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 THE BLOOMSBURY HANDBOOK
OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION
OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN
THE GLOBAL SOUTH

i
Also available from Bloomsbury
The Bloomsbury Handbook of Global Education and Learning
Edited by Douglas Bourn

The Bloomsbury Handbook of Theory in Comparative and International Education

Edited by Tavis D. Jules, Robin Shields and Matthew A.M. Thomas

The Bloomsbury Handbook of Religious Education in the Global South

Edited by Yonah H. Matemba and Bruce Collet

ii
 THE BLOOMSBURY HANDBOOK
OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION
OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN
THE GLOBAL SOUTH

Edited by Juliet Thondhlana, Evelyn Chiyevo

Garwe, Hans de Wit, Jocelyne Gacel-Ávila,
Futao Huang, and Wondwosen Tamrat

iii
 BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC
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Copyright © Juliet Thondhlana, Evelyn Chiyevo Garwe, Hans de Wit, Jocelyne Gacel-Ávila,
Futao Huang, Wondwosen Tamrat, and contributors, 2021

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Title: The Bloomsbury handbook of the internationalization of higher education in the global
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iv
 CONTENTS

L IST OF F IGURES ix
L IST OF T ABLES xii

1 Introduction: Internationalization of Higher Education in the Global South:

Setting the Scene 1
Juliet Thondhlana, Evelyn C. Garwe, and Hans de Wit

Thematic Chapters

2 Internationalization in Higher Education: The Challenging Road from a

Western Paradigm to a Global and Inclusive Concept 23
Hans de Wit

3 International Mapping of National Tertiary Education Internationalization

Strategies and Plans (NTEISPs) 29
Hans de Wit, Laura E. Rumbley, Daniela Crăciun, Georgiana Mihut,
and Ayenachew Woldegiyorgis

Section I: Asia Pacific

4 Introduction to Asia Pacific Chapters 41

Futao Huang and Anthony R. Welch

5 Internationalization in China’s Higher Education: Trends, Achievements,

and Challenges 48
Xiao Han and Wenqin Shen

6 Internationalization of Japan’s Higher Education 64

Futao Huang

7 Internationalization of Korean Higher Education (1945–2018):

A Success Story 79
Sunwoong Kim

8 Internationalization as a Mechanism of Higher Education Modernization

in Kazakhstan 100
Aliya Kuzhabekova

v
vi CONTENTS

9 The Rhetoric and Reality of Malaysian Higher Education Internationalization

Policy and Its Strategic Initiatives 115
Norzaini Azman and Chang Da Wan

10 Internationalization of Indian Higher Education: Aligning with the

Mission of Knowledge Enhancement 135
Julie Vardhan

11 Conclusion: The Shift to the East, and the Changing Face of

Internationalization 148
Anthony R. Welch

Section II: Latin America and the Caribbean

12 Introduction: Higher Education, Internationalization, and Integration in

Latin America and the Caribbean 163
Jocelyne Gacel-Ávila

13 Internationalization of Higher Education in Brazil 182

Renée Zicman

14 Internationalization of Higher Education in the Caribbean 197

Annette Insanally and Luz Inmaculada Madera

15 Internationalization of Chilean Higher Education: Research, Innovation,

and Human Capital Formation in a Globalized Era 220
Javier González, Andrés Bernasconi, and Francisca Puyol

16 Colombian Higher Education Internationalization and Social Sustainable

Development: From Meaning to Practice 244
Giovanni Anzola-Pardo

17 Internationalization of Higher Education in Mexico: An Unfinished Agenda 264

Francisco Marmolejo

18 Conclusion: Latin America and the Caribbean Internationalization Process:

Main Achievements and Shortcomings 279
Jocelyne Gacel-Ávila

Section III: North Africa and the Middle East

19 Introduction to MENA Chapters 299

Wondwosen Tamrat

20 Internationalization of Higher Education in the GCC Region:

Emerging Patterns and Challenges 311
Wondwosen Tamrat
CONTENTS vii

21 Higher Education in Jordan: At the Confluence of Nationalization and

Internationalization 327
Aref Al Attari

22 Internationalization and Globalization in Libyan Higher Education 346

Salem Melood Abodher

23 Internationalization of Higher Education in Morocco: Current Processes,

Practices, and Challenges 364
Abdellah Benahnia

24 Internationalization of Higher Education in Egypt: Modalities and

Policy Provisions 382
Teklu Abate Bekele and Bola Ibrahim

25 The Internationalization of Higher Education in Tunisia: Bridging Gaps

and Cross-border Cooperation 403
Mohamed Salah Harzallah

26 Internationalization of Higher Education in Palestine 424

Kamel Mansi

27 Conclusion: Enhancing Outcomes through Internationalization:

An Overview of the Higher Education Sector in the MENA Region 443
Julie Vardhan

Section IV: Sub-Saharan Africa

28 Introduction: Internationalization of Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa 461

Evelyn C. Garwe and Juliet Thondhlana

29 Internationalization of Higher Education in Ethiopia: From a Fragmented

Dispensation to a Cohesive Path 470
Wondwosen Tamrat

30 Two Decades of Internationalizing Higher Education in South Africa 493

Chika T. Sehoole and Rakgadi Phatlane

31 Internationalization of Higher Education in Zimbabwe 510

Evelyn C. Garwe, Juliet Thondhlana, and Simon McGrath

32 Internationalizing Higher Education: An Exploratory Analysis of Policy

Frameworks, Challenges, and Opportunities 530
Gifty Oforiwaa Gyamera

33 Accounting for Internationalization in Kenya’s Higher Education System 550

Ibrahim Ogachi Oanda
viii CONTENTS

34 The Internationalization of Higher Education in Nigeria 571

Olusola Bandele Oyewole

35 Conclusion: The State of Internationalization of Higher Education in

Sub-Saharan Africa 585
Hadiza Kere Abdulrahman, Evelyn C. Garwe, Juliet Thondhlana,
and Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni

36 Salient Issues in the Internationalization of Higher Education in

The Global South: Concluding Observations 596
Juliet Thondhlana, Evelyn C. Garwe, and Hans de Wit

N OTES ON C ONTRIBUTORS 610

I NDEX 619
 FIGURES

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Top ten fastest growing economies in the world 13

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Number of newly approved TNHE activities 51
5.2 Institutional strategy for internationalization 54
5.3 Percentage of teachers with an international PhD degree at universities in
Projects 985 and 211 and in other HEIs 55
5.4 Percentage of English-taught curricula at universities in Projects 985 and
211 and in other HEIs 56

CHAPTER SIX
6.1 Changes in the ranking of Japanese universities in 2004–2014 69
6.2 Trends in number of international students 72
6.3 Changes in the proportion of full-time international faculty at Japanese
universities 73

CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 Higher education eco-system 82

CHAPTER NINE
9.1 Student enrollment in Malaysian higher education institutions 116
9.2 International academic staff in Malaysian higher education institutions 116
9.3 International student enrollment in public and private higher education
institutions 119

CHAPTER TEN
10.1 Student enrolment in the higher education sector 137
10.2 Foreign student distribution by top ten countries in India 141

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
15.1 Student mobility in Chile: Inbound by country of origin 224
15.2 Student mobility in Chile: Outbound by country of destination 226

ix
x LIST OF FIGURES

15.3 Expenditure in R & D as percentage of GDP (2017) 227

15.4 Investment in R & D when countries had the same GDP per capita
(US$17,000) 228
15.5 Total researchers (FTE) per thousand total employees (2017). Countries
with current similar GDP per capita 228
15.6 International collaboration in research (2018) 229
15.7 New international scholarships awarded per year 234

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
17.1 Internationalization of higher education in Mexico. Stages of development 271

CHAPTER TWENTY
20.1 Educational participation at all levels in GCC 314

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
22.1 Structure of the education system in Libya 349

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
24.1 Number of inbound international students in select Arab countries in 2016 390
24.2 Number of international students in Egypt across years 390
24.3 Sources of international students in Egypt in 2016 391
24.4 Number of outbound international students in the Arab states in 2017 392
24.5 Destinations of degree-seeking Egyptian students abroad in 2016 392

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE
25.1 Erasmus+ capacity building higher education projects 2015–2017 409

CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX
26.1 Students in Palestinian universities, 1995–2016 428
26.2 Students graduated from the Palestinian universities, 1995–2010 429

CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN
27.1 Gross enrollment ratio—MENA 446
27.2 Employment to population ratio (2019) 448
27.3 Number of trademarks and scientific and technical journal articles
in MENA (2016) 449
27.4 International mobility of students from some MENA countries. 452

CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT
28.1 Positioning of SSA in the African continent 462
LIST OF FIGURES xi

CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE
29.1 Foreign students in Ethiopian HEIs by field of studies (2015–16) 477
29.2 Foreign staff in Ethiopian HEIs (2002/03–2017/18) 479

