatomy of the Nervous System
PART I The Cellular Components of the
Nervous System 24
The Nervous System Contains Several Types
of Cells 24
The neuron has four principal divisions 24
Information is transmitted through synapses 28
BOX 2.1 Visualizing the Cellular Structure
of the Brain 29
The axon integrates and then transmits
information 30
Glial cells protect and assist neurons 31
PART II The Large Scale Structure of the
Nervous System 32
The Nervous System Extends throughout
the Body 33
The peripheral nervous system has two divisions 33
The central nervous system consists of the brain
and spinal cord 36
Three types of study designs probe brain-behavior
relationships 13
Research objectives reflect specific theoretical
orientations 15
Animal research is an essential part of life sciences
research, including behavioral neuroscience 15
BOX 1.1 We Are All Alike, and We Are
All Different 16
Behavioral neuroscientists use several levels of
analysis 17
Looking Forward: A Glimpse inside the Mind’s
Machine 18
■ Visual Summary 21
22
BOX 2.2 Three Customary Orientations for Viewing
the Brain and Body 38
PART III The Functional Organization of the
Nervous System 42
The Brain Is Described in Terms of Both Structure
and Function 42
The cerebral cortex performs complex cognitive
processing 42
Important nuclei are hidden beneath the cerebral
cortex 43
The midbrain has sensory and motor components 43
The brainstem controls vital body functions 44
Networks of connections between brain regions
determine behavior 45
Specialized Support Systems Protect and Nourish
the Brain 45
The brain floats within layers of membranes 45
The brain relies on two fluids for survival 45
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Stroke 47
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Brain-Imaging Techniques Reveal the Structure
and Function of the Human Brain 48
CT uses X-rays to reveal brain structure 48
MRI maps density to deduce brain structure with
high detail 48
Functional MRI uses local changes in metabolism
to identify active brain regions 48
ogy The Generation, Transmission, and Integration of Neural Signals 54
PART I Electric Neurons 56
Electrical Signals Are the Vocabulary of the
Nervous System 56
A threshold amount of depolarization triggers an
action potential 59
Ionic mechanisms underlie the action potential 61
Action potentials are actively propagated along
the axon 63
BOX 3.1 How Is an Axon Like a Toilet? 65
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Multiple Sclerosis 66
Synapses cause local changes in the postsynaptic
membrane potential 66
Spatial summation and temporal summation integrate
synaptic inputs 68
PART II Synaptic Transmission 70
n
< 4 The Chemistry of Behavior Neurotransmitters and Neuropharmacology 82
PART I Chemical Neurotransmission 84
Synaptic Transmission Involves a Complex
Electrochemical Process 85
Many Neurotransmitters Have Been Identified 86
RESEARCHERS AT WORK The first transmitter
to be discovered was acetylcholine 87
Neurotransmitter Systems Form a Complex Array
in the Brain 88
Four amine neurotransmitters modulate
brain activity 89
Many peptides function as neurotransmitters 91
Some neurotransmitters are gases 92
PART II Drug Actions in the Brain 92
Drugs Fit Like Keys into Molecular Locks 93
PET tracks radioactive substances to produce images
of brain activity 49
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Subtractive analysis
isolates specific brain activity 50
Magnetism can be used to study the brain 51
■ Visual Summary 52
Synaptic Transmission Requires a Sequence of
Events 70
Action potentials cause the release of transmitter
molecules into the synaptic cleft 71
Receptor molecules recognize transmitters 72
The action of synaptic transmitters is stopped
rapidly 73
Neural circuits underlie reflexes 73
PART III Gross Potentials 75
EEGs Measure Gross Electrical Activity of the
Human Brain 75
Electrical storms in the brain can cause seizures 76
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Surgical probing of
the brain revealed a map of the body 78
■ Visual Summary 80
The effects of a drug depend on its dose 94
Drugs are administered and eliminated in many
different ways 94
Repeated treatments may reduce the effectiveness
of drugs 96
Drugs Affect Each Stage of Neural Conduction
and Synaptic Transmission 96
Some drugs alter presynaptic processes 97
Some drugs alter postsynaptic processes 98
PART III Psychopharmacology:
Effects of Drugs on Behavior 100
Some Neuroactive Drugs Ease the Symptoms
of Psychiatric Illness 100
Antipsychotics relieve symptoms of
schizophrenia 100

Antidepressants reduce chronic mood problems 101
Anxiolytics combat anxiety 101
Opiates have powerful painkilling effects 101
Some Neuroactive Drugs Are Used to Alter
Conscious Experience 103
Cannabinoids have many effects 103
Stimulants increase neural activity 104
Alcohol acts as both a stimulant and a
depressant 106
Xa/
t-4 5 The Sensorimotor System 118
PART I Sensory Processing and the
Somatosensory System 120
Sensory Systems Detect Various Forms of
Energy 120
Receptor Cells Convert Sensory Signals into
Electrical Activity 122
Sensory Information Processing Is Selective
and Analytical 123
Sensory events are encoded as streams
of action potentials 124
Sensory neurons respond to stimuli falling in
their receptive fields 125
Receptors may show adaptation to unchanging
stimuli 125
Sometimes we need receptors to be quiet 126
Successive Levels of the CNS Process Sensory
Information 126
Sensory cortex is highly organized 128
Sensory brain regions influence one another
and change over time 129
PART II Pain: The Body’s Emergency
Signaling System 130
Human Pain Varies in Several Dimensions 130
A Discrete Pain Pathway Projects from Body to
Brain 130
Peripheral receptors get the initial message 130
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS A Professional Eater
Meets His Match 132
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
Hallucinogens alter sensory perceptions 107
Substance Abuse and Addiction Are Global
Social Problems 109
Competing models of substance abuse
have been proposed 111
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Medical Interventions for
Substance Abuse 113
■ Visual Summary 115
Special neural pathways carry pain information
to the brain 132
Pain Control Can Be Difficult 134
Analgesic drugs are highly effective 134
Electrical stimulation can sometimes relieve pain 135
Placebos effectively control pain in some people, but
not all 135
Activation of endogenous opioids relieves pain 135
PART III Movement and the Motor
System 136
Behavior Requires Movements That Are Precisely
Programmed and Monitored 137
A Complex Neural System Controls Muscles to
Create Behavior 138
Muscles and the skeleton work together to
move the body 138
Sensory feedback from muscles, tendons, and joints
regulates movement 140
The spinal cord mediates “automatic” responses and
receives inputs from the brain 142
Motor cortex plans and executes movements—
and more 144
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Mirror neurons in
premotor cortex track movements in others 146
Extrapyramidal systems regulate and fine-tune
motor commands 148
Damage to extrapyramidal systems impairs
movement 148
Visual Summary 150
x TABLE OF CONTENTS
‘ 6 Hearing, Balance, Taste, and Smell 152
PART I Hearing and Balance 154
Pressure Waves in the Air Are Perceived as
Sound 154
BOX 6.1 The Basics of Sound 155
The external ear captures, focuses, and filters
sound 156
PART II The Chemical Senses:
The middle ear concentrates sound energies 156
The cochlea converts vibrational energy into
neural activity 156
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Georg von Bekesy and
the cochlear wave 158
The hair cells transduce movements of the basilar
membrane into electrical signals 159
Auditory Signals Run from Cochlea to Cortex 160
Our Sense of Pitch Relies on TXvo Signals from the
Cochlea 162
Brainstem Systems Compare the Ears to Localize
Sounds 163
The Auditory Cortex Processes Complex
Sound 164
Hearing Loss Is a Widespread Problem 165
7 Vision From Eye to Brain 182
PART I Vision Pathways 184
The Visual System Extends from the Eye to the
Brain 184
Visual processing begins in the retina 185
Photoreceptors respond to light by releasing less
neurotransmitter 186
Different mechanisms enable the eyes to work over
a wide range of light intensities 188
Acuity is best in foveal vision 189
PART III Color Vision 203
Neural signals travel from the retina to several
brain regions 191
The retina projects to the brain in a topographic
fashion 193
PART II Visual Analysis 194
Neurons at Different Levels of the Visual System
Have Very Different Receptive Fields 194
Neurons in the retina and the LGN have concentric
receptive fields 195
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Restoring Auditory
Stimulation in Deafness 168
The Inner Ear Provides Our Sense of Balance 169
Some Forms of Vestibular Excitation Produce
Motion Sickness 170
Taste and Smell 171
Chemicals in Our Food Are Perceived as Five Basic
Tastes 171
Tastes excite specialized receptor cells
on the tongue 172
The five basic tastes are signaled by specific sensors
on taste cells 172
Taste information is transmitted to several parts
of the brain 174
Chemicals in the Air Elicit Odor Sensations 175
The sense of smell starts with receptor neurons in the
nose 175
Olfactory information projects from the olfactory bulbs
to several brain regions 177
Many vertebrates possess a vomeronasal system 178
Visual Summary 180
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Neurons in the visual
cortex have varied receptive fields 198
Spatial-frequency analysis is unintuitive
but efficient 199
Neurons in the visual cortex beyond area VI have
complex receptive fields and help identify
forms 201
Visual perception of motion is analyzed by a special
system that includes cortical area V5 202
Color Vision Depends on Special Channels from
the Retinal Cones through Cortical Area V4 203
Color perception requires receptor cells that differ in
their sensitivities to different wavelengths 204
BOX 7.1 Most Mammalian Species Have Some
Color Vision 207
Some retinal ganglion cells and LGN cells show
spectral opponency 208
 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

Some visual cortical cells and regions appear to be Visual Neuroscience Can Be Applied to Alleviate
specialized for color perception 209 Some Visual Deficiencies 212
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Correcting "Color Impairment of vision often can be prevented or
Blindness"? 210 reduced 213
Increased exercise can restore function to a previously
PART IV What versus Where 211 deprived or neglected eye 213
The Many Cortical Visual Areas Are Organized into ■ Visual Summary 214
Two Major Streams 211
1
1 8 Hormones and Sex 216
________________________________________________________________________

