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N i nt h E d i t i o n
G L O B A L E D I T IO N
Elementary and Middle

School Mathematics
Teaching Developmentally
John A. Van de Walle

Late of Virginia Commonwealth University
Karen S. Karp
University of Louisville
Jennifer M. Bay-Williams
University of Louisville
With Contributions by
Jonathan Wray
Howard County Public Schools
Boston Columbus Hoboken Indianapolis New York San Francisco

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The rights of John A. Van de Walle, Karen S. Karp, and Jennifer M. Bay-Williams to be identified as the authors
of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Elementary and Middle School Mathematics: Teaching
Developmentally, 9th edition, ISBN 978-0-13-376893-0, by John A. Van de Walle, Karen S. Karp, and Jennifer
M. Bay-Williams, published by Pearson Education © 2016.
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ISBN 10: 1-292-09769-8

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Printed and bound by R.R. Donnelly Kendalville in the United States of America.
About the Authors
John A. Van de Walle
The late John A. Van de Walle was a professor emeritus at Virginia Commonwealth University.
He was a leader in mathematics education who regularly offered professional develop-
ment workshops for K–8 teachers in the United States and Canada focused on mathematics
instruction that engaged students in mathematical reasoning and problem solving. He visited
many classrooms and worked with teachers to implement student-centered math lessons. He
co-authored the Scott Foresman-Addison Wesley Mathematics K–6 series and contributed to the
original Pearson School mathematics program enVisionMATH. Additionally, John was very active
in the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), writing book chapters and jour-
nal articles, serving on the board of directors, chairing the educational materials committee, and
speaking at national and regional meetings.
Karen S. Karp
Karen S. Karp is a professor of mathematics education at the University of Louisville (Ken-
tucky). Prior to entering the field of teacher education she was an elementary school teacher
in New York. Karen is the volume editor of Annual Perspectives in Mathematics Education:
Using Research to Improve Instruction and is the co-author of Developing Essential Understanding
of Addition and Subtraction for Teaching Mathematics in Pre-K–Grade 2, Discovering Lessons for the
Common Core State Standards in Grades K–5, and Putting Essential Understanding of Addition and
Subtraction into Practice Pre-K–Grade 2. She is a former member of the board of directors for the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and a former president of the Associ-
ation of Mathematics Teacher Educators. She continues to work in classrooms with teachers
of students with disabilities.
Jennifer M. Bay-Williams
Jennifer M. Bay-Williams is a mathematics educator at the University of Louisville (Kentucky).
Jennifer taught elementary, middle, and high school in Missouri and in Peru, and continues to
work in classrooms at all levels with students and with teachers. Jennifer has published many
articles on teaching and learning in NCTM journals. She has also authored and co-authored
numerous books, including Developing Essential Understanding of Addition and Subtraction for Teach-
ing Mathematics in Pre-K–Grade 2, Math and Literature: Grades 6–8, Math and Nonfiction: Grades 6–8,
Navigating through Connections in Grades 6–8, and Mathematics Coaching: Resources and Tools for
Coaches and Other Leaders. She is on the board of directors for the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics (NCTM) and previously served on the Board of Directors for TODOS: Equity for
All and as secretary and president for the Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators (AMTE).
3
About the Contributor
Jonathan Wray is the technology contributor to Elementary and Middle School Mathe-
matics, Teaching Developmentally (6th–9th editions). He is the instructional facilitator for Sec-
ondary Mathematics Curricular Programs in the Howard County Public School System. He
is the president of the Association of Maryland Mathematics Teacher Educators (AMMTE)
and past president of the Maryland Council of Teachers of Mathematics (MCTM) and serves
as manager of the Elementary Mathematics Specialists and Teacher Leaders (ems&tl) Project.
He has been recognized for his expertise in infusing technology in mathematics teaching and
was named an Outstanding Technology Leader in Education by the Maryland Society for
Educational Technology (MSET). Jon is also actively engaged in the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), serving on the Emerging Issues and Executive Commit-
tees. He has served as a primary and intermediate grades classroom teacher, gifted/talented
resource teacher, elementary mathematics specialist, curriculum and assessment developer,
grant project manager, and educational consultant.
4
Brief Contents
Section I Teaching Mathematics: Foundations and Perspectives
Chapter 1 Teaching Mathematics in the 21st Century 25
Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics 37
Chapter 3 Teaching through Problem Solving 57
Chapter 4 Planning in the Problem-Based Classroom 81
Chapter 5 Creating Assessments for Learning 108
Chapter 6 Teaching Mathematics Equitably to All Children 128
Chapter 7 Using Technological Tools to Teach Mathematics 151
Section II Development of Mathematical Concepts and Procedures