CHAPTER THIRTY
30.1 Students enrolled in South African universities from the rest of the world 500
30.2 Enrollment of students from other African countries but not the SADC 502
30.3 Students from the SADC region excluding South Africa 503
30.4 Foreign students who did not specify their country of origin 504
30.5 Comparative analysis of international students versus
South African students 505
30.6 Comparative analysis of the origin of students in South African
universities by numbers 506
30.7 Comparative analysis of the percentages of students’ origins in
South African universities 506

CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE
31.1 IHE theory of change 521
31.2 Participants at the all-stakeholder workshop, inclusive of
Minister and Permanent Secretary 523
31.3 Registrars at a taskforce meeting at the Chinhoyi University Hotel 524
 TABLES

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Mapping national internationalization strategies 34

CHAPTER SIX
6.1 Change in the number and proportion of international students in Japanese
universities 72

CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 Trends in GDP per capita (current USD) and enrollments (in thousands) 83
7.2 Trend of degree-seeking foreign students (2000–2018) 91
7.3 Number of foreign students by country and purpose (2018) 91

CHAPTER NINE
9.1 Relevant entry point project for education hub 118
9.2 Top 10 sending countries (2016–2018) 120
9.3 Summary of Malaysia’s Global Reach programmes 121
9.4 Comparative review of employment opportunities among five countries 129

CHAPTER TEN
10.1 Major university types and number of universities 139

CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.1 Japan, origin of international students 151
11.2 Australia’s collaborative publications and citations 2000–2011, by country 154

CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14.1 Participants HEIs, country, and type 202

CHAPTER FIFTEEN
15.1 THE World international ranking—Latin America international outlook 223
15.2 Outbound and inbound students 225
15.3 CONICYT: Funding targeted to internationalization 231

xii
LIST OF TABLES xiii

15.4 International cooperation: Quality assurance system 232

15.5 Cross country comparison of program size 233
15.6 Average BCP benefits 236
15.7 THE ranking—International outlook for Chilean universities 239
15.8 QS ranking—International research network 239
15.9 Institutional internationalization strategies 240

CHAPTER SIXTEEN
16.1 The IHE: National ideological context and trends: an overview 251

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
17.1 Main characteristics of the Mexican higher education system by subsystem 266

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
18.1 LAC higher education access, 2018 280
18.2 LAC percentage of faculty with a doctoral degree, 2017 282
18.3 Outbound and inbound mobility ratios by regions, 2017 288
18.4 LAC international outbound and inbound mobility ratios, 2017 288
18.5 LAC knowledge production, 2018 290
18.6 LAC International collaboration in research 290

CHAPTER TWENTY
20.1 Outbound and inbound mobility in the GCC region 317

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
21.1 Universities in Jordan 2019 331
21.2 Internationalization in the official literature of some Jordanian universities 335
21.3 Higher education in Jordan: Number of universities, students, and staff 336
21.4 Expatriate students by nationality 337

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
22.1 Public universities in Libya (2019) 349
22.2 Private universities in Libya (2019) 350
22.3 Table of distinctions between globalization and internationalization 350
22.4 Table of implications of globalization for internationalization 351
22.5 Number of Libyan students studying abroad at the state’s expense (2009) 358
22.6 Table of agreements between Libyan universities and European universities 359

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE
25.1 Research projects in Tunisia 416
xiv LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX
26.1 Projects funded by the European Commission in the West Bank and
Gaza Strip 433
26.2 Leadership 435
26.3 Policy and strategy 436
26.4 People 437
26.5 Partnership and resources 438
26.6 Processes 438
26.7 People results 438

CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT
28.1 Examples of the colonial origins of higher education in SSA 463

CHAPTER THIRTY
30.1 Origins of international staff in South African universities in 2000,
2005, 2010 499
30.2 Permanent academic staff in South African universities 499
30.3 Total enrollments of international students from continents other
than Africa 500
30.4 Number of students from Africa, who are not from the SADC region 501
30.5 Enrollments in South African universities from the SADC region,
excluding South Africa 502
30.6 Foreign students in South African universities who did not mention
their countries of origin 504
30.7 Comparative analysis of the numbers of international students and
South African students 505

CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE
31.1 Internationalization of higher education understandings, strategies,
and rationales 517

CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE
33.1 Summary of internationalization vision and strategies of four large public
universities in Kenya 558
33.2 Support from development partners to university education in Kenya, 2014 561
33.3 University of Nairobi; research, publication and production status
2007/08–2011/12 563
33.4 Important sources of innovation for Kenyan Firms, 2008–2011 564
33.5 Academic staff by qualification and university category 565

CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR
34.1 Outlook of tertiary institutions in Nigeria 572

CHAPTER THIRTY-SIX
36.1 Mapping national internationalization strategies for the Global South 600
 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction
Internationalization of Higher Education in the
Global South: Setting the Scene
JULIET THONDHLANA , EVELYN C. GARWE ,
AND HANS DE WIT

RATIONALE
This introduction presents an overview of the key concepts discussed in the chapters
to follow. This edited handbook, compiled by a unique team of established and
emerging experts, gives a comprehensive account of internationalization of higher
education (IHE) in the Global South, including some virgin contexts not commonly
found in the literature. It responds to the urgent and emerging call for solutions on
sustainable internationalization of higher education (IHE) that go beyond the traditional
Western models (e.g., de Wit, Gacel-Ávila, Jones, and Jooste, 2017; Proctor and Rumbley,
2018).
Internationalization per se is not a completely new concept, but as a strategic dimension
(De Wit, 1995, 2015; Delgado-Márquez, Hurtado-Torres, and Bondar, 2011; Vavrus
and Pekol, 2015) it has taken the higher education fraternity by storm while gaining
recognition as a critical tool for fostering sustainable national and international
development through producing quality globally competent human capital (Hunter et al.,
2006). Internationalization has varying socio-economic, cultural, and technological
impacts depending on context (Maringe, Foskett, and Woodfield, 2013), as well as
political, economic, social-cultural, and academic rationales (de Wit, 2002).
This way it has effectively transformed its conceptual framework, scope, magnitude,
and significance, and redefined international relationships (Alemu, 2014). Accordingly,
the ability of a higher education institution (HEI) to internationalize its campuses,
curriculum, and activities has become a key measure of the institution’s success and
competitiveness locally and globally (Green and Schoenberg, 2006).
Within the context of the Global South, it can be said that this supposedly “new” IHE
concept is in actual fact as old as its dominant higher education systems. “International”
characteristics have always been evident in higher education since the Middle Ages (de
Wit, 2002; Zeleza, 2005) in terms of intellectual mobility and its local genesis, and one of
the key characteristics has been the export of higher education systems from the North to
the colonies in the South. As a result, the tension or duality between local and international
is even more evident in nations that have a history of colonialism, some of which are
subjects of study in the handbook. In response to this tension, De Wit (2013) argues that
while it is true that universities have always been international, operating within a broader

1
2 HANDBOOK OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

international community of HEIs, academics, and research, the realities of the twenty-
first century have brought internationalization to the fore, in the Global North but
increasingly also in the Global South context.
This handbook therefore sheds more light on IHE developments and trends from
multiple perspectives focusing on a wider range of contexts from the four Global South
regions, namely: Asia Pacific; Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC); North Africa and
the Middle East; and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In addition to focusing on the
understandings, puzzles, policies, agendas, challenges, strategies, specific activities,
processes, and outcomes of IHE, the authors also critically explore the broader historical
and socio-political contexts, methodological developments, and forces shaping
internationalization in the context of theoretical as well as regional and international IHE
developments and frameworks. This is premised on the fact that such contexts influence
the opportunities available for students’ and faculties’ participation in international
programs and the development of internationalization strategies and policies (Vavrus and
Pekol, 2015). It will make it possible to draw informative comparisons across regions and
nations as well as the Global North in a way that enables a more holistic understanding
of the complexities driving as well as generated by internationalization. It will also provide
a roadmap for future direction in this context.