PART I The Endocrine System 218 PART II Reproductive Behavior 234

Hormones Act in a Great Variety of Ways Reproductive Behavior Can Be Divided
throughout the Body 218 into Four Stages 234
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Our Current Copulation brings gametes together 236
understanding of hormones developed in Gonadal steroids activate sexual behavior 236
stages 219
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Individual differences
Hormones are one of several types of chemical in mating behavior 237
communication 220
The Neural Circuitry of the Brain Regulates
Hormones can be classified by chemical structure 220
Reproductive Behavior 238
Hormones Act on a Wide Variety of Cellular Estrogen and progesterone act on a lordosis circuit
Mechanisms 221 that spans from brain to muscle 238
Hormones initiate actions by binding to receptor Androgens act on a neural system for male
molecules 221 reproductive behavior 238
Hormones can have different effects on different Maternal behaviors are governed by several sex-related
target organs 222 hormones 240
BOX 8.1 Techniques of Behavioral The Hallmark of Human Sexual Behavior
Endocrinology 223 Is Diversity 241
Each Endocrine Gland Secretes Specific Hormones play only a permissive role in human
Hormones 225 sexual behavior 243
The posterior pituitary releases two hormones directly
into the bloodstream 226 PART III Sexual Differentiation and
Orientation 244
Posterior pituitary hormones can affect social
behavior 226 Genetic and Hormonal Mechanisms Guide the
Feedback control mechanisms regulate the secretion Development of Masculine and Feminine
of hormones 227 Structures 244
Hypothalamic releasing hormones govern the Sex chromosomes direct sexual differentiation
anterior pituitary 228 of the gonads 244
Two anterior pituitary tropic hormones act on Gonadal hormones direct sexual differentiation
the gonads 230 of the body 244
The gonads produce steroid hormones, regulating Changes in sexual differentiation processes result in
reproduction 230 predictable changes in development 245
Hormonal and neural systems interact to produce Dysfunctional androgen receptors can block
integrated responses 232 masculinization of the body 246
Some people seem to change sex at puberty 247
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Defining an
Athlete's Sex 248
How should we define sex—by genes, gonads,
genitals? 248
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Gonadal hormones
direct sexual differentiation of behavior and
the brain 249
Early testicular secretions result in masculine behavior
in adulthood 250
9 Homeostasis Active Regulation of the Internal Environment
PART I Principles of Homeostasis 264
Homeostatic Systems Share Several Key
Features 264
Negative feedback allows precise control 264
Redundancy ensures critical needs are met 265
Animals use behavioral compensation to adjust to
environmental changes 266
PART II Fluid Regulation 267
Water Moves between Two Major Body
Compartments 267
Two Internal Cues Trigger Thirst 269
Osmotic thirst occurs when the extracellular fluid
becomes too salty 269
Hypovolemic thirst is triggered by a loss of fluid
volume 270
We don’t stop drinking just because the throat and
mouth are wet 271
10 Biological Rhythms and Sleep 288
PART I Biological Rhythms 290
Many Animals Show Daily Rhythms in
Activity 290
Circadian rhythms are generated by an endogenous
clock 290
The Hypothalamus Houses a Circadian Clock 292
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Transplants prove that
the SCN produces a circadian rhythm 293
In mammals, light information from the eyes reaches
the SCN directly 293
Several regions of the nervous system display
prominent sexual dimorphism 251
Social influences also affect sexual differentiation
of the nervous system 254
Do Fetal Hormones Masculinize Human Behaviors
in Adulthood? 255
What determines a person’s sexual orientation? 256
■ Visual Summary 259
262
PART III Food and Energy Regulation 272
Nutrient Regulation Helps Prepare for Future
Needs 272
Insulin is essential for obtaining, storing, and using
food energy 275
The Hypothalamus Coordinates Multiple Systems
That Control Hunger 276
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Lesion studies
showed that the hypothalamus is crucial for
appetite 276
Hormones from the body drive a hypothalamic
appetite controller 277
Other systems also play a role in hunger
and satiety 280
Obesity Is Difficult to Treat 281
Eating Disorders Can Be Life-Threatening 283
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Friends with
Benefits 284
Visual Summary 286
Circadian rhythms have been genetically dissected
in flies and mice 295
PART II Sleep 297
Human Sleep Exhibits Different Stages 297
We do our most vivid dreaming during REM sleep 300
Different species provide clues about the evolution
of sleep 301
Our Sleep Patterns Change across the
Life Span 301

Mammals sleep more during infancy than m
adulthood 301
Most people sleep appreciably less as they age 302
Manipulating Sleep Reveals an Underlying
Structure 303
Sleep deprivation impairs cognitive functioning but
does not cause insanity 303
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Total Sleep Deprivation
Can Be Fatal 304
Sleep recovery may take time 304
What Are the Biological Functions of Sleep? 305
Sleep conserves energy 306
Sleep enforces niche adaptation 306
Sleep restores the body and brain 306
Sleep may aid memory consolidation 307
Some humans sleep remarkably little, yet function
normally 307
At Least Four Interacting Neural Systems
Underlie Sleep 308
' 11 Emotions, Aggression, and
PART I Emotional Processing 320
Broad Theories of Emotion Emphasize Bodily
Responses 320
Do emotions cause bodily changes, or vice versa? 321
BOX 11.1 Lie Detector? 322
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Stanley Schachter
proposed a cognitive interpretation of stimuli
and visceral states 323
Is There a Core Set of Emotions? 324
Facial expressions have complex functions in
communication 326
Facial expressions are mediated by muscles, cranial
nerves, and CNS pathways 327
Do Distinct Brain Circuits Mediate Different
Emotions? 328
Electrical stimulation of the brain can produce
emotional effects 328
Brain lesions also affect emotions 329
The amygdala is crucial for emotional learning 330
Different emotions activate different regions of the
human brain 332
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii
RESEARCHERS AT WORK The forebrain
generates slow wave sleep 308
The reticular formation wakes up the forebrain 309
The pons triggers REM sleep 309
PART III Sleep Disorders 311
Sleep Disorders Can Be Serious, Even Life-
Threatening 311
A hypothalamic sleep center was revealed by the
study of narcolepsy 311
Some minor dysfunctions are associated
with sleep 313
Some people appear to be acting out their
nightmares 313
Insomniacs have trouble falling asleep or staying
asleep 314
Although many drugs affect sleep, there is no perfect
sleeping pill 315
Everyone should practice good sleep hygiene 315
■ Visual Summary 317
Stress 318
PART II Aggression 334
Neural Circuitry, Hormones, and Synaptic
Transmitters Mediate Violence and
Aggression 334
Androgens seem to increase aggression 334
Brain circuits mediate aggression 336
The biopsychology of human violence is a topic
of controversy 336
PART III Stress and Health 337
Stress Activates Many Bodily Responses 337
The stress response progresses in stages 338
There are individual differences in the stress
response 339
Stress and emotions affect our health 341
Why does chronic stress suppress the immune
system? 341
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Long-Term Consequences
of Childhood Bullying 343
11 Visual Summary 344
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS
12 Psychopathology The Biology of Behavioral Disorders
PART I Schizophrenia 348
The Toll of Psychiatric Disorders Is Huge 348
Schizophrenia Is a Major Neurobiological
Challenge in Psychiatry 349
Schizophrenia is characterized by an unusual array of
symptoms 349
Schizophrenia has a heritable component 349
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Stress increases the
risk of schizophrenia 352
An integrative model of schizophrenia emphasizes the
interaction of factors 353
The brains of some people with schizophrenia show
structural and functional changes 353
Antipsychotic medications revolutionized the
treatment of schizophrenia 356
BOX 12.1 Long-Term Effects of Antipsychotic
Drugs 357
PART II Mood Disorders 361
Depression Is the Most Prevalent Disorder of
Mood 361
Inheritance is an important determinant of
depression 361
The brain changes with depression 362
A wide variety of treatments are available for
depression 362
j
13 Memory, Learning, and Development 378
PART I Types of Learning and Memory 380
There Are Several Kinds of Learning and
Memory 380
For Patient H.M., the present vanished into
oblivion 380
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Which brain structures
are important for declarative memory? 383
Damage to the medial diencephalon can also cause
amnesia 384
Brain damage can destroy autobiographical memories
while sparing general memories 385
346
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Mixed Feelings
about SSRIs 364
Why do more females than males suffer from
depression? 365
Sleep characteristics change in affective
disorders 366
Scientists are still searching for animal models of
depression 366
In Bipolar Disorder, Mood Cycles between
Extremes 367
RESEARCHERS AT WORK The entirely accidental
discovery of lithium therapy 368
PART III Anxiety Disorders 369
There Are Several Types of Anxiety Disorders 369
Drug treatments provide clues to the mechanisms of
anxiety 369
In Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Horrible
Memories Won’t Go Away 370
In Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Thoughts and
Acts Keep Repeating 372
BOX 12.2 Tics, Twitches, and Snorts: The Unusual
Character of Tourette’s Syndrome 374
12 ■ Visual Summary 375
Different Forms of Nondeclarative Memory Involve
Different Brain Regions 386
Different types of nondeclarative memory serve
varying functions 386
Animal research confirms the various brain regions
involved in different attributes of memory 387
Brain regions involved in learning and memory: A
summary 388
Successive Processes Capture, Store, and Retrieve
Information in the Brain 388
BOX 13.1 Emotions and Memory 390
Long-term memory has vast capacity but is subject to
distortion 390