Chapter 8 Developing Early Number Concepts and Number Sense 166
Chapter 9 Developing Meanings for the Operations 191
Chapter 10 Developing Basic Fact Fluency 218
Chapter 11 Developing Whole-Number Place-Value Concepts 246
Chapter 12 Developing Strategies for Addition and Subtraction Computation 271
Chapter 13 Developing Strategies for Multiplication and Division Computation 301

Chapter 14 Algebraic Thinking, Equations, and Functions 323
Chapter 15 Developing Fraction Concepts 363
Chapter 16 Developing Fraction Operations 395
Chapter 17 Developing Concepts of Decimals and Percents 427
Chapter 18 Ratios, Proportions, and Proportional Reasoning 453
Chapter 19 Developing Measurement Concepts 477
Chapter 20 Geometric Thinking and Geometric Concepts 512
Chapter 21 Developing Concepts of Data Analysis 550
Chapter 22 Exploring Concepts of Probability 582
Chapter 23 Developing Concepts of Exponents, Integers, and Real Numbers 606
Appendix A Standards for Mathematical Practice A-1
Appendix B NCTM Mathematics Teaching Practices: from Principles to Actions A-5
Appendix C Guide to Blackline Masters A-7
Appendix D Activities at a Glance A-13

5
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Contents
Preface 15
Section I Teaching Mathematics: Foundations and Perspectives
The fundamental core of effective teaching of mathematics combines an understanding of how students learn, how to
promote that learning by teaching through problem solving, and how to plan for and assess that learning on a daily basis.
Introductory chapters in this section provide perspectives on trends in mathematics education and the process of doing
mathematics. These chapters develop the core ideas of learning, teaching, planning, and assessment. Additional perspectives
on mathematics for students with diverse backgrounds and the role of technological tools are also emphasized.
Chapter 1 Mathematical Proficiency 47

Teaching Mathematics How Do Students Learn Mathematics? 50
in the 21st Century 25 Constructivism 50
Sociocultural Theory 51
Becoming an Effective Teacher of Mathematics 25
Implications for Teaching Mathematics 51
A Changing World 26
Connecting the Dots 54
Factors to Consider 27
Reflections on Chapter 2 55
The Movement toward Shared Standards 28
Writing to Learn 55
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics 29
For Discussion and Exploration 55
Common Core State Standards 30
Resources for Chapter 2 56
Principles to Actions 33
Recommended Readings 56
An Invitation to Learn and Grow 34
Becoming a Teacher of Mathematics 34
Writing to Learn 36 Chapter 3
For Discussion and Exploration 36 Teaching through Problem Solving 57
Resources for Chapter 1 36 Problem Solving 57
Recommended Readings 36 Teaching for Problem Solving 58
Teaching about Problem Solving 58
Teaching through Problem Solving 61
Chapter 2 Features of Worthwhile Tasks 61
Exploring What It Means to Know High Levels of Cognitive Demand 62
and Do Mathematics 37 Multiple Entry and Exit Points 62
What Does It Mean to Do Mathematics? 37 Relevant Contexts 65
Verbs of Doing Mathematics 38 Evaluating and Adapting Tasks 67
An Invitation to Do Mathematics 39 Developing Concepts and Procedures through Tasks 68
Searching for Patterns 39 Concepts 68
Analyzing a Situation 40 Procedures 69
Generalizing Relationships 41 What about Drill and Practice? 71
Experimenting and Explaining 42 Orchestrating Classroom Discourse 73
Where Are the Answers? 44 Classroom Discussions 73
What Does It Mean to Be Mathematically Questioning Considerations 75
Proficient? 44 How Much to Tell and Not to Tell 76
Relational Understanding 45 Writing to Learn 77
7
8 Contents
Problem Solving for All 78 Assessment Methods 111