A BRIEF UNPACKING OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION

OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Internationalization refers to the symbiotic inter-relationships that exist amongst nations
towards the achievement of quality in higher education. There is generally no consensus
on the definition of internationalization with different people, describing it in differing
ways depending on their contexts (e.g., van der Wende, 2001). The various definitions are
based on activity, competency, ethos, and process perspectives. Knight (2004) used five
lenses to define IHE, namely: programs, rationales, ad hoc, policies, and strategy
approaches. Most IHE literature uses this definition by Knight (2004: 11), which sees
internationalization occurring abroad or at home as “the process of integrating an
international, intercultural, and global dimension into the purpose, functions (teaching,
research and service) and the delivery of higher education.”
Internationalization involves cross-border physical and virtual interactions between
academics, students, academic programs and providers; partnerships and collaborative
ventures for teaching, learning, and research in the following domains:
1. Outbound and inbound student mobility
2. Academic staff mobility
3. International collaborative research, conferences, and journals
4. Institutional linkages
5. International presence/Cross border education/International branch campus
6. Internationalization at home and of the curriculum
7. Regional and local connectivity
8. Ranking
9. National policies for internationalization
10. Curriculum/educational program.
INTRODUCTION 3

Internationalization is also viewed as a transformative phenomenon which is moving

key stakeholders including academic institutions and policymakers to adjust their frames
of references and policies in response to the demands of the phenomenon. This is
evidenced in the preoccupation with incorporating internationalization elements into
policy and strategic documents at various levels including institutional, national, and
regional (Rumbley, Altbach, and Reisberg, 2012).
The motivations behind IHE for institutions and nations also vary widely (de Wit,
2002; Knight, 2004) and have been reported to change with the passage of time (Luijten-
Lub, 2007) but largely fall into interconnected variations of academic, socio-economic,
political, and cultural intentions (de Wit, 2002; Knight, 2004). Existing literature, largely
from the Global North, mentions rationales relating to inter alia: international academic
standards of research and teaching, institutional and national human resource
development, strategic alliances, technical assistance, resource mobilization, socio-
economic growth, and competitiveness (Knight, 2008).
Studies have noted, though, that these understandings are not always put into practice.
While internationalization may now highly feature as a priority on strategies of HEIs that
may also have elaborate internationalization strategies and structures in place, these may
not always translate into practice (Warwick and Moogan, 2013). There is, however, a clear
acknowledgement that internationalization extends beyond mere student recruitment; it
is a complex and continuous process, which includes curriculum development, staff
capacitation, teaching and learning, teaching and research collaborations, staff–student
exchanges, support services, and much more. The focus in some contexts of the Global
North, for example, seems to continue to be very much on student recruitment (Warwick
and Moogan, 2013). In their study of UK institutions, Warwick and Moogan (2013)
observed that few universities have attempted to internationalize their curricula to match
discourses of international experiences and student mobility. While some universities may
sell internationalization on their websites and with other marketing tools, their staff may
have no idea about their institutional strategy and what their responsibilities and obligations
will be in the implementation of the strategy. In addition, institutions themselves may lack
the necessary resources to develop their staff for the purpose, and the funding to provide
appropriate support for the increasing international student numbers (e.g., language
support).
Internationalization of the curriculum expert, Betty Leask (2015), has argued that
what is needed is not a globalized curriculum (which privileges dominant knowledges
and groups), but one that would enable the development in all students (both foreign and
home), of the critical attitudes, knowledge, and skills needed to empower them to
effectively make a living as well as contribute to development in a fast changing and
increasingly complex and interconnected global community. This buttresses Knight’s
(2008) claim that how this is achieved will differ depending on particular features of
diverse contexts including disciplinary, institutional, regional, national, and other
contexts in which students may find themselves (Leask, 2015). These considerations
show that internationalization is fraught with challenges and complexities that require
particular understandings, appropriate strategic approaches, and commitment at all
relevant levels.
In this handbook our understanding of internationalization of higher education,
including its definition, genesis, and evolution as a concept is aptly discussed by Hans de
Wit in Chapter 2 and will thus not be explored in much detail here. In that thematic
chapter, de Wit importantly observes that more countries across the globe are increasingly
4 HANDBOOK OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

engaging in internationalizing their academic practices, leading to the emergence of new

voices and perspectives of the concept as new players come onto the scene. He calls for
the revisiting of internationalization as a concept to accommodate emerging and new
understandings of the concept and suggests that a more inclusive updated definition
might be:
The intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global
dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education, in
order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff and to
make a meaningful contribution to society.
—de Wit, Hunter, Howard, and Egron Polak, 2015: 29
In Chapter 3, de Wit et al. highlight the critical need to go beyond seeing
internationalization as a by-product of globalization but rather as a planned activity
requiring national involvement in steering the process. This is more aptly demonstrated
in the findings of Crăciun’s (2018) National Tertiary Education Internationalization
Strategies and Policies (NTEISPs) survey, presented by de Wit et al. As shown, the typology
of NTEISPs is drawn from case studies and can form the basis of harmonization at
various levels including institutional, national, regional, and global. Not surprisingly the
issue of national policy is an important subject for some of the chapters in this handbook.
However a more inclusive typology requires the study and inclusion of diverse case types.
The NTEISPs typology presented by de Wit et al. presents a good starting point that
future studies can continue to build on. What clearly emerges is that the need for a more
global understanding of internationalization including the nature of South–South and
North–South collaborations cannot be emphasized enough.
Internationalization of higher education literature reveals that, although there exists
great variation with respect to the drivers, mix of activities, and extent of engagement
across institutions globally, the impact of internationalization is increasingly becoming
more noticeable at the local level. Internationalization activities are dominated by
international mobility of students, staff, and programs, but internationalization at home
also continues to gain momentum as a key aspect of practice. Research highlights the
diversity in internationalization understandings, motives, strategies, activities mix, and
level of engagement across higher education institutions and its strategic positioning
within nations, resulting from the different contextual complexities faced by different
nations and higher education institutions (Caruana, 2010; Crăciun, 2018). In this regard,
internationalization literature (e.g., Chapman, Pekol, and Wilson, 2014; Vavrus and Pekol,
2015) has begun to look at ways in which institutions in the Global North and Global
South are differentially positioned within the global political economy. It is argued that
this understanding is underpinned by the view that “individuals and institutions in the
Global South experience internationalization differently, and sometimes only marginally”
(Vavrus and Pekol, 2015: 7).
The dominant Anglocentric, “Western” conceptualizations and theorizations of
internationalization are now being challenged and revisited to make them more applicable
to “non-Western” contexts (Trahar, Green, de Wit, and Whitsed, 2015; Trahar and
Hylund, 2011). For example, there are reportedly concerted moves to dispense with
Anglo-American framed internationalization to domesticize internationalization of higher
education in order to meet local needs. Trahar et al. (2015: 31) give examples of Asian
contexts (e.g., Japan and Malaysia) where internationalization is “conceptualised as a way
of promoting the context to the international community and inculcating a sense of
INTRODUCTION 5

nationalism” with internationalization being used to develop a sense of national pride and
graduates being positioned as ambassadors for their contexts. Inward student mobility,
for example, may be used to raise the status of the institution internationally. However in
countries where the impact of hegemonic colonial practices may still strongly linger (e.g.,
some African countries) there may be skepticism over the meaning of internationalization,
especially in the context of debates around the unequal distribution of knowledge
production between developed and developing countries. In this regard, the contextual
challenges and imperatives may demand the development of creative and flexible
approaches to internationalization.
Writing on the South African context, Cross, Mhlanga, and Ojo (2011: 82) ask: “How
can South African universities be asked to incorporate an international dimension in their
business when most of it has already been “international” and had very little local?”
However, the literature that highlights South–South collaborations is showing how some
developing countries are becoming sources of knowledge and manpower developers for
other developing countries, thereby effectively taking over this role from the developed
world (Cross, Sehoole, Mhlanga, Byars-Ameguide, Inglis, and Koen, 2011). In Cross et al.’s
(2011: 82–86) study, their subjects conceptualized internationalization as “relocalisation”
(“think locally first so as to gain internationality”), “Africanisation” (“engagement with
Africa” in terms of knowledge production, privileging indigenous knowledges in teaching
and learning and representation of African students), and “diversification of academic staff
and students” (“global engagement”).
Some studies (e.g., Whitsed and Green, 2013) have resultantly supported the
contestations around definitions of the internationalization construct as this reflects its
fluidity over time and context. Responding to these complexities, there are calls to look
at internationalization in Global South contexts not only focusing on the understandings,
specific activities, processes, and outcomes of IHE but also critically exploring the broader
historical and socio-political contexts, dimensions, and forces shaping internationalization
in specific contexts. Such issues help to understand the ability of HEIs in diverse contexts
to exercise agency in initiating and managing varied forms of internationalization as
well as in their interactions with institutions in other regions (both North and South).
This is premised on the fact that such contexts influence the opportunities available for
students and faculties to participate in international programs and the development of
internationalization strategies and policies (Vavrus and Pekol, 2015). While considerable
work has been done on IHE in the United States and Europe (e.g., de Wit, 2002; de Wit
et al., 2015; Teichler, 2009), not much is known about IHE in Global South contexts.
Certainly, no cohesive study of similar magnitude has been conducted that provides an
overview of internationalization activity in the regions, which reveals the complexities
noted above, given the diversities in the political economies within these contexts and in
comparison with Global North contexts. Literature is however emerging (as noted by de
Wit et al. in Chapter 3) that seeks to explore alternative internationalization perspectives,
looking at internationalization activity in contexts not commonly found in the literature
such as those in the Global South (e.g., de Wit et al., 2017; Proctor and Rumbley, 2018).
As observed by Leask (2015), mentioned earlier, these new developments will extend our
understanding of the complexities of internationalization practice while also gaining
insight into its many continually evolving benefits and challenges. As argued by Trahar
et al. (2015: 36), this constant and rapid change means that our understandings of
internationalization of higher education will continue to be “emergent, contingent and
necessarily situated.”
6 HANDBOOK OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