PART II Neural Mechanisms of Memory 392
Memory Storage Requires Physical Changes in the
Brain 392
Plastic changes at synapses can be physiological or
structural 392
Varied experiences and learning cause the brain to
change and grow 392
Invertebrate nervous systems show synaptic
plasticity 394
Classical conditioning relies on circuits in the
mammalian cerebellum 396
Synaptic Plasticity Can Be Measured in Simple
Hippocampal Circuits 398
NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors collaborate in
LTP 399
Is LTP a mechanism of memory formation? 401
PART III Development of the Brain 402
Growth and Development of the Brain Are Orderly
Processes 402
Development of the Nervous System Can Be
Divided into Six Distinct Stages 404
14 Attention and Higher Cognition
PART I Effects of Attention on Behavior 420
Attention Focuses Cognitive Processing on Specific
Objects 420
There are limits on attention 420
Attention Is Deployed in Several Different
Ways 422
RESEARCHERS AT WORK We can choose
which stimuli we will attend to 423
Some stimuli grab our attention 424
BOX 14.1 Reaction-Time Responses, from Input
to Output 425
We use visual search to make sense of a
cluttered world 426
PART II Neural Mechanisms of Attention 428
Attention Alters the Functioning of the Brain 428
Distinctive patterns of brain electrical activity mark
shifts of attention 429
Attention affects the activity of neurons 431
TABLE OF CONTENTS xv
Cell proliferation produces cells that become neurons
or glia 404
In the adult brain, newly born neurons aid
learning 406
The death of many neurons is a normal part of
development 407
An explosion of synapse formation is followed by
synapse rearrangement 407
Genes Interact with Experience to Guide Brain
Development 410
Genotype is fixed at birth, but phenotype changes
throughout life 411
Experience regulates gene expression in the
developing and mature brain 411
The Brain Continues to Change as We Grow
Older 413
Memory impairment correlates with hippocampal
shrinkage during aging 413
Alzheimer’s disease is associated with a decline in
cerebral metabolism 414
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Imaging Alzheimer's
Plaques 415
13 ■ Visual Summary 416
418
A Network of Brain Sites Creates and Directs
Attention 433
Two subcortical systems guide shifts of attention 433
Several cortical areas are crucial for generating and
directing attention 433
Brain disorders can cause specific impairments of
attention 435
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS Difficulty with Sustained
Attention Can Sometimes Be Relieved with
Stimulants 436
PART III Consciousness, Thought, and
Executive Function 437
Consciousness Is a Mysterious Product of the
Brain 438
Which brain regions are active when we are
conscious? 438
Some aspects of consciousness are easier to study
than others 440
BOX 14.2 Building a Better Mind Reader 442
xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS
The frontal lobes are a crucial part of the executive
system that guides our thoughts, feelings, and
choices 444
Frontal lobe injury in humans leads to emotional,
motor, and cognitive changes 444
15 Language and Lateralization 450
PART I Cerebral Lateralization 452
The Left and Right Hemispheres of the Brain
Are Different 452
Disconnection of the cerebral hemispheres reveals
their individual specializations 452
The two hemispheres process information differently
in most people 454
The left and right hemispheres differ in their
auditory specializations 455
Handedness is associated with cerebral
lateralization 456
Right-Hemisphere Damage Impairs Specific Types
of Cognition 457
In prosopagnosia, faces are unrecognizable 458
BOX 15.1 The Wada Test 459
Left Hemisphere Damage Can Cause Aphasia 460
Damage to a left anterior speech zone causes
nonfluent (or Broca’s) aphasia 460
Damage to a left posterior speech zone causes fluent
(or Wernicke’s) aphasia 462
Widespread left-hemisphere damage can obliterate
language capabilities 462
Disconnection of language regions may result in
specific verbal problems 464
BOX 15.2 Studying Connectivity in the
Living Brain 465
Brain mapping helps us understand the organization
of language in the brain 466
RESEARCHERS AT WORK Noninvasive
stimulation mapping reveals details of the brain's
language areas 467
BOX 14.3 Neuroeconomics Identifies Brain Regions
Active during Decision Making 446
14 ■ Visual Summary 447
Functional neuroimaging technologies let us visualize
activity in the brain’s language zones during
speech 468
PART II Verbal Behavior: Speech and
Reading 470
Human Languages Share Basic Features 471
Language Has Both Inborn and Learned
Components 472
Nonhuman primates engage in elaborate vocal
behavior 473
Many different species engage in vocal
communication 475
Reading Skills Are Difficult to Acquire and Are
Frequently Impaired 476
Brain damage may cause specific impairments in
reading 476
Some people struggle throughout their lives to
read 477
PART III Recovery from Brain Damage 478
Stabilization and Reorganization Are Crucial for
Recovery of Function 478
BOX 15.3 Contact Sports Can Be Costly 479
Rehabilitation and Retraining Can Help Recovery
from Brain and Spinal Cord Injury 480
SIGNS & SYMPTOMS The Amazing Resilience
of a Child's Brain 481
15 ■ Visual Summary 483
 TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii

Appendix
Molecular Biology Basic Concepts and Important Techniques A-l

Genes Carry Information That Encodes
Proteins A-l
Genetic information is stored in molecules of
DNA A-l
DNA is transcribed to produce messenger RNA A-2
RNA molecules direct the formation of protein
molecules A-2
Molecular Biologists Have Craftily Enslaved
Microorganisms and Enzymes A-3
Southern blots identify particular genes A^
Northern blots identify particular mRNA
transcripts A-6
In situ hybridization localizes mRNA transcripts
within specific cells A-6
Western blots identify particular proteins A-7
Antibodies can also tell us which cells possess a
particular protein A-7

Glossary G-l
References R-l
Author Index AI-1
Subject Index SI-I
Preface
Who has not pondered their own consciousness, marveled at
their many sensory experiences, or wondered how a small and
lumpy organ can process so much information? Neuroscience
boils down to the mind studying its own machine, so it's an
intrinsically fascinating topic that seems to fill every media
channel nowadays. But another reason neuroscience is in the
news so frequently is simply that it has become one of the most
active branches of science. The pace of discoveries about brain
and behavior has increased at an exponential rate over the last
few decades, and continues to accelerate.
Every new edition of one of our books requires substan­
tial updating because so much is happening all the time. (It's
exciting, but wow, do we read a lot of reports and articles!) In
fact, by far the hardest part of our job as authors lies in de­
ciding which discoveries to include and which to (reluctantly)
leave out: As the Red Queen remarked to Alice in Wonderland,
"it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place."
Our neuroscience news website (3e.mindsmachine.com/news)
boasts a collection of more than 25,000 news stories, drawn
from the mainstream media, that relate to the topics covered
in the book. You can follow updates on the website, via email,
or Facebook (www.facebook.com/BehavioralNeuroscience).
While we are sampling from this almost boundless scien­
tific smorgasbord, we have to watch our weight. Our goal for
The Mind's Machine, Third Edition is to introduce you to the
basics of behavioral neuroscience in a way that focuses on the
foundational topics in the field—with a generous sprinkling
of the newest and most fascinating discoveries—and leaves
you with an appetite for more. Whether you are beginning a
program of study centered on the brain and behavior, or are
just adding some breadth to your education, you will find that
behavioral neuroscience now permeates all aspects of modern
psychology, along with related life sciences like physiology, bi­
ology, and the health sciences. But that's not all. The tools and
techniques of behavioral neuroscience are also creating new
ways of looking at questions in many nontraditional areas,
such as economics, the performing arts, anthropology, sociol­
ogy, computer science, and engineering. Researchers are be­
ginning to probe mental processes that seemed impenetrable
only a decade or two ago: the neural bases of decision mak­
ing, love and attachment, memory and learning, conscious­
ness, and much of what we call the mind. A few examples of
formerly mysterious questions that are being answered with
cutting-edge research include:
• Do prenatal events influence the development of
person's gender identity and sexual orientation?
• Does the brain make new neurons throughout life, in
numbers large enough to make a functional difference?
• Can we improve memory performance with some
drugs, and use other drugs to erase unwanted,
traumatic memories?
• What happens in the brain as we develop trust in
another person?
• How can we share so many genes with chimpanzees and
other primates, and yet be so different from them?
• Can recent discoveries about the brain's appetite
controller help us to curb the obesity epidemic?
• How can the microorganisms inhabiting the gut alter our
brains and, ultimately, our behavior?
To understand the research behind these sorts of ques­
tions, it's necessary to become familiar with the physiology
of behavior and experience. Our aim in The Mind's Machine,
Third Edition is to provide a foundation that places these and
other important problems in a unified scientific context, deliv­
ered in clear, inclusive, and gender-neutral language.
We've found that students enrolled in our courses have
diverse academic backgrounds and personal interests. In this
book, we've tried to avoid making too many assumptions
about our readers, and have focused on providing both behav­
ioral and biological perspectives on major topics. If you've had
some high-school level biology you should have no trouble
with most of the material in the book.
For those readers who have more experience in science—or
who want more detail—we have peppered the chapters with
embedded links to more advanced material located on our web­
site. These links, called A Step Further, are just one of several
novel features we have included to aid your learning. Through­
out the book you will find web links that will connect you to
animated versions of many figures, video clips, and more.
Each chapter also features at least one segment called Re­
searchers at Work, which illustrates the nuts and bolts of ex­
perimentation through real-world examples, and a segment