Reflections on Chapter 3 80 Observations 111
Writing to Learn 80 Interviews 113
For Discussion and Exploration 80 Tasks 116
Resources for Chapter 3 80 Rubrics and Their Uses 119
Recommended Readings 80 Generic Rubrics 120
Task-Specific Rubrics 121
Writing as an Assessment Tool 122
Student Self-Assessment 123
Chapter 4
Planning in the Problem-Based Classroom 81 Tests 124
Improving Performance on High-Stakes Tests 125
A Three-Phase Lesson Format 81 Communicating Grades and Shaping Instruction 125
The Before Phase of a Lesson 82 Reflections on Chapter 5 126
The During Phase of a Lesson 85 Writing to Learn 126
The After Phase of a Lesson 87 For Discussion and Exploration 126
Process for Preparing a Lesson 89 Resources for Chapter 5 127
Step 1: Determine the Learning Goals 90 Recommended Readings 127
Step 2: Consider Your Students’ Needs 90
Step 3: Select, Design, or Adapt a Worthwhile Task 91
Step 4: Design Lesson Assessments 91 Chapter 6
Step 5: Plan the Before Phase of the Lesson 92 Teaching Mathematics Equitably to All
Step 6: Plan the During Phase of the Lesson 93 Children 128
Step 7: Plan the After Phase of the Lesson 93 Mathematics for ALL Students 128
Step 8: Reflect and Refine 93 Providing for Students Who Struggle and Those with Special
More Options for the Three-Phase Lesson 94 Needs 130
Short Tasks 94 Prevention Models 130
Learning Centers 95 Implementing Interventions 131
Differentiating Instruction 96 Teaching and Assessing Students with Learning Disabilities 135
Open Questions 96 Teaching Students with Moderate/Severe Disabilities 137
Tiered Lessons 97 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students 138
Parallel Tasks 99 Culturally Responsive Instruction 139
Flexible Grouping 99 Focus on Academic Vocabulary 140
Planning for Family Engagement 101 Facilitating Engagement during Instruction 143
Communicating Mathematics Goals 101 Implementing Strategies for English Language Learners 144
Family Math Nights 102 Providing for Students Who Are Mathematically Gifted 145
Homework Practices 104 Creating Gender-Friendly Mathematics Classrooms 147
Resources for Families 105 Gender Differences 147
Involving All Families 106 What Can You Try? 148
Reflections on Chapter 4 107 Reducing Resistance and Building Resilience 149
Writing to Learn 107 Reflections on Chapter 6 150
For Discussion and Exploration 107 Writing to Learn 150
Resources for Chapter 4 107 For Discussion and Exploration 150
Recommended Readings 107 Resources for Chapter 6 150
Chapter 5 Chapter 7
Creating Assessments for Learning 108 Using Technological Tools to Teach
Mathematics 151
Integrating Assessment into Instruction 108
What Is Assessment? 109 Tools and Technology 151
What Should Be Assessed? 110 Technology-Supported Learning Activities 152
Contents 9
Calculators in Mathematics Instruction 154 How to Select Appropriate Digital Content 160
When to Use a Calculator 155 Mathematics Resources on the Internet 162
Benefits of Calculator Use 155 How to Select Online Resources 162
Graphing Calculators 156 Emerging Technologies 162
Portable Data-Collection Devices 158 Reflections on Chapter 7 165
Appropriate and Strategic Use of Digital Tools 158 Writing to Learn 165
Concept Instruction 159 For Discussion and Exploration 165
Problem Solving 159 Resources for Chapter 7 165
Drill and Reinforcement 159 Recommended Readings 165
Guidelines for Selecting and Using Digital Resources for
Mathematics 160
Guidelines for Using Digital Content 160
Section II Development of Mathematical Concepts and Procedures
This section serves as the application of the core ideas of Section I. Here you will find chapters on every major content area in
the pre-K–8 mathematics curriculum. Numerous problem-based activities to engage students are interwoven with a discussion
of the mathematical content and how students develop their understanding of that content. At the outset of each chapter, you
will find a listing of “Big Ideas,” the mathematical umbrella for the chapter. Also included are ideas for incorporating children’s
literature, integrations with the mathematical practices, and formative assessment notes. These chapters are designed to help
you develop pedagogical strategies and to serve as a resource for your teaching now and in the future.
Chapter 8
Developing Early Number Concepts and Number Chapter 9
Sense 166 Developing Meanings for the Operations 191
Promoting Good Beginnings 167 Teaching Operations through Contextual