PROFILING THE GLOBAL SOUTH

The “Global South” is a term favoured by scholars and development agencies, for
example the World Bank, to classify countries that are poorer or less advanced in
terms of stage of development, wealth, politics, technology, and demography, most of
which are located either in the tropics or in the Southern Hemisphere. Todaro and
Smith (2006) describe Global South economies as less developed, poorer, less
democratic, technology receptors (less innovative), sometimes characterized by conflict,
war, anarchy, tyranny, and rapid population growth when compared with the Global
North. The Global South, also referred to as the “Third World” or “Developing World,”
comprises those regions outside Europe and North America, inclusive of Africa, Asia,
Latin America, and the Caribbean as well as some countries in the Middle East (Dados
and Connell, 2012).
Authors such as Mahler (2017) have debated the appropriateness, meaning, use,
applicability, and analytical value of the term Global South, arguing that it reflects
the existence of geopolitical relations of power. Several scholars (e.g., Hollington,
Salverda, Schwarz, and Tappe, 2015; Mahler, 2018) have drawn attention to the
widening gaps in wealth and power within countries, noting that “there are Souths in the
geographic North and Norths in the geographic South” (Mahler, 2018: 32). Cases in
point are those regarding the increasing competitiveness of emerging economies, for
example Brazil, China, and India, over the longstanding industrialized powers of the
Global North. Therefore it should be clearly spelt out that, in using this term, the
editors and contributors of this handbook are cognizant of the fact that it lumps together
very diverse socio-economic, cultural, and political experiences, perceptions, and
perspectives.
This edited handbook will add to this emerging focus and provide a comprehensive
overview of Global South IHE trends from multiple perspectives, solely focusing on a
wider range of contexts from four Global South regions: Asia Pacific; Latin America
and the Caribbean; North Africa and the Middle East; and Sub-Saharan Africa. Each of
these regions will be represented by specific cases, characteristic of each region, but
reflecting specific and unique focus. Although each case has a unique structure and
focus, they follow a common outline inclusive of a description of the higher education
sector in terms of its genesis, structure, and developments to set the tone for exploring the
understandings, agendas, challenges, strategies, theoretical and methodological
developments, processes as well as policy developments at national and institutional
levels. At the end of each region, a cross-cutting concluding chapter provides a
regional analysis from the specific cases as well as from literature on other countries in
the region in order to highlight the emerging trends and areas of focus. To enhance
comparability across institutions, countries, and regions, the handbook will explore
the functional aspects of internationalization, type, stage, and process of
internationalization activities, and the level of aggregation e.g., institutional, national,
and regional.
The handbook differs from other books on the same topic in that it is the first
comprehensive account of IHE focusing on the four regions of the Global South. The
handbook also presents a wealth of experience and expertise from the Global South by
bringing together established and emerging scholars in the four regions. It will therefore
be invaluable as a recommended and reference text for students, academics, practitioners,
and policymakers, not only within these regions but beyond.
INTRODUCTION 7

THE REGIONS
Asia Pacific
Section I documents how the Asia-Pacific region has responded to the opportunities
brought about by the surge in demand for higher education in the context of trans-
national education, business, research, and technology by promoting IHE. The six
country cases (China, Japan, Korea, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, and India) help to provide
comparative perspectives on the status of IHE in each, inclusive of creating regional
education hubs, student and staff mobility, and entrepreneurship that have been critical in
transforming their higher education sector and enhancing their national competitiveness.
The Asia-Pacific region is spread across forty countries and accounts for half of the
world’s population. The region is characterized by enormous cultural, economic,
geographical, and linguistic variations. Higher education in the region has been shaped by
geography, history, politics, religion, language, economy, and regional linkages. Each
chapter begins with a historical overview of the higher education sector in order to put
the IHE development issues and trends in context.
The chapters from the Asia-Pacific region reveal that IHE originated in the nineteenth
century, when contemporary higher education systems where established. The strategy
then was either to send students and academics abroad (mainly to Western countries,
particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, as well as Australia) for advanced
studies or research, or to invite foreign academics and professionals from different fields
to introduce their modern knowledge and technology and work for the national
governments. This resulted in the modeling of local higher education systems, even for
those countries that had not been colonized (e.g., China and Japan) along foreign lines,
particularly those of Western origin:

All of the higher education systems considered here have Western roots and use
basically Western models. In Asia, as in the rest of the world, the contemporary
university is a basically Western institution, tracing their roots to the medieval European
universities and shaped by the particular Western power that was the colonial ruler. In
the case of Japan, China and Thailand, foreign influences were chosen with
independence, but the models were foreign nonetheless.
—Altbach and Selvaratnam, 1989: xii

As was further expounded by Altbach and Selvaratnam (1989), the colonial legacy for
those countries that were colonized, for example Malaysia, manifests in critical issues,
notably the language of instruction, the lack of attention to science, and the importance
of expatriate academics in HEIs. Another case in point is that of Hong Kong, whose
internal and external reviews on quality assurance rely heavily on criteria from the West
(Mok and Cheung, 2011).
The dominant characteristics of IHE in the region are those of international
benchmarking as a way of competing for the best-performing students and staff from a
global pool of candidates (Hazelkorn, 2011) and countries are thus keen to improve their
global ranking in order to attract these candidates.
What is clear in the Asia-Pacific context, akin to that of SSA, are the potential pitfalls
of internationalization, including the threat to local knowledge, traditions, and national
interests as well as the looming danger of recolonization if the curriculum continues to
borrow from the West with little or no focus on local needs. The need for all higher
8 HANDBOOK OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

education stakeholders to redefine the mandate of HEIs in the internationalization

process becomes critical wherein issues of indigenous knowledge, democracy, cultural
value, social-economic priorities, and international tolerance are embedded. As Han and
Shen note, in Chapter 5:

Transplanting and modulating Western styles to cater to the needs of China, especially
in the new era when the central government exhibits great enthusiasm in establishing
tight connections to the external world, has gradually become a severe problem
encountered by both researchers and university administrators. It remains an issue for
further exploration of the practical strategies in internationalizing Chinese higher
education (HE) and guiding its development work for the benefit of the nation and its
citizens.
The dominant IHE activities in the region have moved from mere student and staff
mobility, as was the case in the 1990s, to also include internationalization of the university
curriculum, promotion of cross-border higher education activities, adaptation of
international standards for evaluating some educational programs, construction of
“Centres of Excellence,” and establishment of bi-lateral cooperation between universities
at both regional and international levels.
In Chapter 7, Kim illustrates how with very few natural resources Korea leveraged
IHE to achieve phenomenal success in building a globally competitive higher education
system in such a short time. Korea now effectively competes with Japan, Australia, Hong
Kong, and Singapore for attracting Chinese and Southeast Asian out-bound students
studying abroad. Korea’s HE market is much bigger than that of Hong Kong and
Singapore so it has a capacity to absorb large Chinese demand. In this respect, Korea’s
development is reminiscent of Say’s law in human resources, which propounds that the
supply of human resource through education creates its own demand for it later. In the
case of Korea, the rapid expansion of the primary school sector during the 1950s and
1960s provided abundant human resources for the rapid industrialization in the 1960s
and 1970s, while the study abroad program and brain drain during the 1960s and 1970s
provided an abundant pool of professional expatriates, who were educated and trained in
developed nations. These became a valuable resource when Korea’s demand for highly
skilled human resources later increased (Green, Ashton, James, and Sung, 1999).
As is clearly stated by Kuzhabekova in Chapter 8 on Kazakhstan, notwithstanding the
critical role of IHE in modernization of higher education in the region, the process of
internationalization in most of the countries (with the exception of Malaysia for example),
has never been planned as a separate item on the national education reform agenda. The
Kazakhstani government has yet to adopt a separate internationalization strategy and, in
fact, needs to clearly define the concept of internationalization (Jumakulov and Ashirbekov,
2016).

Latin America and the Caribbean

Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) is a vibrant region of thirty-three sovereign
countries and fifteen dependencies whose rich diverse political, socio-economic, historical
and geographic dynamics are driving internationalization of higher education (IHE) in
unique ways. Section II consists of six chapters and a conclusion. Two of the chapters give
us an extensive overview of the region and its two main sub-regions; four provide case
examples of the specific experiences of individual countries. These include: emerging
INTRODUCTION 9