called Signs & Symptoms that relates a real-world clinical issue
relevant to the chapter topic. And to help you gauge your prog­
ress, each chapter is divided into several major topics each
bracketed by features called The Road Ahead, specifying your
learning objectives for the material that follows, and How's It
Going?, providing self-test conceptual questions. Every chap­
ter also ends with a Visual Summary, an innovative combina­
tion of the main points and figures from the chapter, which
you can also view in an interactive format on the companion
website. We encourage you to explore the website for the book
(3e.mindsmachine.com), which contains a free comprehensive
set of study questions. This website is a powerful companion
to the textbook that enhances the learning experience with a
variety of multimedia resources.
The chapter lineup in this edition of The Mind's Machine
encompasses several major themes. In the opening chapters,
we trace the origins of behavioral neuroscience and introduce
you to the structure of the brain, both as seen by the naked eye
and as revealed by the microscope. We discuss how the cells
of the brain use electrical signals to process information, and
how they transmit that information to other cells within larger
circuits. Along the way we'll look at the ways in which drugs
affect nerve cells in order to change behavior, as well as some
of the remarkable technology that lets us study the activity of
the conscious brain as it perceives and thinks.
In the middle part of the book we look at the neural sys­
tems that underlie fundamental capabilities like feeling, mov­
ing, seeing, smelling, and hearing. We'll also consider bio­
logical and behavioral aspects of "mission-critical" functions
such as feeding, sleeping, and sexual behavior. And we'll look
at how the endocrine system acts as an interface between the
brain and the rest of the body, as well as the reverse—ways in
which the environment and behavior alter hormones and thus
alter brain activity.
PREFACE xix
In the latter part of the book we turn to some of the high-
level emotional and cognitive processes that color our lives
and define us as individuals. We'll survey the systems that
allow us to learn and remember information and skills, and
the brain systems dedicated to language and spatial cognition.
Research on processes of attention has made great progress
in recent years, and we'll also consider consciousness and
decision-making from a neuroscientific perspective. Finally,
we'll review some of the consequences of brain dysfunction,
ranging from psychopathology to behavioral manifestations
of brain damage, and some of the innovative strategies being
developed to counter these problems.
As you make your way through the book, you'll learn that
one of the outstanding features of the brain is its ability to re­
model. Every new experience, every piece of information that
you learn, every skill that you master, causes changes in the
brain that can alter your future behavior. The changes may
involve physical alterations in the connections between cells,
or in the chemicals they use to communicate, or even the ad­
dition of whole new cells and circuits. It's a property that we
neuroscientists refer to as "plasticity." And it's something that
we aim to exploit—if we've done our job properly, The Mind's
Machine, Third Edition should cause lots of changes in your
brain. We hope you enjoy the process.
----------- - •
Neil V. Watson S. Marc Breedlove
We welcome feedback on any aspect of
The Mind's Machine, Third Edition
Simply drop us a line at themindsmachine@gmail.com.
xx ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Acknowledgments
This book bears the strong imprint of our late colleagues
and coauthors Arnold L. Leiman (1932-2000) and Mark R.
Rosenzweig (1922-2009). Arnie and Mark prepared the earli­
est editions of our more advanced text, Behavioral Neuroscience,
and many illustrations and concepts in this book originated in
their minds' machines.
In writing this book we benefited from the help of many
highly skilled people. These include members of the staff of
Sinauer Associates: Syd Carroll, Editor; Alison Hornbeck and
Kathaleen Emerson, Production Editors; Christopher Small,
Production Manager; Joan Gemme, Production Specialist;
Jason Dirks, Manager, Media Editorial; and Zan Carter, Pro­
duction Editor for Media and Supplements. Copy Editor Lou
Doucette skillfully edited the text, and Photo Researchers
Mark Siddall and David McIntyre sourced many of the photo­
graphs. Mike Demaray, Craig Durant, and colleagues at Drag­
onfly Media Group transformed our rough sketches and wish
list into the handsome and dynamic art program of this text.
Our greatest source of inspiration (and critical feedback)
has undoubtedly been the thousands of students to whom we
have had the privilege of introducing the mysteries and de­
lights of behavioral neuroscience, over the course of the last
couple of decades. We have benefited from wisdom gener­
ously contributed by a legion of academic colleagues, whose
advice and critical reviews have enormously improved our
books. In particular we are grateful to: John Agnew, Duane
Albrecht, Anne E. Powell Anderson, Michael Antle, Benoit
Bacon, Scott Baron, Mark S. Blumberg, William Boggan, Eliot
A. Brenowitz, Chris Brill, Peter C. Brunjes, Rebecca D. Burwell,
Aryn Bush, Evangelia Chrysikou, Catherine P. Cramer, Heidi
Day, Betty Deckard, Brian Derrick, Karen De Valois, Russell
De Valois, Tiffany Donaldson, Rena Durr, Steven I. Dworkin,
Thomas Fischer, Julia Fisher, Loretta M. Flanagan-Cato, Fran­
cis W. Flynn, Lauren Fowler, Michael Foy, Joyce A. Furfaro,
Kara Gabriel, John D. E. Gabrieli, Jack Gallant, Eric W. Gobel,
Kimberley P. Good, Diane C. Gooding, Janet M. Gray, Gary
Greenberg, James Gross, Ervin Hafter, Mary E. Harrington,
Ron Harris, Christian Hart, Chris Hayashi, Wendy Heller,
Mark Hollins, Dave Holtzman, Rick Howe, Karin Hu, Rich­
ard Ivry, Lucia Jacobs, Karen Jennings, Janice Juraska, Erin
Keen-Rhinehart, Dacher Keltner, Raymond E. Kesner, Mike
Kisley, Keith R. Kluender, Leah A. Krubitzer, Joseph E. Le-
Doux, Diane Lee, Robert Lennartz, Michael A. Leon, Simon
LeVay, Jeannie Loeb, Stephen G. Lomber, Jeffrey Love, Donna
Maney, Stephen A. Maren, Joe L. Martinez, Jr., John J. McDon­
ald, Robert J. McDonald, James L. McGaugh, Robert L. Meisel,
Ralph E. Mistlberger, Jeffrey S. Mogil, Daniel Montoya, Randy
J. Nelson, Chris Newland, Miguel Nicolelis, Michelle Nicules-
cu, Antonio A. Nunez, Lee Osterhout, Kathleen Page, John
Pellitteri, Linda Perrotti, James Pfaus, Eleni Pinnow, Helene
S. Porte, Joseph Porter, George V. Rebec, Thomas Ritz, Scott
R. Robinson, David A. Rosenbaum, Lawrence Ryan, Stephen
Sammut, Martin F. Sarter, Jeffrey D. Schall, Stan Schein, Fred­
erick Seil, Dale R. Sengelaub, Victor Shamas, Matthew Shap­
iro, Arthur Shimamura, Rachel Shoup, Rae Silver, Cheryl L.
Sisk, Laura Smale, Robert L. Spencer, Jeffrey Stowell, Steve St.
John, Patrick Steffen, Steven K. Sutton, Bruce Svare, Harald
K. Taukulis, Jessica Thompson, Sandra Trafalis, Lucy J. Troup,
Meg Upchurch, Franco J. Vaccarino, David R. Vago, Cyma Van
Petten, Charles J. Vierck, Beth Wee, Carmen Westerberg, Rob­
ert Wickesberg, Christoph Wiedenmayer, Walter Wilczynski,
S. Mark Williams, Richard D. Wright, Mark C. Zrull, and Ir­
ving Zucker.
A dedicated group of proofreaders pored over the text
under severe time constraints; thanks to Will Vickerman,
Evan Caldbick, and Maria Watson for catching errors we re­
peatedly missed. The following external reviewers read and
critiqued chapters of the Second Edition of The Mind's Ma­
chine; their contributions and corrections really helped us to
hone this, the Third Edition. Any errors that remain are thus
entirely our fault.
Brian R. Adams, Norco College
David L. Allen, University of Colorado, Boulder
Dionisio A. Amodeo, California State University
San Bernardino
A. Michael Anch, Saint Louis University
Francis R. Bambico, Memorial University of Newfoundland
Alo C. Basu, College of the Holy Cross
Jeffrey S. Bedwell, University of Central Florida
Beth Bowin, Northeastern State University
Sunny K. Boyd, University of Notre Dame
Susanne Brummelte, Wayne State University
Joshua M. Carlson, Northern Michigan University
Vanessa Cerda, University of Texas at San Antonio
Suzanne Clerkin, Purchase College, State University of
New York
Kenneth J. Colodner, Mount Holyoke College
Jennifer A. Cummings, University of Michigan
Gregory L. Dam, Indiana University East
Derek Daniels, University at Buffalo, State University of
New York
Katherine M. Daniels, University of Southern Indiana
Rachel A. Diana, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University
GaryL. Dunbar, Central Michigan University
Lena Ficco, Fitchburg State University
Lauren A. Fowler, Weber State University
Philip A. Gable, The University of Alabama
Christopher Goode, Georgia State University

Ian A. Harrington, Augustana College
Laura M. Harrison, Tulane University
Steven J. Hayduk, Southern Wesleyan University
Brian J. Hock, Austin Peay State University
Tephillah Jeyaraj-Powell, University of Central Oklahoma
Jessica M. Karanian, Wesleyan University
Christopher M. Lowry, Brigham Young University - Idaho
Melissa Masicampo, Wake Forest University
Paul Merritt, Georgetown University
Julia E. Meyers-Manor, Ripon College
Antonio A. Nunez, Michigan State University
John D. Pierce, Jr., Thomas Jefferson University
Joseph H. Porter, Virginia Commonwealth University
Jennifer K. Roth, Carlow University
Andrea J. Sell, California Lutheran University
Kezia C. Shirkey, North Park University
Ken Sobel, University of Central Arkansas
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxi
D. J. Spear, South Dakota State University
Scott F. Stoltenberg, University of Nebraska
Earl Thomas, Bryn Mawr College
Jennifer L. Thomson, Messiah College
Oscar V. Torres, San Diego Mesa College
Brian Trainor, University of California, Davis
Thomas E. Van Cantfort, Fayetteville State University
Carmen Westerberg, Texas State University
Eric P Wiertelak, Macalester College
Christina L. Williams, Duke University
Adrienne Williamson, Kennesaw State University
Guangying Wu, The George Washington University
Melana Yanos, Seattle Central College
Heather J. Yu, Stonehill College
Finally, we would like to thank all our colleagues whose ideas
and discoveries make behavioral neuroscience so much fun.
Media and Supplements
to accompany
The Mind’s Machine: Foundations of Brain and Behavior, Third Edition
For the Student
Companion Website (3e.mindsmachine.com)
The Mind's Machine, Third Edition Companion Website con­
tains a wide range of study and review resources to help stu­
dents master the material presented in the textbook and to
help engage them in the subject with fascinating examples.
Tightly integrated with the text, with content corresponding to
every major heading in the book, this online resource great­
ly enhances the learning experience. Key resources are linked
throughout the textbook via direct Web addresses, making ac­
cess easy from any smartphone, tablet, or computer. The Com­
panion Website includes:
• Chapter outlines provide an overview of each chapter.
• Animations and Videos help illustrate dynamic processes
and show examples of interesting phenomena.
• Activities include exercises that help the student learn
and understand complex concepts and anatomical (and
other) terms.
• "A Step Further," additional coverage of selected topics
• Online, interactive versions of the Visual Summaries
• Flashcards help the student master the hundreds of new
terms introduced in the textbook.
Dashboard (www.oup.com/us/dashboard)
Dashboard delivers a wealth of automatically graded quizzes
and study resources for The Mind's Machine, along with an in­
teractive eBook, all in an intuitive, web-based learning envi­
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 The Mind's Machine
Foundations of Brain and Behavior
THIRD EDITION
Another random document with
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and palps; the body-segments are more or less alike, and (except in some
Spioniformia, some of the Terebelliformia, and the Capitelliformia) do not
present two sharply marked regions, owing to the differential arrangement or
character of the chaetae. In the second branch, the Cryptocephala, the
peristomium grows forwards during development, so as to compress or even
hide the prostomium, which thus becomes a very insignificant organ. The
tentacles are reduced, but the palps become greatly developed and take on
sundry new functions. The body in this group, by the character and
arrangement of the chaetae, is distinguishable into a thorax and abdomen,
presenting certain internal differences.