The Number Core: Quantity, Counting, and Knowing How Problems 192
Many 168 Addition and Subtraction Problem Structures 192
Quantity and the Ability to Subitize 168 Change Problems 193
Early Counting 169 Part-Part-Whole Problems 194
Numeral Writing and Recognition 172 Compare Problems 194
Counting On and Counting Back 173 Problem Difficulty 195
The Relations Core: More Than, Less Than, and Teaching Addition and Subtraction 196
Equal To 174 Contextual Problems 196
Developing Number Sense by Building Number Model-Based Problems 198
Relationships 176 Properties of Addition and Subtraction 201
Relationships between Numbers 1 through 10 176 Multiplication and Division Problem Structure 203
Relationships for Numbers 10 through 20 and Equal-Group Problems 203
Beyond 184
Comparison Problems 203
Number Sense in Their World 186 Area and Array Problems 205
Calendar Activities 186 Combination Problems 205
Estimation and Measurement 187
Teaching Multiplication and Division 205
Data Collection and Analysis 188
Contextual Problems 206
Reflections on Chapter 8 189 Remainders 207
Writing to Learn 189 Model-Based Problems 207
For Discussion and Exploration 189 Properties of Multiplication and Division 210
Resources for Chapter 8 189 Strategies for Solving Contextual Problems 212
Literature Connections 189 Analyzing Context Problems 212
Recommended Readings 189 Multistep Problems 214
10 Contents
Reflections on Chapter 9 216 Integrating Base-Ten Groupings with Words 249