international giant and BRICS member, Brazil; Chile, which in 2018 ranked 45th globally
and 4th within the LAC region in terms of research publications; Colombia, which is in
an emerging state; and Mexico, where there is increased awareness of the value of IHE
but still limited activity. Finally, a cross-cutting concluding chapter summarizes key
findings and trends in and characteristics of the internationalization process of the region
as presented through the preceding chapters.
The introductory chapter, Higher Education, Internationalization and Integration in
Latin America and the Caribbean, by Jocelyne Gacel-Ávila (Chapter 12) and Annette
Insanally and Luz Inmaculada Madera’s Caribbean chapter, Internationalization of Higher
Education in the Caribbean (Chapter 14) together provide a comprehensive overview of
IHE activity in the LAC region. It is however important to note that there is a paucity of
IHE studies on the region particularly those focusing on specific contexts that would give
us an in-depth look at the specific experiences of individual countries. The chapters in this
handbook therefore add to the growing research interest in this important field in this
region.
The introductory chapter provides an extensive background to internationalization of
higher education in the LAC region (albeit with a stronger focus on Latin America)
looking at the relevant socio-economic and historical dynamics that account for the
internationalization imperatives for the region. It also provides a good synopsis of some
of the related higher education key works and internationalization studies in the region
and importantly also draws some comparisons within the region and across other Global
South as well as some Global North contexts thereby providing some helpful foundational
work to an understanding of the region as a whole and the specific contexts covered in
the handbook.
The chapter shares highlights of internationalization trends in the different LAC
countries as presented in a number of national reports with the important ones being: a
publication commissioned by the World Bank (WB) (de Wit, Jaramillo, Knight, and
Gacel-Ávila, 2005); some editions of the Global Survey on Internationalization Trends of
the International Association of Universities (IAU) (e.g., Knight, 2006; Egron-Polak and
Hudson, 2014); and the recent Regional Survey on Internationalization Trends in LAC
conducted by the UNESCO Observatory on Internationalization and Networks
(OBIRET) (Gacel-Ávila and Rodríguez-Rodríguez, 2017).
The OBIRET survey is unique in having focused on the region as a whole and captured
diverse patterns of the internationalization process in the region in the ten-year period
following the WB study, and is also valuable in providing a comparison with the IAU
Global Survey.
Chapter 15 focuses on internationalization in the Caribbean. Considered one of the most
diverse, pluri-racial and multi-cultural areas, the Caribbean integrates thirteen sovereign
states and nineteen overseas departments and dependencies (including French Overseas
Departments, the Dutch Antilles, British and American dependencies). Historically fragmented
by colonial cultures, internationalization mobilization and harmonization through intra-
regional collaborations and networking are seen as facilitating regional integration and
strengthening the sub-region’s global standing, particularly in pursuit of achieving goals of the
2030 Agenda through higher education (United Nations, 2015). Given that many of the
countries are very small, this overview chapter is important in that it provides a close up of
IHE activity across the region while exploring some of the critical issues for some individual
countries. It is our hope that this important contribution will help generate interest among
scholars to study IHE developments and patterns in each of the individual countries.
10 HANDBOOK OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Most of the Caribbean states (except Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic) are
presented as having a different dynamic with respect to their peculiar geographical and
linguistic characteristics due to their close ties to the United States, which make them
attractive destinations internationally compared with the rest of LAC. The reported
limited IHE activity may be due to education systems not strongly encouraging student
mobility both within the region and abroad (IESALC, 2019). Further, the diversities also
require mutual recognition of common accreditation systems and qualifications as well as
language programs to facilitate student mobility and employability across the multilingual
contexts.
Put together, the overview and the individual country chapters present a rich array of
topics on the internationalization of higher education at various levels including
institutional, national, and regional, which are characterized by the “political, economic,
socio-cultural and academic rationales” that drive IHE in its diverse forms within and
across the nations. These include:
● Opportunities, benefits, risks and challenges
● Plans and strategies of IHE; structures
● Regional and sub-regional integration and collaborations; bilateral cooperation
programs; qualifications and common accreditation systems; research; teaching
● South–South and North–South collaborations
● Long-term exchange programs such as the Brazilian Exchange Program for
Undergraduate Students (PEC-G) created in 1965
● Student mobility including exchange programs; inbound and outbound mobility
● Internationalization at home and internationalization of the curriculum
● Internationalization abroad; liaison offices and campuses abroad
● Internationalization of higher education national and institutional policies
● IHE financial resourcing
● Language programs
● Global university rankings
● Internationalization and social development.
Chapter 18, the concluding chapter, provides a helpful synopsis of key findings from
all regional chapters noting commonalities and differences across the given contexts.
Importantly, it notes some of the key barriers to effective internationalization with the
lack of support at the national level in terms of national policies and funding to help
facilitate the operationalization of strategies being common major limitations.

North Africa and the Middle East

Section III provides explorations of IHE in a selection of MENA countries, including the
Gulf (GCC) region, Jordan, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Palestine and Egypt. It also includes
an introduction and a cross-cutting chapter, which provides an overview of some of the
key internationalization themes from the region.
MENA is an acronym for the Middle East and North Africa region which consists of
about 19–21 countries. This small region (6 percent of the world’s population) is known
INTRODUCTION 11

for its rich oil reserves (60 percent of the world’s oil reserves; 14 Organization of the
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) nations are within the MENA region) and
natural gas reserves (45 percent of the world’s natural gas reserves), which make it an
important source of global economic stability. The region’s geopolitical importance has
increased following the Arab Spring anti-government uprisings and armed rebellions in
the early 2010s, which saw the fall of some dictatorships. The more recent civil unrests
in, for example, Libya and Syria have continued to draw international attention to the
region.
One of the outcomes of the Arab Spring is the demand by young people in MENA for
more and better opportunities in terms of education, employment, international mobility,
knowledge production, and entrepreneurship. “Higher education, migration, and labour
mobility are key policy areas as MENA nations address the need for a strong skills base to
underpin the economic and social development of the region’s disparate economies”
(Jaramillo, Ruby, Henard, and Zaafrane, 2011: 1). The World Bank report (Jaramillo
et al., 2011) notes that the MENA economies share an interest in the supply of and
demand for higher education and are differentially involved in a range of internationalization-
related activities, including: investing in higher education infrastructure to raise it to
international standards and competitiveness; encouraging study abroad; and attracting
international students. The report further notes the critical need for a systematic policy
discussion on the internationalization of higher education to help MENA in terms of
the formation of required skills and competencies, the acquisition of qualifications, and
the application of the skills and competencies. The development of quality education, the
recognition of qualifications in different countries, the role of international partners, and
the incentives to study and work within the region and elsewhere are all important
considerations for internationalization initiatives. Country level research is therefore
critical to advance policy conversations at national and regional levels. The economic
status of the region and its potential growth as well as its very strategic location in relation
to Africa, Europe, and Asia as well as other parts of the world positions it well for boosting
its internationalization of higher education efforts and global impact.
Internationalization in the Arab world is regarded to be as old as the genesis of higher
education (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), as a tool for advancing national agendas,
and as contributing to nation building (De Wit and Merkx, 2012). In its early years it took
the form of outbound student mobility with students flocking to European destinations. In
addition, local universities were built following Western models (Abyad, 2012). Recent
massification of higher education has however led to the introduction of new forms of
higher education including private universities, virtual learning, open universities,
decentralized campuses, parallel education, franchised programs, and International Branch
Campuses (IBCs) (Al-Agtash and Khadra, 2019; Al Attari, 2015). This has however been
hampered by limited resources, which has had a negative impact on the quality of the
education. Internationalization of higher education is therefore seen as helping to provide
academic and cultural experiences that can generate quality education through innovation
and best practices in learning and teaching, which in turn can enhance graduate
employability in the international job marketplace. Internationalization is also seen as
helping to structure existing internationalization practices (Al-Agtash and Khadra, 2019).
Across the region IHE Internationalization is understood as occurring at the national,
regional, and international levels; hence, terms such as nationalization, regionalization,
and internationalization interact in official documents with the broader aims being
“strengthening national loyalty” and “promoting the national heritage and international
12 HANDBOOK OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

culture.” Regionalization in higher education relates to the Arab national identity and is
evidenced by use of the Arabic language as the medium of instruction and publication and
adherence to Islamic values while “maintaining the democratic approach and academic
freedom” (Al-Agtash and Khadra, 2019). These practices, as well as mastering a foreign
language and using English as a supporting language in the process of internationalization,
are significant as they enhance relations with regional and international countries. Such a
vision is aptly captured in the Jordanian national strategic plan of 2007–2012 as: “Having
a high quality higher education system, capable of preparing highly-qualified human
resources that are able to meet the current and future needs of society and compete at the
Arab and international levels,” and “Improving and modernizing study plans and academic
programs in line with the requirements of national and pan-Arab development, taking
into account the scientific and technological developments at the global level.”
Using diverse documentations (including commissioned reports, institutional and
national documents) and empirical data, the chapters in this section explore indicators of
the internationalization of higher education, looking at various topics including:
● Motivations, drivers, processes, opportunities, challenges, and strategies
● Academic Mobility: inbound and student mobility (regional and international);
exchange programs e.g., Tempus and Erasmus+
❍ mostly regional with a minority international students); not much focus on
outbound student mobility in the literature highlighting the commercialization
of student mobility; inbound and outbound staff mobility
● Intercultural competence
● Language programs; linguistic and cultural diversity
● Collaborations: regional and international
● Foreign campuses; international universities
● Research and publications
● Collaborations and partnerships
● Internationalization at home; internationalization of the curriculum
● Internationalization and the role of technology
● Quality assurance and IHE. Challenges include:
❍ absence of national IHE policy
❍ management and financial resources
❍
paucity of research
❍ attitudes towards internationalization due to cultural tensions, for example
❍ the impact of increasing globalization advances in global communication.

Sub-Saharan Africa
Section IV commences with an introduction to Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) as a region that
is still lagging behind other regions with respect to gross national product (GNP) growth,
human development indicators, and higher education (Goujon, Haller, and Kmet, 2017;
UNECA, 2014). However, it is encouraging to note that in 2018, according to the World
INTRODUCTION 13

FIGURE 1.1: Top ten fastest growing economies in the world (World Bank, 2018).