These two branches may be supposed to have arisen from a common

ancestor having a general resemblance to a nereidiform worm, such as Syllis,
possessing palps and tentacles on the prostomium, definite parapodia and
cirri on the body, and internally, a well-marked and regular repetition of
organs.

The branch Phanerocephala contains the following five sub-Orders, though

it is possible that the Capitelliformia deserves a more important position in the
system:—

Sub-Order 1.—The Nereidiformia have well-developed tentacles and palps;

the peristomium almost invariably possesses special cirri; the parapodia are
well-marked locomotor organs, supported by acicula, and carry dorsal and
ventral cirri. The chaetae are usually jointed, though unjointed ones may
coexist with these; uncini are never present. An eversible buccal region leads
into a muscular pharynx, which in the majority is armed with chitinous jaws;
the septa and nephridia are regularly repeated throughout the body. The
worms lead a predaceous life, and are mostly carnivorous; a few form tubes.

Sub-Order 2.—The Spioniformia possess neither tentacles nor palps; the

peristomium usually carries a pair of long tentacular cirri, and extends
forwards at the sides of the prostomium. The parapodia project only to a slight
degree; the dorsal cirri may attain a considerable size, and act as gills
throughout the greater part of the body. The chaetae are unjointed; uncini are
only present in the aberrant Chaetopterus.[364] The body may present two
regions more or less distinctly marked externally, but without corresponding
internal differences. The buccal region may be eversible, but there are no
jaws. Septa and nephridia are regularly developed. The worms are burrowers,
or tubicolous.
Sub-Order 3. Terebelliformia.—The prostomium is a more or less prominent
lobe (upper lip) with or without tentacles but without palps. The peristomium
may carry cirri or "tentacular filaments."[365] The parapodia are feebly
developed; there are no ventral cirri; the dorsal cirri may exist and function as
gills on more or fewer of the anterior segments. The chaetae are unjointed,
and uncini are usually present. The buccal region is not eversible; there are
no jaws. The septa are usually incomplete, with the exception of one strongly-
developed "diaphragm" anteriorly; the nephridia are dimorphic, those of the
anterior (prediaphragmatic) segments are of large size and are excretory; the
posterior series are mere funnels, and act as genital ducts. These worms are
burrowers or tube-formers, and in the majority the tube-forming glands are
grouped on the ventral surface of the anterior segments to form "gland-
shields."

Sub-Order 4.—The Capitelliformia have no prostomial processes, but

possess a pair of large retractile "ciliated organs." The parapodia do not
project; the chaetae are unjointed, and are hair-like in the anterior segments
and hooded "crotchets" posteriorly; this external division of the body does not
correspond with definite internal differences. There are no cirri, though special
"gills," often retractile, are frequently present. The buccal region is eversible;
there is no armed pharynx. An "accessory gut" or "siphon" exists. The
nephridia are small, and sometimes more than one pair in a segment; special
genital funnels exist in more or fewer of the anterior segments of the hind
body. There is no system of blood-vessels; the coelomic corpuscles are red.
The worms are burrowers.

Sub-Order 5.—The Scoleciformia possess a prostomium, which rarely

(Chlorhaemidae) carries any sensory processes; the peristomium is without
cirri (except, perhaps, in the Chlorhaemidae). The parapodia are ill
developed, and may be absent; only rarely are dorsal cirri present, acting as
gills; ventral cirri are absent. The chaetae are unjointed; true uncini are not
present. The buccal region is eversible, but there is no armed pharynx. The
septa are not regularly developed, as more or fewer are absent, and the
nephridia are considerably reduced in number, it may be to a single pair
(Sternaspidae and some Chlorhaemidae), but they are all alike.[366] The
worms are mostly burrowers.

The branch Cryptocephala contains two sub-Orders:—

Sub-Order 1. Sabelliformia.—The prostomium is entirely hidden by the
forward extension of the peristomium; the tentacles are very small, being
frequently represented merely by small knobs of sense-cells; the palps, on
the other hand, are greatly developed, branched, and contain blood-vessels,
acting as respiratory as well as sensory organs. The peristomium never
carries cirri or chaetae, and it is usually raised up into a projecting collar, used
in fashioning the lip of the animal's tube. The parapodia are but feebly
developed; cirri are absent, except in the Serpulidae, where the dorsal and
ventral cirri become united to form the "thoracic membrane" (Meyer). The
chaetae are of two kinds—unjointed, hair-like, fringed bristles and "uncini." By
their arrangement the body is divided into a thorax of nine segments and an
abdomen; in the former the capillary chaetae are dorsal, and in the latter
ventral. The buccal region is not eversible; there is no pharynx. The septa are
regularly developed in the abdomen, but are absent in the thorax; the
nephridia are dimorphic; there are two large ones in the thorax opening by a
median dorsal pore just above the brain; those of the abdomen are small
funnels, and act as genital ducts. The worms are tubicolous; "gland-shields"
are present on the thoracic segments.

Sub-Order 2. Hermelliformia.—The peristomium (Fig. 135) is enormously

developed, and forms a bilobed hood capable of closing over the mouth; the
truncated free end of each lobe carries three semicircles of peculiar chaetae,
which act as an efficient protection when the worm is withdrawn into its tube.
The prostomium is very small, but retains a pair of well-developed tentacles;
the palps, which are subdivided as in the Sabelliformia, have become fused
with the ventral edges of the peristomium, and appear as a series of ridges on
each side, carrying numerous filaments. The thorax consists of five segments,
the notopodia of three of which are well developed and bear strong chaetae;
dorsal cirri are present along the greater part of the body, and act as gills. The
arrangement of the chaetae and of the internal organs is as in the
Sabelliformia. The worms form tubes of sand.

BRANCH A. PHANEROCEPHALA.

Sub-Order 1. Nereidiformia.[367]

Fam. 1. Syllidae.—These are small worms, the majority being less than an
inch long, so that they are not easily observed. The body consists of a fair
number of segments.[368] In many genera a dorsal bundle of unjointed,
natatory chaetae makes its appearance at maturity. The palps, which are
grooved, are in some cases so united with one another and with the
prostomium as to be scarcely recognisable. (For head see p. 262, and for feet
see p. 264.) The pharynx is armed with one or more teeth. There is a special
gizzard, following the pharynx, and provided with thick, muscular walls of
peculiar structure. Following the gizzard, the oesophagus receives in many
genera a pair of T-shaped diverticula, that are used for storing water, which is
swallowed with food. These diverticula are absent in Autolytus and other free-
swimming forms. The reproduction of the members of this family is
interesting, and has already been described (p. 278).

Fig. 160.—Syllis armillaris Müll. × 2. (From Johnston.) The head is towards the
right.

Syllis.—The tentacles and cirri are moniliform; the palps large; there is a
single dorsal tooth, which is provided with a poison gland, the duct of which
opens near its apex; it is used rather for stabbing its prey than for grasping
and tearing. S. krohnii Ehlers, is abundant under stones, and forms tubes of
sand; it is nearly an inch long, and consists of some eighty-five to ninety-five
segments marked with yellow bands. It may readily be identified by longer
dorsal cirri, terminally dilated, alternating with shorter ones. S. cornuta
Rathke, has a translucent green body, about half an inch long; no alternation
of cirri. Mediterranean, Atlantic, on the Norwegian coast, off Spitzbergen, and
on the Madeira coast. S. armillaris Müll. is very common at low water; it is
pale yellowish-brown, with a couple of dusky marks on each segment; and
measures 2 inches. The dorsal cirri are quite short, consisting of only eight to
ten joints. In Pionosyllis the tentacles and cirri are not moniliform; a single
dorsal tooth. P. malmgreni M‘I. under stones. Sphaerosyllis.—The dorsal cirri
are swollen at the base, and are not moniliform; the long palps are fused
along nearly their whole extent. S. hystrix Clap. is only about one-eighth of an
inch in length. Exogone Oerst. Grubea Qfg.

Autolytus.—The small palps are entirely fused with the prostomium; the
pharynx, which is bent upon itself, is armed with a circle of denticles. Dorsal
cirri somewhat foliaceous. There are no ventral cirri. The male and female
differ from one another and from the asexual "stock" (see p. 279). A. pictus
Ehl. is abundant under stones. It measures about two-thirds of an inch in
length, is darkly coloured with a median lighter band; the anterior dorsal cirri
are long. A. prolifer Müll. is common.

Myrianida fasciata Milne Edwards, with its foliaceous cirri, occurs off our
coasts (see Fig. 149, p. 280). Atlantic, Mediterranean.

Fam. 2. Hesionidae.—The body is relatively short, with only a few segments

(sixteen to fifty, according to the genus); in the larger forms it is cylindrical.
The parapodium is usually uniramous; the dorsal cirri are long and
multiarticulate; the chaetae are jointed. The prostomium carries, in addition to
four eyes, two or three tentacles, and generally a pair of jointed palps. The
peristomium and two or more of the following segments are achaetous, and
carry long "peristomial" cirri. The pharynx is very long but unarmed.