Writing to Learn 216 Integrating Base-Ten Groupings with Place-Value Notation 249
For Discussion and Exploration 216 Base-Ten Models for Place Value 250
Resources for Chapter 9 216 Groupable Models 250
Literature Connections 216 Pregrouped Models 251
Recommended Readings 216 Nonproportional Models 252
Developing Base-Ten Concepts 252
Grouping Activities 252
Grouping Tens to Make 100 255
Chapter 10
Developing Basic Fact Fluency 218
Equivalent Representations 255
Oral and Written Names for Numbers 257
Developmental Phases for Learning the Basic Facts 219 Two-Digit Number Names 257
Teaching and Assessing the Basic Facts 220 Three-Digit Number Names 258
Different Approaches to Teaching the Basic Facts 220 Written Symbols 259
Teaching Basic Facts Effectively 221 Patterns and Relationships with Multidigit Numbers 261
Assessing Basic Facts Effectively 222 The Hundreds Chart 261
Reasoning Strategies for Addition Facts 223 Relationships with Benchmark Numbers 264
One More Than and Two More Than 224 Connections to Real-World Ideas 265
Adding Zero 225 Numbers Beyond 1000 266
Doubles 226 Extending the Place-Value System 266
Combinations of 10 227 Conceptualizing Large Numbers 267
Making 10 227 Reflections on Chapter 11 269
Using 5 as an Anchor 228 Writing to Learn 269
Near-Doubles 228 For Discussion and Exploration 269
Reasoning Strategies for Subtraction Facts 230 Resources for Chapter 11 270
Think-Addition 230 Literature Connections 270
Down Under 10 231 Recommended Readings 270
Take from 10 231
Reasoning Strategies for Multiplication and Division Facts 232
Foundational Facts: 2, 5, 0, 1 232 Chapter 12
Nifty Nines 234 Developing Strategies for Addition and
Derived Multiplication Fact Strategies 235 Subtraction Computation 271
Division Facts 237
Toward Computational Fluency 272
Reinforcing Basic Fact Mastery 238
Connecting Addition and Subtraction to Place Value 273
Games to Support Basic Fact Fluency 238
Three Types of Computational Strategies 278
About Drill 241
Direct Modeling 278
Fact Remediation 242
Invented Strategies 279
Standard Algorithms 281
Writing to Learn 245
Development of Invented Strategies 282
Creating a Supportive Environment 283
Models to Support Invented Strategies 283
Literature Connections 245
Development of Invented Strategies for Addition and
Subtraction 285
Single-Digit Numbers 285
Adding Two-Digit Numbers 286
Chapter 11
Developing Whole-Number Place-Value
Subtraction as “Think-Addition” 288
Concepts 246 Take-Away Subtraction 288
Extensions and Challenges 290
Pre-Place-Value Understandings 247 Standard Algorithms for Addition and Subtraction 291
Developing Whole-Number Place-Value Concepts 248 Standard Algorithm for Addition 291
Integrating Base-Ten Groupings with Counting by Ones 248 Standard Algorithm for Subtraction 293
Contents 11
Introducing Computational Estimation 294 Structure in the Number System: Properties 327
Understanding Computational Estimation 294 Making Sense of Properties 327
Suggestions for Teaching Computational Estimation 295 Applying the Properties of Addition and Multiplication 330
Computational Estimation Strategies 296 Study of Patterns and Functions 331
Front-End Methods 296 Repeating Patterns 332
Rounding Methods 296 Growing Patterns 334
Compatible Numbers 297 Relationships in Functions 336
Reflections on Chapter 12 299 Graphs of Functions 337
Writing to Learn 299 Describing Functions 339
For Discussion and Exploration 299 Linear Functions 340
Resources for Chapter 12 299 Meaningful Use of Symbols 343
Literature Connections 299 Equal and Inequality Signs 344
Recommended Readings 300 The Meaning of Variables 352
Mathematical Modeling 358
Algebraic Thinking across the Curriculum 359
Chapter 13 Geometry, Measurement and Algebra 359
Developing Strategies for Multiplication and
Division Computation 301
Student-Invented Strategies for Multiplication 302 For Discussion and Exploration 361
Useful Representations 302 Resources for Chapter 14 362
Multiplication by a Single-Digit Multiplier 303 Literature Connections 362
Multiplication of Multidigit Numbers 304 Recommended Readings 362
Standard Algorithms for Multiplication 306
Begin with Models 306
Develop the Written Record 308
Chapter 15
Student-Invented Strategies for Division 310 Developing Fraction Concepts 363
Standard Algorithm for Division 312
Begin with Models 312 Meanings of Fractions 364
Develop the Written Record 313 Fraction Constructs 364
Two-Digit Divisors 315 Why Fractions Are Difficult 365
Computational Estimation in Multiplication Models for Fractions 366
and Division 317 Area Models 367
Suggestions for Teaching Computational Estimation 317 Length Models 368
Computational Estimation Strategies 318 Set Models 369
Reflections on Chapter 13 322 Fractional Parts 370
Writing to Learn 322 Fraction Size Is Relative 371
For Discussion and Exploration 322 Partitioning 371
Resources for Chapter 13 322 Sharing Tasks 375
Literature Connections 322 Iterating 377
Recommended Readings 322 Fraction Notation 380
Equivalent Fractions 382
Conceptual Focus on Equivalence 382
Chapter 14 Equivalent Fraction Models 383
Algebraic Thinking, Equations, and Developing an Equivalent-Fraction Algorithm 386
Functions 323 Comparing Fractions 389
Strands of Algebraic Thinking 324 Comparing Fractions Using Number Sense 389
Structure in the Number System: Connecting Number and Using Equivalent Fractions to Compare 391
Algebra 324 Estimating with Fractions 391
Number Combinations 324 Teaching Considerations for Fraction Concepts 392
Place-Value Relationships 325 Reflections on Chapter 15 393
Algorithms 336 Writing to Learn 393
12 Contents
For Discussion and Exploration 393 Computation with Decimals 440