Bank, six of the world’s ten fastest growing economies were in SSA (see Figure 1.1). The
section looks at two of these (Ghana and Ethiopia) as well as the two alternating giants of
Africa (South Africa and Nigeria). The other two cases are Zimbabwe (representing
countries whose once vibrant economies have taken a dip in recent years) and Kenya (a
favourite with international development agencies).
Although the focus of Section IV is on internationalization in higher education, all
chapters begin by describing the higher education context of the countries in question in
terms of the historical perspectives, higher education institutions (HEIs), policies, as well
as in achievements and challenges. In some SSA countries, higher education is as old as
the Timbuktu Kingdom of Mali and is described as, in the case of Ethiopia, as ancient as
the obelisks. However, for most SSA countries, contemporary higher education is shaped
by the colonial history and the stage of economic development. Most of the first HEIs
started as constituent colleges of European universities wherein the parent university
provided quality assurance in terms of curricula, staff appointments, student assessment
and qualification award (Altbach and Kelly, 1978).
Teferra (2007) avers that colonialism in SSA is immortalized in the continued
domination of colonial languages (e.g., English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese), in
administrative structures in academia, business, and government. This should therefore
put SSA in an advantageous position considering the rise of English as the dominant
language of teaching and learning as well as scientific communication using the affordances
of ICT. Sadly, these changes have had the effect of concentrating ownership of publishers,
databases, and other key resources in the hands of institutions in the Global North.
Furthermore, teaching in English has been equated to internationalization with the
unintended result of reducing the quality of education since English will not be the native
language.
The section on internationalization of higher education in SSA is a compilation of the
developments, experiences, and challenges peculiar to the region as well as those that are
comparable to other regions. The aim of the section is to contribute to the IHE debate by
14 HANDBOOK OF THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

providing information for benchmarking, comparative analysis, guidance and decision

making to HEIs, academics, governments, quality assurance agencies, researchers, students
curriculum developers, and international personnel. This section interrogates historical
perspectives of higher education and the extent to which IHE has (or has not)
metamorphosed in Sub-Saharan countries. While the section does not take the encyclopaedic
approach of including a chapter on every country, the six anglophone country chapters
included are representative enough to identify commonalities and particular directions.
The selection of the countries included was based on geographical location, level of global
engagement (as judged by publicly available contributions to IHE conversations), type of
colonial history as well as the availability of reputable scholars willing and able to contribute
a country chapter on IHE.
The section is divided into eight chapters: an introduction to IHE in Sub-Saharan
Africa, six country chapters, and a concluding cross-cutting chapter. The country chapters
focusing on the different contexts of Ethiopia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Kenya,
and Nigeria engage with IHE aspects of critical importance also incorporating empirical
evidence on certain aspects of IHE within the countries in question. This exposé of
country-specific scenarios creates fertile ground for the concluding chapter to highlight
and interrogate commonalities and peculiarities within the region. These patterns and
trends form the basis of the comparative analysis that constitutes the concluding chapter
of this handbook of IHE in the Global South.
A thematic approach is adopted wherein each chapter, although having a focus unique
to the peculiarities of the country, is crafted around a set of identified cross-cutting
themes. For example, providing an overview of the higher education system of each
country was considered critical in putting the IHE debate into context critical when
making comparative analyses. For instance, countries that have either suffered a colonial
past tended to have similar post-colonial challenges. Each chapter explores some or all of
the following issues regarding IHE:
● Overview of higher education system
● Institutional and national IHE policies
● Approaches to IHE
● IHE Research
● IHE and technology
● Future aspirations and directions on IHE.
The SSA section critically analyses IHE from a decolonial epistemic perspective, arguing
that for internationalization to succeed in its intended purpose, the attainment of a de-
imperialized, decolonized and deracialized world system and global order is critical
(Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2018). In SSA, internationalization is always entangled with
regionalization, “Africanization,” as well as nationalization as part of core objectives of
the Association of African Universities (AAU).
Coloniality here addresses epistemological questions of how colonial modernity has
interfered with other ways of knowing, social meaning-making, imagining and seeing; it
also concerns the exertion of hegemonic power and oppression, resulting in the current
asymmetrical global power structure that centers around countries in the Global North
(Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013). Coloniality works as a crucial structuring process within global
imperial designs, sustaining the superiority of the Global North. Part of the purpose here
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 LADY MACLAIRN,
THE

VICTIM OF VILLANY.
A NOVEL.
IN FOUR VOLUMES.

BY MRS. HUNTER,
OF NORWICH,

AUTHOR OF LETITIA; THE UNEXPECTED LEGACY; THE HISTORY OF THE

GRUBTHORPE FAMILY; PALMERSTONE’S LETTERS, &c.

VOL. IV.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR W. EARLE AND J. W. HUCKLEBRIDGE;

AND SOLD BY W. EARLE, NO. 47, ALBEMARLE STREET;

GEORGE ROBINSON, PATERNOSTER ROW; B. CROSBY AND CO.
STATIONERS’ COURT; THO. OSTELL, AVE MARIA LANE; AND
ALL OTHER BOOKSELLERS.

1806.
 S. Rousseau, Printer,
Wood Street, Spa Fields.
 LADY MACLAIRN,

THE

VICTIM OF VILLANY.

CHAP. I.