Psamathe Johnston, has many segments; head with two tentacles and a pair
of three-jointed palps. P. fusca Jnstn. occurs amongst coralline Algae, to
which it bears some resemblance, which is heightened by the moniliform cirri.
It is a small worm, less than an inch in length. Mediterranean. Castalia
punctata Müll. is dirty green or brownish, with a narrow purplish band on each
side. It occurs in deeper water than the preceding. In Ophiodromus the head
has three tentacles; the palps are two-jointed; there are six pairs of
peristomial cirri; the parapodia are biramous. O. vittatus Sars is dredged in
numbers off the Scotch coast, and is found also at low tides. It measures 2
inches in length. A closely allied species lives in the ambulacral grooves of
the starfish Astropecten.

Fam. 3. Aphroditidae.[369]—The most characteristic feature of this family, and

one by which its members are absolutely distinguished from all other
Chaetopods, is the possession of scales or "elytra" on the back. These
flattened dorsal cirri are of a somewhat horny texture, and are carried,
generally, on alternate segments of the body; filamentous cirri occurring on
the other segments. In the sub-families Hermionina and Polynoina the
elytriferous segments are 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, etc., up to 23; then every third
segment. The worms are usually short, with some thirty-five to forty-five
segments, though Sthenelais and a few others have many more. (For head
see p. 262, and for parapodium see pp. 265, 268.) The pharynx is very thick
walled, and furnished with two pairs of jaws, which are, however, not
hardened in the sub-family Hermionina. The intestine is provided with a
number of paired longer or shorter caeca (Fig. 142). A considerable number
of this family are commensal or parasitic (see p. 297). The family is well
represented on our own coasts, so that only a few of the more readily
distinguishable species can be here described.

Fig. 161.—Polynoë squamata L. Nat. size. c, Notopodial cirrus; e, elytron; f,

parapodium; p, palp; t, tentacle. (From Johnston.)

Sub-Fam. 1. Polynoina.—Body flattened, with nearly parallel sides, usually

short, more rarely worm-like; three tentacles; peristomium with long dorsal
and ventral cirri; the ventral cirri of the next segment are also elongated. Jaws
are present. Elytra, usually twelve to eighteen pairs, the surface of which is
more or less papillose, and may be "fringed" along the outer border, with long
processes. The colouring of the elytra is characteristic in most cases, though
liable to considerable variation in some species. The chaetae are generally
strong, and of bright golden colour: they are all unjointed. The Polynoina are
generally but feeble swimmers, and are mostly found under stones at low
tide. Some species have a very wide geographical range.

Polynoë.[370]—The body is short; none or only a few segments at the end of

the body are uncovered by the elytra, except in the long body of P. johnstoni.

A. With twelve pairs of elytra.—In P. squamata Linn. the elytra entirely cover
the body and conceal the head, each elytron overlapping the next posterior
one, and those of the two sides overlapping. General colour sandy-brown,
speckled, lighter or darker. The fringed elytra are very firmly fixed to the body.
The notopodial chaetae scarcely project from below the elytra. The worm is
common between tide-marks and in the coralline region, is about one to one
and a half inches in length, and about one-third of an inch in width. Atlantic. P.
clava Montagu, may attain a larger size, though it is generally smaller. The
elytra are dark, usually grey, mottled with white or light grey, unfringed, and do
not overlap to so great an extent as in P. squamata, so that the middle of the
back and the hinder part of the body is more or less exposed. This is never
the case in the preceding species, but even here it is subject to variation in
extent, depending on the amount of food contained by the worm or on the
ripeness of the genital products. It occurs in the Mediterranean.[371]

Fig. 162.—Elytra, A, of Polynoë squamata L.; B, of P. clava Mont. × 10. a, Area

of attachment; e, external margin; f, fringe (the letter is at the posterior side
of the elytron); i, internal margin. (From Bourne.)

B. With fifteen pairs of elytra.—P. imbricata L. is probably the commonest

species of the genus, occurring nearly everywhere under stones at low tide. It
is about an inch in length; the elytra are deciduous, and are very variously
coloured and marked; sometimes uniformly grey or even black, sometimes
mottled with brown: in other specimens each elytron has its outer half pale or
white, while its inner half is darker, usually some tint of brown or olive green,
so that the worm appears to have a dark band along the middle of its back.
Other patterns occur. The body is entirely covered by the elytra. The chaetae
project considerably, and are nearly as long as half the width of the body;
those of the notopodium are brown and are directed upwards, being nearly as
long as the golden neuropodial chaetae. This species has a very wide range,
occurring on both sides of the Atlantic, even on the shores of Nova Zembla,
and reappearing again at Japan. P. semisculptus Leach is rather larger than
the foregoing. The elytra are very readily detached: they are light in colour,
without a fringe, but with large papillae near the margin. The notopodial
chaetae are thicker than those of the neuropodium. Several other species are
also common, but P. johnstoni v. Marenz.[372] differs from the rest in having
an elongated body of some seventy segments, so that the posterior half is
uncovered by the elytra, which are small, greenish-grey, speckled, and have
no fringe. It is common and widely distributed, but appears to be only found in
the tubes of Terebella nebulosa.

Fig. 163.—Elytron of Polynoë imbricata. a, Area of attachment to body; e, outer

border; i, inner border.
C. With eighteen pairs of elytra.—P. gelatinosa Sars, may attain a length of 2
inches. The elytra are very faintly coloured, transparent and soft, attached by
rather long peduncles. In spirit they become swollen and folded, giving the
worm a very untidy appearance. The prostomium is partly overlapped by a
peculiar collar-like fold of the peristomium.

D. With numerous pairs of elytra.—Lepidasthenia has a very long body,

consisting of more than eighty segments. The elytra are quite small, and
occur throughout the body on the usual segments. There are no notopodial
chaetae. L. elegans Gr. is a very elegantly marked worm, which, however,
has not been recorded from the British area; it occurs in the Mediterranean
(see Fig. 156, p. 293).

Sub-Fam. 2. Hermionina.—The body is short, oval and depressed; the

particularly strong notopodial chaetae are directed upwards and backwards
so as to protect the elytra. The neuropodial chaetae are also strong. The
prostomium carries a single tentacle and two long palps; the prostomial ridge
may be well developed. The peristomium is chaetigerous, with long cirri. The
jaws are represented merely by thickened prominences.

Fig. 164.—Aphrodite aculeata L. (from Règne Animal). Nat. size. c, Neuropodial

chaetae; p, palps; 1, iridescent bristles; 2, stiff chaetae; 3, felting bristles of
notopodium.

Aphrodite.—The fifteen pairs of elytra, arranged as in Polynoë, are concealed

by a "felting" of hair-like chitinous threads arising from the notopodium (Fig.
139, p. 268). A. aculeata L.—The "sea-mouse" is one of the most beautiful of
the Polychaetes. The small tentacle is very readily detached; the palps are
very long; the parapodia of the peristomium are directed forwards so as to
form lateral lips; and its cirri are not especially modified (see Fig. 132, p. 260).
The body, which measures 3 to 6 inches, consists of thirty-five to forty
segments, and is broadest in the middle, the last dozen segments being very
small; the body terminates in a point. Some of the notopodial chaetae are
brilliantly iridescent, and give the worm its characteristic coloration. It is fairly
common in the coralline regions, and is frequently thrown ashore after storms.
Atlantic and Mediterranean.

In Hermione the "felt" is absent, so that the elytra are exposed. H. hystrix Sav.
occurs in ten to thirty fathoms of water all over the British area and
Mediterranean. It resembles in its general appearance a fat Polynoid, with
strong chaetae. Laetmonice filicornis Kinb. also occurs on our north-west
coasts, and L. producta Gr. has been dredged in 500 fathoms off the west
coast of Ireland; it has been recorded also from Kerguelen and from Japan,
so that it has a very wide distribution.[373]

Sub-Fam. 3. Acoetina.[374]—The long, vermiform body has some thirty-nine

to ninety-three pairs of elytra, placed on every alternate segment throughout.
It is represented in the British area by Panthalis from 75 fms., which forms a
tube of black mud.

Sub-Fam. 4. Sigalionina.—This sub-family includes forms with a long,

vermiform body; anteriorly the elytra are on alternate segments, up to the
twenty-sixth, and posteriorly on every succeeding segment; "gills" here
coexist with elytra; cirri are absent. The prostomium in Sthenelais Kinb. has a
median tentacle, which is absent in Sigalion Aud. and Edw. Sth. boa Jnstn. is
common off our coasts near low-water mark, where it burrows in the loose
sand with rapidity. It is an elegant worm, and may attain a length of 8 inches,
though it is generally smaller; it is narrow, flat, and only slightly tapering at
each end; the elytra, which may be more than a hundred pairs, are greyish or
slightly brownish, some being lighter than others; the margin is fringed with
simple processes (which in Sigalion are pinnate). Atlantic and Mediterranean.
In Psammolyce the elytra are covered with sand grains. British and
Mediterranean.

Fam. 4. Phyllodocidae.—The members of this family make use of the

foliaceous cirri (Fig. 136, F) in their very active movements. The rounded
prostomium bears four or five tentacles; there are four long peristomial cirri on
each side (see Fig. 134, E).
Sub-Fam. 1. Phyllodocina.—The body is elongated, with numerous
segments; the eyes are small; the chaetae are jointed; the dorsal and ventral
cirri are foliaceous; the pharynx is covered with papillae externally, but
contains no "jaws."

Phyllodoce has a more or less depressed body; four prostomial tentacles;

four pairs of peristomial cirri. P. lamelligera Jnstn.[375] (the "paddle-worm")
may reach a length of 24 inches, but is usually 8 to 12 inches long and ½ inch
across. The general colour is bright bluish-green or yellowish-green, with
metallic iridescence; the parapodia olive-green or brown, the sensory
processes yellow. It lurks, during day, under stones and shells, etc., in the
Laminarian zone. The green egg masses, so frequently referred to as
belonging to Arenicola, are laid by Phyllodocids.[376]

Fig. 165.—Phyllodoce paretti Blv. × ½. (From Règne Animal.)