Resources for Chapter 15 394 Addition and Subtraction 441
Literature Connections 394 Multiplication 442
Recommended Readings 394 Division 445
Introducing Percents 446
Physical Models and Terminology 447
Chapter 16 Percent Problems in Context 448
Developing Fraction Operations 395 Estimation 450
Understanding Fraction Operations 396
A Problem-Based Number-Sense Approach 396
Addition and Subtraction 398
Contextual Examples and Invented Strategies 398
Models 399
Estimation and Informal Methods 402
Developing the Algorithms 403
Fractions Greater Than One 405 Chapter 18
Addressing Misconceptions 406 Ratios, Proportions, and Proportional
Multiplication 408 Reasoning 453
Contextual Examples and Models 408
Ratios 454
Estimation and Invented Strategies 414
Types of Ratios 454
Ratios Compared to Fractions 454
Factors Greater Than One 415
Two Ways to Think about Ratio 455
Addressing Misconceptions 415
Proportional Reasoning 456
Division 416
Proportional and Nonproportional Situations 457
Contextual Examples and Models 417
Additive and Multiplicative Comparisons in Story
Answers That Are Not Whole Numbers 421 Problems 459
Estimation and Invented Strategies 422 Covariation 461
Strategies for Solving Proportional Situations 466
Addressing Misconceptions 424
Rates and Scaling Strategies 467
Reflections on Chapter 16 425 Ratio Tables 469
Writing to Learn 425 Tape or Strip Diagram 470
For Discussion and Exploration 425 Double Number Line Diagrams 472
Resources for Chapter 16 426 Percents 472
Literature Connections 426 Equations 473
Recommended Readings 426 Teaching Proportional Reasoning 474
Chapter 17 Writing to Learn 475
Developing Concepts of Decimals and For Discussion and Exploration 475
Percents 427 Resources for Chapter 18 475
Extending the Place-Value System 428 Recommended Readings 476
The 10-to-1 Relationship—Now in Two Directions! 428
The Role of the Decimal Point 429
Connecting Fractions and Decimals 431
Say Decimal Fractions Correctly 431 Chapter 19
Developing Measurement Concepts 477
Use Visual Models for Decimal Fractions 431
Multiple Names and Formats 433 The Meaning and Process of Measuring 478
Developing Decimal Number Sense 434 Concepts and Skills 478
Familiar Fractions Connected to Decimals 435 Introducing Nonstandard Units 480
Comparing and Ordering Decimal Fractions 438 Introducing Standard Units 480
Density of Decimals 439 The Role of Estimation and Approximation 482
Contents 13
Length 485 Transformations 533

Comparison Activities 486 Line Symmetry 533
Using Physical Models of Length Units 487 Rigid Motions 534
Conversion 488 Congruence 536
Making and Using Rulers 489 Similarity 536
Area 491 Using Transformations and Symmetries 537
Comparison Activities 491 Location 538
Using Physical Models of Area Units 492 Measuring Distance on the Coordinate Plane 543
The Relationship between Area and Perimeter 494 Visualization 543
Developing Formulas for Area 496 Two-Dimensional Imagery 544
Areas of Rectangles, Parallelograms, Triangles, and Three-Dimensional Imagery 545
Trapezoids 497 The Platonic Solids 547
Circumference and Area of Circles 499
Volume and Capacity 500 Writing to Learn 548
Comparison Activities 500 For Discussion and Exploration 548
Using Physical Models of Volume and Capacity Units 502
Developing Formulas for Volumes of Common Solid Shapes 503
Weight and Mass 504 Recommended Readings 548
Comparison Activities 505
Using Physical Models of Weight or Mass Units 505
Angles 505
Comparison Activities 505 Chapter 21
Using Physical Models of Angular Measure Units 505 Developing Concepts of Data Analysis 550
Using Protractors 506
Time 507 What Does It Mean to Do Statistics? 551
Comparison Activities 507 Is It Statistics or Is It Mathematics? 551
Reading Clocks 507 The Shape of Data 552
Solving Problems with Time 508 The Process of Doing Statistics 553
Money 509 Formulating Questions 554
Recognizing Coins and Identifying Their Values 509 Classroom Questions 554
Beyond One Classroom 554
Writing to Learn 511 Data Collection 556
For Discussion and Exploration 511 Collecting Data 556
Using Existing Data Sources 558
Literature Connections 511 Data Analysis: Classification 558
Recommended Readings 511 Attribute Materials 559
Data Analysis: Graphical Representations 561
Creating Graphs 561
Analyzing Graphs 562
Chapter 20 Bar Graphs 562
Geometric Thinking and Geometric Pie Charts/Circle Graphs 564
Concepts 512 Continuous Data Graphs 565
Geometry Goals for Students 513 Bivariate Graphs 568
Developing Geometric Thinking 513 Data Analysis: Measures of Center and Variability 570
The van Hiele Levels of Geometric Thought 513 Measures of Center 571
Implications for Instruction 518 Understanding the Mean: Two Interpretations 571
Choosing a Measure of Center 575
Shapes and Properties 519
Variability 576
Sorting and Classifying 520
Composing and Decomposing Shapes 520 Interpreting Results 579
Categories of Two- and Three-Dimensional Shapes 523 Reflections on Chapter 21 580
Investigations, Conjectures, and the Development Writing to Learn 580
of Proof 529 For Discussion and Exploration 580
14 Contents
Resources for Chapter 21 581 Chapter 23