——I will not attempt to describe my agitations!—“In order to

relieve these emotions,” continued he, “I will ease your suspence. I
have seen a person who has brought me intelligence of Duncan. A
stranger was introduced to me, at a coffee-house last night, as
wanting to know and speak to me. He announced himself as the
super-cargo of a Dutch ship, now in the Thames, and said, that he
was charged with a commission for me, by a gentleman whom he had
known at Surinam. I instantly ordered a private room, and he
informed me, that he had first seen Duncan at Amsterdam; had there
learned enough of his story to pity him; and that he made the voyage
to Surinam with him. His unfortunate condition and deep dejection,
during our passage,” added this man, “more and more interested my
feelings, for one whose education and manners had promised a very
different career. I was happily disposed to befriend him; and as,
fortunately, I had the means of so doing, for I recommended him to a
merchant there, who received him into his counting house. But the
fever of the climate seized him before he had been a fortnight on
shore. He saw his danger, and had, as it appears, been preparing for
it. He gave into my hands the picture of a young lady, which he wore
in his bosom, with a parcel, in which he informed me was contained
some letters of the lady’s, with one for you. He conjured me to deliver
these to you in person, knowing that our ship was bound to this port
on her return. I promised to observe his instructions, and I have only
further to add, Sir, that knowing, as I do, the love he cherished for
the lady, whom he blessed with his last breath, I think it right to hint
to you some precautions in acquainting her with my poor friend’s
death.” “You may suppose I satisfied him on this point,” continued
my brother, and I endeavoured to sift out of him, whether he knew
the whole of Duncan’s adventures and secrets. “It was an unhappy
business,” observed I, “that obliged this unfortunate young man to
quit England and his friends, who were able and not indisposed to
serve him, had he not been too precipitate: his flight was nearly the
death of the young woman in question. You surprise me, by telling
me that his attachment for her continued. Did he often speak of
her?” “Never,” replied he, “Nor do I even know her name or address.
When, in nearly his last hour, he gave me her picture from his
bosom, and said, Mr. Flamall knows for whom it is destined. He will
take care to tell the unfortunate injured object of my love, that
Charles Duncan has expiated all his errors, by dying, and leaving her
free.—I said, with seriousness, that the most fatal of Duncan’s errors
had been that of not knowing his best friend; a mistake, however,
which had not been shared by the young lady, whose heart he had
gained; for, that she still looked up to me for friendship and
consolation. Our conversation finished by settling our next meeting
for this morning. I have just left him, satisfied, as I believe, that
Duncan had in me a friend as generous as himself. There is your
picture and this packet of your letters, with one for me, which I have
just received from the gentleman. I will leave it for your perusal
when you are able.” He quitted me, unable to witness my distress.
My Duncan’s letter I shall copy.
 LETTER LIV.
Charles Duncan to Mr. Flamall.
“Before this reaches your hand I shall be numbered with those in
the grave, and appear before that awful Tribunal, at which mercy has
her everlasting post. There, and there only, does Charles Duncan
expect to find justice; for then alone, will his errors be weighed with
his difficulties. Enclosed is my will, in which I have left to Harriet
Duncan, my lawful wife, the whole and entire property bequeathed
to me by Margaret Duncan, my supposed mother, and the only friend
I ever knew. I have charged this, my property, with the payment of
one hundred and fifty pounds to Mynheer Adrian Vandergucht, my
last benefactor. This sum has been partly advanced for my
necessities; he will, with this, produce my acknowledgment for the
receipt of one hundred pounds. I bequeath to him fifty, as a debt of
gratitude for kindnesses which none can fully repay but his Maker;
and to his blessing and mercy do I fervently recommend him.”
“From what Mrs. Duncan repeatedly declared to me, and also from
your conversations with me, on the subject of my little fortune, I
conclude that my wife will receive three thousand pounds as her
future provision. It may be, this pittance will be shared by my child.
Let it be your care, Sir, faithfully to discharge a trust, for the due
performance of which, you will one day be called to a strict account
by a Being more to be dreaded than,
 LETTER LV.
My letter from my unfortunate Charles contained these words:
“Forget, my beloved wife, that Charles Duncan ever had existence,
or that, in the miserable course of that existence, he has involved
yours in his misery, blasted the hopes of your youth, and planted
daggers in your faithful bosom. Forget, if thou canst forget, when
pressing to thy maternal bosom, the fruit of thy ill-fated union, the
wandering, wretched father of thy babe: or with pity and forgiveness
think of him, as one at rest; rescued from ignominy: concealed from
the cruel mockery of scorn; welcoming, at this moment, the approach
of his deliverer; and looking forwards with humble hope to an
eternity, in which he will be recompensed for the trials of his mortal
state, and pardoned for those mistakes, into which his youth and
frailty betrayed him. I enclose the copy of my will, with some of your
dear letters: with these you will receive your picture, but I cannot
spare it from my bosom, whilst my trembling hand is able to raise it
to my lips, or do more than sign the name of thy repentant, yet
faithful,
A time was allowed me for my sorrow, and recovery from a fever of
much danger; but which was, I believe, of use to my general health;
for I certainly was less liable to illness, after this crisis. I experienced
something of those sentiments, which the dying Duncan had
suggested. I rejoiced that he was at peace; and considered my fate as
ascertained. I could not know more of grief, than I had experienced;
and in a submission, which necessity, and, I hope also, religion
enforced, I settled into a calm and resigned frame of mind. My
extreme bodily weakness favoured for a time this more placid
condition of my spirits; and my recovery promised to my tender and
assiduous brother, a renewal of his comforts. He soon mentioned Mr.
Duncan’s donation. He told me, “that knowing, as I did, that both
Keith and his wife were dead; he thought it was much the most
prudent measure to let the property remain on the stock books, as it
had done from the time of Mrs. Duncan’s committing her money and
her reputed son to his trust, till such time, as he should become of
age. His quitting England within three or four months of his being
so,” continued my brother, “prevented any settlement or transfer of
the stock, but he was mistaken in his opinion of his fortune; for it
amounts to no more than two thousand pounds.” I answered with
sincerity that I regarded it, whatever it might be, as a common fund;
and should leave to him the disposal of it as most useful to our
common comfort; and being persuaded that I should not live long, I
thought it could not be better than as it was. He laughed at my
prophetic fears, assuring me that the physician had told him I stood
a better chance of being well than when at Kensington; and he left
me with a cheerfulness, which soothed me. His attentions did not
slacken. He saw with satisfaction my returning activity, and
frequently observed, that I was never more beautiful. By degrees he
prevailed on my reluctance to visit, and receive his friends; and I as
clearly discovered, that my brother wished to see me married, as I
manifested a repugnance to the very idea of exchanging my condition
for any other. I thus attained my twenty-third year. From this period,
the calmness of my mind was disturbed, by the change I perceived in
my brother’s modes of life. With anguish of soul I discovered, that he
was tired of having a sister without ambition, and a beauty, as she
was called, on his hands, who was deaf to flattery, and who scorned
infamy, however decorated. I was stiled “a romantic idiot,” “a cold
and unempassioned statue, proud of a form that was daily becoming
useless.” I became resolute; and told him, that with any form I would
endeavour to gain honest bread. My spirit silenced him. He begged
my pardon, and pleaded his conviction, that it would be in my power
to marry the libertine, whom he had conditioned with on easy terms,
though not less profitable to his views. His fears, his regrets at seeing
me waste my youth in unavailing sorrow; his belief, that my lover
would marry me at the death of an old grandfather; his wishes to do
so secretly, were placed before me. I relented, though without
yielding to his dishonourable views, and all was again peace between
us. But I no longer considered Philip Flamall, as the guardian of a
sister’s honour. Under this conviction I soon after saw Mr. Flint, for
the first time. He came to the house, as it appeared, on business; and
finding Philip absent, seemed desirous of waiting for his expected
return; he was accordingly conducted to me, as a client of too much
consequence to remain unnoticed in the office. His age and
respectable appearance, induced me to shew him every mark of
respect. I recollected my father’s opinion of Mr. Flint and his family;
and I tried to please him by my attentions. My guest contentedly
maintained his post till my brother returned at the dining hour;
fortunately we were alone that day; and Mr. Flint, who accepted at
once of the invitation, found only a table at which economy presided;
I retired as soon as my office was finished; but I was told that he
meant to breakfast with my brother the next morning. Unconsciously
I endeavoured to secure to Philip this wealthy client; and as it will
appear, I succeeded.

Some days after, my brother with much seriousness informed me,

that my modest and composed deportment had pleased Mr. Flint.
“He has not only made his proposals to me of jointuring you in four
hundred pounds per annum,” added he, “but he has also, on hearing
the precise state of my fortune, engaged to befriend me, by lending
me a sum of money which may turn to good account. He knew my
father, and he is no stranger to the difficulties in which he left me
involved.”—I attempted to speak—“Hear me to the end,” pursued he,
“before you condemn a brother to a goal. This man’s age, his retired
habits of life, and his fair character in the world for his uprightness,
renders him more an object of veneration than of love. You may
recompense him for the protection of the parent, by the kind offices
of the daughter, whilst, by the union he solicits, you are securing to
yourself an honourable name and independence, and saving me from
ruin; for I tell you plainly, that I am already in a state of insolvency,
in regard to credit. I will have you to consider of the answer you will
commission me to give Mr. Flint.” “It is not necessary to deliberate,”
replied I weeping bitterly. “The knowledge of my real situation will at
once convince Mr. Flint, that I am not a suitable companion for his
children, nor a becoming choice for him, and without adverting to
the folly, which has led him to think of marriage, it will be enough
that he knows, that I am Duncan’s widow.”

Never shall I forget my brother’s fury! “Be a fool to the last!” cried
he, “See me a beggar! blast my character with your own! sink me to a
level with your highway-robber! But know,” added he trembling,
“that I can be as desperate as your Duncan. I will not be an outlaw
for one purse! Can you be so weak as to think any man will marry
you, under the name of Duncan? What has this miscreant to do with
the present question? He is dead, the witnesses of your accursed
marriage are dead. You have persisted in bearing your own name,
and the character of an unmarried woman. Oh Harriet! let me plead
for your youth, your helpless condition of fortune; for your
innocence, and for a brother who loves you! Marry this worthy man:
and let me see you protected from the dangers of the world!” I was
subdued. I forsook the path of rectitude, and, as Harriet Flamall,
married Mr. Flint, who was three times my age.
 CHAP. II.

We quitted London a few days after the ceremony was performed,

and I now had leisure to repent of my weakness and timidity. My
introduction to my husband’s family was humiliating and painful to
the last degree of suffering sensibility. I was not only an intruder, but
I was an usurper of the rights I claimed; and I felt that, in my
assumed title of Mrs. Flint was contained a reproach, which covered
me with confusion every time I heard it pronounced. My only
consolation sprang from the resolution of devoting my life to the
man, whom I had thus deceived. He was fond of me, and I studied
incessantly to make him contented with his wife. I foolishly began to
think that I should contribute to the slender stock of domestic
comfort which I found at Farefield Hall. Mr. Percival Flint, and his
amiable sister Mary appeared to treat me as one destined to enlarge
their, and their father’s happiness: even Miss Flint seemed
reconciled to the young mother-in-law, who had, in no instance
abridged her in her authority. I was fond of flowers, and already
began to enjoy the amusement of the garden. Mr. Percival one
morning entered my dressing room, where Lucretia and myself were
at our needle work, my husband having taken his darling Mary with
him in his airing; his hands were filled with some rare and beautiful
plants, and I found that this was a tribute to my peculiar taste. My
thanks followed, and Percival withdrew, in order to see the plants
properly disposed of. “You have converted,” observed Miss Flint with
a malicious laugh, “our grave and solemn book-worm into a useful
being. What a thousand pities it is! that Percival had not seen you
before his father:” as the business is now managed he must remain
the “despairing shepherd;” for I think the public cruelty prohibits the
son-in-law from marrying the mother-in-law, who in many cases
might console the poor widow. “My countenance marked how little
this levity pleased me.” “Dear me!” pursued she, “you need not look
so offended, or be displeased with so harmless a joke; you cannot
help Percival’s playing the fool, nor prevent people’s thinking, that
the father at seventy is not altogether so handsome as the son at
twenty-three or four: you might be tempted to acknowledge this
truth yourself were it not for this unlucky relationship; you could not
in conscience deny that he is much better qualified to succeed Mr.
Duncan, than his father.”—I heard no more; for yielding to terror
and surprise I fainted, and my successive fits alarmed the family;
and, as I supposed, moved to pity the cruel insulter, who had brought
them on me. She was very assiduous and attentive to me during the
few days of my convalescence; and with much humility begged my
pardon, saying that she had never entertained the slightest suspicion
prejudicial to me; but that having heard of a disappointment of a
tender kind, which for a time had injured my health and spirits, she
frankly confessed that she had attributed my choice of her father to
that cause; believing that no woman with my beauty, and at my age,
would prefer for an husband a man old enough for her grandfather.
“I neither intended to reproach you or that choice, nor to hurt your
feelings by naming the gentleman in question,” added she. “I simply
wished to establish between us a confidence and friendship which I
conceived might be useful to us both. I have my secrets, my dear
Harriet; and my heart has suffered like your own, the pangs of
unrequited, nay, abused love.” She proceeded to inform me of Mr.
Howard’s perfidy, who, after having gained her affections, had
voluntarily given himself up to the arts of her sister, who with a
pretty face, and the years of a child had basely supplanted her in the
opinion of a man, whom she well knew was necessary to her
happiness; and who had from her very cradle shown the greatest
cunning and address in rendering every one subservient to her will;
and she warned me at the same time of her absolute power over my
husband.