In Eulalia an additional (fifth) tentacle arises from the middle of the back of the
prostomium. E. viridis Müll. is a dark green worm smaller than the preceding;
common between tide-marks, hiding in cavities and tunnels in limestone
rocks, which have been bored by the mollusc Saxicava; it is rare where such
rocks are absent. It might have been thought that its vivid colour would
harmonise with its surroundings, but it is most abundant in regions where
Fucus abounds and Ulva is absent. It is evident then that the colour is not
protective; it may perhaps be of warning significance, for the mucus secreted
in quantities by glands on the cirri of the Phyllodocids is probably
objectionable to their enemies. Phalacrophorus Grf. and Pontodora Grf. may
be mentioned as pelagic genera.

Sub-Fam. 2. Lopadorhynchina.—This includes small forms, Lopadorhynchus

Gr., Pelagobia Grf., and other pelagic genera.
 Fig. 166.—Nauphanta celox R. Grf. × 4. (From Greef.) e, The large eye.

Sub-Fam. 3. Alciopina.—These are surface forms, and, like most pelagic

animals, are colourless and transparent; the eyes, however, are very large,
and, with certain brown spots in each segment,[377] are the only coloured
parts in the body; in structure the eyes are much more complicated than
those of other Polychaetes. The prostomium has five tentacles; there are long
peristomial cirri, and in general their anatomy agrees most closely with that of
Phyllodocids. Alciope, Asterope, Vanadis, Nauphanta are genera of the
family;[378] none have been recorded from the British area.

Fam. 5. Tomopteridae.[379]—This includes but one genus, Tomopteris, which

is pelagic. The transparent, colourless body consists of only a few (eighteen
to twenty) segments; the parapodia are as long as the body is wide, and carry
no chaetae; each is bilobed, and fringed with a membrane; each of these
lobes contains a yellow rosette-shaped photogenic organ. The only chaetae
present in the worm are on the "head." The prostomium is hammer-shaped,
and appears to carry a pair of short filaments ventrally (Fig. 167, x) each with
a single chaeta within it; and a longer filament laterally (y), supported by a
long, very delicate chaeta. The mouth is behind these, and they probably are
the first pair of parapodia which have shifted forwards. T. onisciformis
Eschscholtz is not unfrequently obtained off our shores in the tow-net.
 Fig. 167.—Tomopteris rolasi Grf. × 10. From Guinea Isles. pr, Hammer-shaped
prostomium; x, first chaetigerous process; y, second chaetigerous
process; c, rosette (photogenic) organ on first two parapodia; b, similar
organ in the lobes of the following parapodia; d, pigment spots; f,
parapodium. (From Greef.)

Fam. 6. Nereidae (Lycoridae).—This family contains a very large number of

species, differing from one another in small and not readily recognisable
characters, such as the relative lengths of the various processes of the head,
of the lobes of the feet, the arrangement of the "paragnaths" (see Fig. 125, d)
and so forth. The general features of the family have been already described.
The genus Nereis is represented by six fairly common species on our coast,
which are almost world-wide in distribution.

N. diversicolor Müll. is about 3 to 4 inches in length, of a general fleshy-red

colour, though tending in some cases to yellowish-brown or even greenish. It
may be distinguished by two diverging brown bands, which start on the
peristomium and pass backward one along each side of the body for several
segments. The prostomium is broader than it is long. The worm burrows in
mud or sand, all round our coast between tide-marks. It has a very wide
distribution, being met with on this side of the Atlantic, and off the coast of
Greenland, and off Japan. It is even found in brackish water at Bembridge,
Isle of Wight.

N. cultrifera Gr. is green or greenish-grey, with a series of small rectangular

light spots along the mid-dorsal surface, and oblique light lines at the sides of
each segment. Posteriorly the greenish pigment becomes less and less till the
hinder segments are flesh-coloured. The prostomium is as long as it is broad.
This species attains a length of 6 inches. Southern coasts: locally known as
"Red Cat."

N. dumerilii Aud. and Edw. is rather smaller and narrower than the two
preceding species; it is reddish-violet in colour, marked with darker transverse
lines in each segment. It is readily recognised by the two dark brown spots on
the upper surface of the base of the notopodium in most of the segments, and
by the great length of the peristomial cirri, the longest of which reaches the
fifteenth segment. It is sometimes found enclosed in a cocoon-like tube of
hardened grey mucus, more or less covered with foreign particles, such as
sand grains. Atlantic, Mediterranean, Japan.
 Fig. 168.—Nereis cultrifera Gr. × 6. Head with buccal region everted, to show
the arrangement of the jaws. (From Ehlers.) Cf. N. diversicolor, Fig. 125, p.
248.

N. pelagica L. is red-brown or bronze in colour, and is generally larger than

the other species, from which it is distinguished by being widest about the
middle of the body (see Fig. 122, p. 246); whilst in the preceding species the
greatest breadth occurs at the segments immediately following the head.
Further, the palps are long, the peristomium is twice as long as the next
segment, and the back of the worm is strongly arched. At all depths on rocky
and stony ground. Northern coasts.

N. (Nereilepas) fucata Sav. lives in the topmost whorls of empty whelk shells
and in those occupied by hermit crabs. The ground colour is tile-red, with two
milk-white bands along the dorsal surface. The dorsal lobe of the foot is
slightly foliaceous, glandular, and vascular.

N. (Alitta) virens Sars. is a giant amongst Polychaetes, reaching a length of

18 inches. Its name suggests its colour; it is very plentiful at certain times at
St. Andrews, and between tide-marks along the shore of the Mersey estuary,
as well as elsewhere. It forms a burrow in the clay, etc., of the shore, and
lines it with mucus, which is abundantly secreted by the great foliaceous
lobes of the parapodia. These great leaf-like lobes of the foot recall the
modification which the foot of many species of Nereis undergoes in
transformation into Heteronereis: they are so greatly developed that, at first
sight, the worm might be mistaken for a large Phyllodoce. The worm is known
as the "Creeper," and is much esteemed as bait on some parts of our coast.

Fig. 169.—Parapodium of N. virens Sars. ×4. a, Notopodial cirrus; b,

notopodium; c, neuropodium; d, neuropodial cirrus; l, foliaceous
appendage. (From Ehlers.)
Fam. 7. Nephthydidae.—The elongated body is quadrangular in section, the
dorsal and ventral surfaces being almost flat. (For head see p. 262, and for
parapodium, p. 264.) The two lobes of the parapodium are widely separated,
and each is fringed with a membrane, while a sickle-shaped "gill" hangs down
from the under surface of the notopodium. The pharynx is enormous. Of the
genus Nephthys two species, called the "Lurg" or "White Cat" by fishermen,
occur on our coasts. Their active movements and beautiful mother-of-pearl
tint are characteristic. N. hombergii Aud. and Edw. occurs on the shore, and
down to 20 fathoms; it is 3 or 4 inches long, and may be found burrowing in
the sand; the chaetae exceed in length those of N. caeca Fabricius, which
occurs less frequently and in deeper water, and is larger than the preceding.
Both are Atlantic forms.

Fam. 8. Amphinomidae.—The body in this family is either vermiform, as in

Eurythoe, or oval and flattened, as in Euphrosyne and Spinther. The head
carries a peculiar sense organ, the "caruncle," consisting of a smooth axis
with the sides folded so as to look like a number of lamellae. The parapodia
carry gills. Most of the Amphinomids are tropical and Southern forms.

Eurythoe borealis Oerst. measuring 6 inches, occurs all round the British
area, from the Shetlands, where it occurs in deep water, to the Channel Isles,
where it lives on shore, under stones, etc. (For parapodium of Amphinome
see p. 264.)

Euphrosyne.—The body is short, oval, and flattened. The parapodia are not
distinct processes, but the chaetae extend from each side of each segment
nearly to the middle dorsal line, and are absent ventrally (Fig. 137, C, p. 265).
The dorsal and ventral cirri are more or less filiform, and there is an
intermediate similar process on the back (? = lip of chaetigerous sac).
Amongst the chaetae are a number of curious branched processes—usually
called "gills."[380] The presence of these and of the chaetae give the upper
surface of the body a fluffy appearance. E. foliosa Aud. and Edw. is fairly
common under stones on our southern shores. It is about an inch in length
and is of a cinnamon-red colour.

Fam. 9. Eunicidae.—The elongated body is provided with parapodial gills in

more or fewer segments (except in Lumbriconereis). The "gills" may be
cirriform (Hyalinoecia), pectinate (Eunice, Onuphis), or more complex
(Diopatra). The notopodium is represented by a lobe (usually called "cirrus")
into which an aciculum projects; in some cases it even contains a few
chaetae; most of the neuropodial chaetae are jointed (Fig. 138, F). The
prostomial tentacles vary in number; they may be three or five, or five and two
short "frontal palps," or they may be absent. Peristomial cirri are absent,
though in Eunice, Diopatra, and Onuphis "nuchal cirri" are present on the
dorsal surface of the second segment (Fig. 134, D). One of the most
characteristic features in the anatomy of the Eunicids is the peculiar jaw
apparatus (see p. 270). The majority of the genera form permanent tubes of
parchment-like consistency, which may be further strengthened by the
addition of grains of sand, small pebbles, etc.; the tubes may be branched.

Eunice has five tentacles, two great palps, and a pair of nuchal cirri; the gills
are pectinate, and there are four anal cirri. E. harassii Aud. and Edw. is about
8 inches long. It is reddish-brown, with white spots down the back, one to
each segment, and others at the sides. The gills begin at the sixth segment,
and when fully developed have eleven branches. The dorsal cirrus is not
longer than the gill. E. philocorallia Buch.[381] forms its tube amongst the
branches of Lophohelia prolifera, in 200 fathoms, off the west coast of Ireland.