Literature Connections 581 Developing Concepts of Exponents, Integers, and
Recommended Readings 581 Real Numbers 606
Exponents 607
Exponents in Expressions and Equations 607
Chapter 22 Order of Operations 608
Exploring Concepts of Probability 582 Integer Exponents 612
Scientific Notation 613
Introducing Probability 583
Positive and Negative Numbers 616
Likely or Not Likely 583
Contexts for Exploring Positive and Negative
The Probability Continuum 587
Numbers 617
Theoretical Probability and Experiments 588 Meaning of Negative Numbers 619
Theoretical Probability 589 Models for Teaching Positive and Negative
Experiments 591 Numbers 620
Why Use Experiments? 594 Operations with Positive and Negative
Use of Technology in Experiments 594 Numbers 621
Sample Spaces and the Probability of Compound Events 595 Addition and Subtraction 621
Independent Events 595 Multiplication and Division 624
Area Representation 597 Real Numbers 627
Dependent Events 599 Rational Numbers 627
Simulations 600 Square Roots and Cube Roots 629
Common Misconceptions about Probability 602 Reflections on Chapter 23 630
Reflections on Chapter 22 604 Writing to Learn 630
Writing to Learn 604 For Discussion and Exploration 630
For Discussion and Exploration 604 Resources for Chapter 23 631
Resources for Chapter 22 604 Literature Connections 631
Literature Connections 604 Recommended Readings 631
Appendix A Standards for Mathematical Practice A-1

Appendix B NCTM Mathematics Teaching Practices: from Principles to Actions A-5
Appendix C Guide to Blackline Masters A-7
APPENDIX D Activities at a Glance A-13
References R-1
Index I-1
Credits C-1
Preface
All students can learn mathematics with understanding! It is through the teacher’s actions that
every student can have this experience. We believe that teachers must create a classroom envi-
ronment in which students are given opportunities to solve problems and work together, using
their ideas and strategies, to solve them. Effective mathematics instruction involves posing tasks
that engage students in the mathematics they are expected to learn. Then, by allowing students
to interact with and productively struggle with their own mathematical ideas and their own strat-
egies, they will learn to see the connections among mathematical topics and the real world.
Students value mathematics and feel empowered to use it.
Creating a classroom in which students design solution pathways, engage in productive
struggle, and connect one mathematical idea to another is complex. Questions arise, such as,
“How do I get students to wrestle with problems if they just want me to show them how to
do it? What kinds of tasks lend themselves to this type of engagement? Where can I learn the
mathematics content I need in order to be able to teach in this way?” With these and other
questions firmly in mind, we have several objectives in the ninth edition of this textbook:
1. Illustrate what it means to teach mathematics using a problem-based approach.
2. Serve as a go-to reference for all of the mathematics content suggested for grades pre-K–8
as recommended in the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) and in standards
used in other states, and for the research-based strategies that illustrate how students best
learn this content.
3. Present a practical resource of robust, problem-based activities and tasks that can engage
students in the use of significant mathematical concepts and skills.
4. Report on technology that makes teaching mathematics in a problem-based approach
more visible, including links to classroom videos and ready-to-use activity pages, and ref-
erences to quality websites.
We hope you will find that this is a valuable resource for teaching and learning mathematics!
New to this Edition

We briefly describe new features below, along with the substantive changes that we have made
since the eighth edition to reflect the changing landscape of mathematics education. The fol-
lowing are highlights of the most significant changes in the ninth edition.
Blackline Masters, Activity Pages and Teacher Resource Pages