Subdued by conscience, and uncertain of the extent of the

information which Miss Flint had gained, with the knowledge of Mr.
Duncan’s name, I accepted of her apology; and still further tutored
by my brother, passively yielded to an authority, with which I was
unable to contend. I tamely witnessed the treatment which poor Miss
Mary received from her enraged and implacable sister, and finally
saw the innocent girl ruined in her father’s love. My husband was
incensed by some letters of Mr. Howard’s, which fell into Lucretia’s
hands; these were incautiously preserved by the fond girl, and they
were certainly such, as Mr. Howard had done much more wisely not
to have written. I endeavoured to soften my husband’s resentment;
and I should have succeeded; for he loved his daughter Mary, even, if
I may be allowed to speak, to a degree of weakness; and he was
wretched because she was unhappy. He spoke to my brother on the
subject, and discovered an inclination to unity and forgiveness,
requesting him to employ his influence with Lucretia to give up to a
sister a man whom she could not win for herself; adding, that
notwithstanding Mr. Howard had so highly offended him, he would
pass over every thing for the sake of peace, and to content poor Mary.
My brother instead of executing this commission, sternly warned me
to take care of what I was doing. “Were you any thing but what you
are,” said he, “you would perceive the danger of your interfering with
this virago; let her alone: in time you will see her your slave instead
of your tyrant. Trust not to the fondness of your husband; you see
what she has effected with her father in regard to her sister. Judge of
her power by this proof of it, and avoid offending her: you will ruin
yourself, and serve no one.”

I believe it is not useless to mention here, that on my marriage

taking place my brother took his degree as barrister, and quitting his
house in Red Lion Square, took apartments in Lincoln’s Inn Fields.
Whether his former clients forgot him, or he them, I know not; but
so it was; he resided almost constantly at the Hall, and became useful
to Mr. Flint in return for the hospitality he found. Confined
principally to the care of amusing and nursing my husband, whose
health rapidly declined under the perpetual vexations he endured, I
could not help perceiving that my influence was sedulously watched;
and every time he expressed the regrets he experienced from being
prevented seeing his child, I was suspected of having produced those
relentings of nature in her favour, and was reproached by Mr.
Flamall for my folly in being blind to my own interest; and I was told
that I had nothing to do but to attend to my husband. I perfectly
understood this language, and I did attend to my husband; but it
was not to deceive, or insult him. He was too weak to be advised by
me; and unhappily feeling at times the state of abject slavery, to
which his own weakness had reduced him, he vented his resentments
in peevish complaints, and angry reproaches, that I was too passive
and indifferent to defend him against his tormentor; then, weeping
like an infant, he would beg me not to leave him, for that I was his
only comfort.

One day he mentioned the disposition he had made of his

property, adding, that his children would think of him when he was
dead, although they had abandoned him whilst living. “As to you, my
poor Harriet,” said he, “I have taken care to leave you enough for
your ambition, though I can never repay you for the loss of your
health, which will be destroyed by your attendance on me. You will
find, besides your jointure, a legacy of three thousand pounds, with
which you may settle yourself comfortably when they send you from
hence: this sum is in your brother’s hands, and he may perhaps
recollect when you shew him the bond, that he is in arrears for the
interest ever since your marriage. He was a needy man, my Harriet,
when I lent him the money, and I warn you not to trust him with
your affairs when I am gone, although he is your brother.” That very
evening he was seized with convulsions. I pass over an interval of
suffering which was terminated by his death.

I will not attempt to describe my astonishment on hearing the

deceased Mr. Flint’s will read. Let it suffice that its contents were
such as astonished every one. My name only appeared in it, as having
been provided for at my marriage; and as it was necessary to specify
that the jointure which had so provided for me, was to revert to Miss
Flint at my decease, on failure of issue. I retired to my apartment
overwhelmed with grief and confusion. Mr. and Mrs. Howard might
be said to have haunted my imagination; I had witnessed their
distress on hearing this unjust will read; they were continually before
me; and innocent as I was, I felt my soul agonised by the internal
conviction which pressed upon me, that all was not honourable, yet a
suspicion of my brother reached only to another enigma. What was
become of the bond? This question was on my lips more than once;
but Philip had succeeded in making himself more the object of my
dread than confidence. To retire from the Hall; to assert the
independence which I had so dearly purchased; to share with the
Howards their father’s bounty, were the purposes of my mind, and
its support. In the mean time I was treated with unusual respect and
attention by Miss Flint, who repeatedly assured me, that the object of
her father’s affections would always have claims on her own; that she
could not bear to see me so depressed by an event which was to be
expected in the common course of nature; and that if I thought I had
not been sufficiently considered for the sacrifices of health and
pleasure, she was certain that her father’s omission resulted from his
firm persuasion that we should always share the same abode and
domestic comforts. I blushed, and replied, that I had every reason to
be contented with Mr. Flint’s generosity and affection. “Had the
provision allotted me,” added I with more spirit, “been only a fourth
part of what it is, I should have been satisfied; for I seek only
independence.” She looked disappointed, and changed the subject of
conversation.

My brother paid me a visit the following morning; and having in

vain requested me to take an airing, grew angry. “Wherefore is it,
Harriet,” said he with a petulant air, “that you affect to play the
Ephesian Matron with me? It is impossible you can regret the death
of a doating, childish old man, worn out by sufferings, at seventy and
upwards? To what purpose this seclusion, this dejection, these
perpetual tears? One would imagine you had already been entombed
long enough! But there is no remedy for a romantic mind,” continued
he with more tenderness. “Any other woman but yourself would have
resented his want of generosity. You are poorly recompensed, my
dear girl, for your watching, and for the loss of your beauty.” “I have
enough for my wants,” answered I, “and much more than I
deserved.” “I was not of that opinion,” replied he, “and soon after
your marriage gave Mr. Flint to understand that I thought his widow
was but slenderly provided for, unless further considered. He told me
that he had thought as I did, and had acted accordingly. He added
that you were the only comfort he had in this world; that he had to
thank me for the blessing, and that I should find he had not forgotten
my kindness. I have reason,” continued Philip, “to think that he kept
his word, and destroyed the bond he held against me; for it has not
appeared.” I concealed my face in the sopha-cushion, otherwise he
must have perceived my astonishment. “This consideration on his
part,” continued he, “has been however repaid on mine, for I have
been useful to him in my professional way, and never charged him
sixpence.” I sighed profoundly—“Come,” cried he, assuming a more
cheerful air, “let us now look forward to more pleasing prospects.
You may yet be mistress here.”

I was now told of his intrigue with Miss Flint; of his unhappily
being a married man; and of the worthlessness of his wife, who
exercised over him an empire, in all things save that of bearing his
name. In a word, Miss Flint’s critical situation was brought forward,
and my agency was demanded as the only means of saving her fame,
and the infant from the disgrace of an illegitimate birth. I listened to
this discourse with disgust, and even horror; but, suppressing my
feelings, I told him with firmness, that I had gone already too far into
concealments, not to discover the danger of the road; that I meant to
quit the Hall, and had already formed my plans for my future life.
“These,” added I, bursting into tears, “will not, nor can be
subservient to your, or Miss Flint’s views.” “You will change your
mind,” replied he sternly, “when I tell you, that, what you have
refused to do from gratitude and affection to a brother, may be
thought expedient to perform for your own safety. Miss Flint has
known the particulars of your first marriage from the day you
appeared here as her father’s wife. Moreover she insists upon it, that
you have no legal proofs of Duncan’s death, nor any claim to your
jointure, from its having been granted under a name and character to
which you had no right. You will do well to reflect on her temper, and
on your condition, under a prosecution for bigamy. My evidence, in
your favour amounts simply to the Dutchman’s verbal attestation of
being at Duncan’s funeral, and his letters and will written at
Surinam. These with me are conclusive proofs; but I know not how
far they would be so thought in a court at Doctor’s Commons; nor
with what consequences at the best, your marrying when a widow
under your maiden name may be attended.”—“My punishment is
just,” exclaimed I, “I will avow the truth, I will not take Mr. Flint’s
money. I will go where I may mourn my lost happiness and die. I ask
you only to provide me an asylum for the moment. I will not be a