Marphysa resembles Eunice, but has no nuchal cirri. M. sanguinea Mont. is a

fine bronze colour, with bright red gills, which commence on the twentieth
segment, and have only four or five branches. The worm, which measures 12
to 18 inches, and is as thick as one's finger, hides in clefts in rocks and under
stones below low water. Mediterranean. It is known as "Rockworm" in the
Channel Islands.

Hyalinoecia Mgrn., in addition to the five prostomial tentacles and palps,

possesses a pair of small "frontal palps" arising from the anterior border of the
prostomium; there are no nuchal cirri, and the gills are simple filiform
processes. H. tubicola Müll., about 3 inches long, is yellowish-brown, and
forms a transparent, parchment-like tube. Atlantic and Mediterranean.
 Fig. 170.—Ophryotrocha puerilis Clap., Metsch. × 25. ci, Bands of cilia; cp,
ciliated pit (nuchal organ); J, jaws. (From Korschelt.)

Onuphis Oerst. has a head like the preceding, from which it differs in having
pectinated gills and two nuchal cirri like Eunice. In making its tube it employs
small pebbles, bits of shell, and even echinid spines, which it glues together
with mucus, so that it bears a general resemblance to its surroundings. O.
conchylega Sars, has a flattened, scabbard-like tube, which can be carried
about by its owner. Atlantic.

Lumbriconereis has a more or less conical prostomium, without any tentacles,

but with large palps: segments without gills. L. fragilis Müll. is reddish or
brownish, with a beautiful iridescence; it is cylindrical, very narrow, and some
5 or 6 inches long; L. tricolor Jnstn. is much larger.

Ophryotrocha (Fig. 170) is a small form often occurring in aquaria; it is chiefly

remarkable for the possession of segmentally-arranged girdles of cilia—a
permanent larval feature. Lysidice ninetta Aud. and Edw. belongs here.

Fam. 10. Glyceridae.—Elongated worms with numerous segments. The

prostomium, though narrow, is long, conical, annulated, and carries at its
apex four very small tentacles; at its base a pair of palps. Special retractile
gills are present. The armed pharynx is very long, and when protruded
appears wider than the animal. The members of this family are without any
system of blood-vessels, but the coelomic corpuscles are coloured red.
Glycera has four jaws, the parapodia are all alike (Fig. 136, C). G. capitata
Oerst. is 2 or 3 inches in length, is yellowish in colour, with a dark-red median
line. It may be found burrowing in sand. The setigerous lobes of each foot are
coalesced to form one large lobe with pointed apex. The dorsal cirrus is a
small wart above the base of the foot. Atlantic and Mediterranean. A second
species, which is much larger and flesh-coloured, also occurs.

Fig. 171.—Glycera meckelii Aud. and Edw. with pharynx everted, × 1. (Règne
Animal.)

Goniada is distinguished from the preceding by the fact that the parapodia
suddenly change in size and character at about one-third the length of the
body. The pharynx has numerous paragnaths. G. maculata Oerst. occurs off
our coasts.

Fam. 11. Sphaerodoridae.—The dorsal and ventral cirri of each segment are
spherical. The chaetae are usually jointed, and there is an aciculum to each
parapodium. Ephesia Rthke. (E. gracilis R. = Sphaerodorum peripatus Jnstn.)
is exceptional in having unjointed chaetae. North Sea, Arctic Ocean, and the
Channel. The family, which is much modified, is allied in some respects to the
Syllidae.

Fam. 12. Ariciidae.—These worms burrow in sand between tide-marks. The

body consists of many short segments, and is nearly cylindrical. The
prostomium is more or less pointed; the chaetae are all capillary; in the first
few segments they project laterally but soon come to lie dorsally, and are
carried by slight conical papillae (supported by acicula), which are longer in
the middle of the body. Most of the segments carry filiform "gills," representing
the dorsal cirri (Fig. 137, B).
Scoloplos armiger Müll. is extremely common on our coast. It is about an inch
long, yellowish, with red gills, commencing about the twelfth segment. Each of
the lobes of the parapodium possesses an aciculum, and the chaetae are
bent in a peculiar way. The everted buccal region has the form of a six- or
eight-rayed star. The spawn of this species may be found on the shore in
spring as brown, pear-shaped, jelly-like masses, each with a long stalk, by
which the mass is fixed to the sand. In the jelly are the eggs, which may be
watched passing through the earlier stages of development. Atlantic on both
shores, even off Spitzbergen, and Nova Zembla. Another representative is
Theodisca mamillata Clap., which occurs amongst the roots of Laminaria.

Fam. 13. Typhloscolecidae.[382]—Pelagic, greatly modified forms, apparently

related to the Phyllodocidae, but with very uncertain affinities. The
prostomium is pointed and carries a pair of foliaceous tentacles; each of the
first two segments bears a pair of foliaceous cirri; the remaining segments
possess a dorsal and a ventral pair of foliaceous cirri, with a small bunch of
chaetae and a single aciculum. All the cirri have peculiar rod-cells.
Typhloscolex Busch, Sagitella Wagner, and Travisiopsis Uljanin: all small
worms. North Sea Atlantic.

Sub-Order 2. Spioniformia.

Fam. 1. Spionidae.—Mostly small worms, with small ridge-like prostomium

carrying a pair of eyes, but no tentacles or palps. The peristomium, which
extends forwards on each side of the prostomium, bears a pair of very long
cirri (usually termed "tentacles") normally directed backwards, very mobile,
and more or less coiled. They are readily thrown off by the animal. The
notopodial cirri are long, finger-shaped, and curved over the back; they are
vascular and ciliated, and function as "gills." The neuropodia project laterally.
Both are usually provided with a "podal membrane" along their outer margin.
There are no ventral cirri; the dorsal chaetae are fringed capillaries; the
ventral are "crotchets." The buccal region is eversible. The worms burrow in
mud and sand.

Spio seticornis Fabr. is a small worm less than an inch in length, colourless
except for the red blood in its vessels. It builds long and flexible tubes of sand
in the clefts of rocks and under stones in the upper part of the littoral zone.
The prostomium is notched at the anterior margin. The gills commence on the
twelfth segment, and do not extend to the end of the body. A membrane-like
cirrus exists also on the second chaetigerous segment. The podal membrane
is adnate to the gill throughout its extent. Four short anal cirri occur.
Greenland and Scandinavia.

Fig. 172.—Nerine vulgaris Jnstn., enlarged. (From Cunningham.) a,

Prostomium; c1, cirrus of peristomium; c2, "gill"; l, lobes; m, podal
membrane; I, peristomium; II, III, IV, following segments.

Nerine is represented by two species, sometimes called "Ragworms." The

genus is very similar to Spio, but the worms are of larger size. The
prostomium is compressed by the forward growth of the peristomium, and
appears as a ridge on the latter segment, extending downwards in front
towards the mouth. The "gills" commence on the second segment, and are
continued in every segment except the hindmost. Nerine (Scolecolepis)
vulgaris Jnstn. is readily distinguished from other species by its somewhat T-
shaped prostomium. It is an extremely common worm under stones and
amongst seaweed at low water. It is some 3 or 4 inches in length and more
slender than the following species. Its colour is yellowish-brown, and the red
gills directed upwards and backwards give the appearance of oblique red
lines. The podal membrane does not reach the tip of the gill. North Atlantic. It
is said to ascend rivers and live in brackish water. N. coniocephala Jnstn. is
much the same colour, but reaches a length of 8 inches, and a diameter of ¼
inch. The prostomium is conical. The podal membrane reaches to the tip of
the gill in the anterior segments. The worm burrows rather more deeply and
nearer low-water mark than the preceding species.

Fam. 2. Polydoridae.—Polydora Bosc (= Leucodore Jnstn.) is readily

distinguished from the other Spionids, and, indeed, from any other Polychaet
(except Chaetopterus), by possessing specially strong chaetae in the
enlarged fifth chaetigerous segment. The anterior segments differ from the
rest in the absence of gills and in the character of the chaetae (Fig. 133, A, p.
261).

P. ciliata Jnstn. inhabits soft mud tubes near low water; it also makes U-
shaped galleries in stones and shells, and the tube projects from each mouth.
The worm is about ½ inch long, consists of some forty segments, and is
yellowish or flesh-coloured. The prostomium resembles that of Spio; the
peristomium is raised into a slight collar at each side. The anus is surrounded
by an incomplete funnel. The species has almost a world-wide distribution,
having been recorded from Iceland, Australia, the Philippine Islands, as well
as from the European seas. P. coeca Oerst. often lives commensally with a
sponge, having a protective odour.

Fam. 3. Chaetopteridae.—The family is represented on our coasts by

Chaetopterus variopedatus Ren.,[383] which is found at the Channel Islands,
the Scilly Isles, the Isle of Man, and the west Scottish coast, and probably at
various other places, at low water and down to a depth of some 15 fathoms. It
occurs in all European seas. The animal builds a long tube, the basis of which
is a tough, parchment-like substance; this is coated externally with sand,
small pebbles, and other débris: it is of considerable length and about ¾ inch
in diameter, is U-shaped and open at both ends, the greater part of it being
embedded in sand or in crevices of rocks. The animal, whose body-wall is
thin and delicate, never leaves its tube. The body has a bizarre appearance;
three regions are readily distinguishable, which may be denoted by the letters
A, B, and C. The most anterior region, A, is flattened, and carries nine pairs of
conical lobes with delicate chaetae, though the fourth lobe possesses special
stouter chaetae (as in Polydora). The anterior end of the body terminates in a
wide funnel, the boundary of which is formed chiefly by the peristomium; on
its dorsal surface is a pair of tentacle-like processes (peristomial cirri); the
region between which represents the prostomium.

Fig. 173.—Chaetopterus. (From Panceri.) Natural size of a young specimen. A

is the anterior region of the body; B, the middle region; C, the hinder
region. c, Peristomial cirri; d, "sucker"; e, the great "wings"; f, the first of
the three "fans"; m, mouth.

The second region, B, is very curiously modified; it is formed of five

segments. The most anterior is produced on either side into a great wing-like
process, which in life is directed forwards above the region A. Each is
grooved on its inner side, the ciliated grooves being continuous with a median