More than 130 ready-to-use pages have been created to support the problems and Activities
throughout the book. By accessing the companion website, which lists the content by the
page number in the text, you can download these to practice teaching an activity or to use
with K–8 students in classroom settings. Some popular charts in the text have also been made
into printable resources and handouts such as reflection questions to guide culturally rele-
vant instruction.
Activities at a Glance
By popular demand, we have prepared a matrix (Appendix D) that lists all Section II activities,
the mathematics they develop, which CCSS standards they address, and the page where they
can be found. We believe you will find this an invaluable resource for planning instruction.
15
16 Preface
Self-Assessment Opportunities for the Reader

As we know, learners benefit from assessing their understanding along the way especially when
there is a large amount of content to comprehend. To support teacher learning, each chapter
begins with a set of learning outcomes that identify the goals of the chapter and link to Self-
Check quizzes. Self-Checks fall at the end of every major text section. Also, at the end of each
chapter the popular Writing to Learn section now has end-of-chapter questions.
Expanded Lessons
Every chapter in Section II has at least one Expanded Lesson linked to an Activity. You may
recognize some of these from the Field Experience Guide. These lessons focus on concepts
central to elementary and middle school mathematics and include (1) NCTM and CCSSO
grade-level recommendations, (2) adaptation suggestions for English language learners (ELLs)
and students with special needs, and (3) formative assessment suggestions.
Increased Focus on Common Core State Standards for

Mathematics and Mathematical Practices
What began in the eighth edition is even stronger in the ninth edition. The CCSS are described
in Chapter 1 along with other standards documents, and the Standards for Mathematical Prac-
tices are integrated into Chapter 2. In Section II, CCSS references are embedded in the text
and every Activity lists the CCSS content that can be developed in that Activity. Standards for
Mathematical Practice margin notes identify text content that shows what these practices look
like in classroom teaching.
Reorganization and Enhancement to Section I

If you are a seasoned user of this book, you will immediately note that Chapters 2 through 4
are dramatically different. Chapter 2 has Activity Pages for each of the tasks presented and the
chapter has been reorganized to move theory to the end. Chapter 3 now focuses exclusively on
worthwhile tasks and classroom discourse, with merged and enhanced discussion of problems
and worthwhile tasks; the three-phase lesson plan format (before, during, and after) has been
moved to the beginning of Chapter 4. Chapter 4, the planning chapter, also underwent addi-
tional, major revisions that include (1) adding in the lesson plan format, (2) offering a refined
process for planning a lesson (now eight steps, not ten), and (3) stronger sections on differen-
tiating instruction and involving families. Chapter 4 discussions about ELLs and students with
special needs have been moved and integrated into Chapter 6. Chapter 7, on technology, no
longer has content-specific topics but rather a stronger focus on emerging technologies. Con-
tent chapters now house technology sections as appropriate.
Preface 17
Major Changes to Specific Chapters

Basic Facts (Chapter 10)
There are three major changes to this chapter. First, there is a much stronger focus on assessing
basic facts. This section presents the risks of using timed tests and presents a strong collection
of alternative assessment ideas. Second, chapter discussions pose a stronger developmental
focus. For example, the need to focus first on foundational facts before moving to derived facts
is shared. Third, there is a shift from a focus on mastery to a focus on fluency (as described in
CCSS and in the research).
Developing Strategies for Addition and Subtraction

(Chapters 11 and 12)
In previous editions there was a blurry line between Chapter 11 on place value and Chapter 12,
which explored how to teach students to add and subtract. Although these topics overlap in
many ways, we wanted to make it easier to find the appropriate content and corresponding
activities. So, many components formerly in Chapter 11 (those that were explicitly about strat-
egies for computing) have been shifted to Chapter 12 on addition and subtraction. This resulted
in 15 more activities in Chapter 12, seven of which are new.
Fraction Operations (Chapter 16)

Using learning trajectories and a developmental approach, the discussion of how to develop
meaning for each operation has been expanded. For example, the operation situations presented
in Chapter 9 are now connected in Chapter 16 to rational numbers. In particular, multiplication
and division have received much more attention, including more examples and activities. These
changes are in response to the many requests for more support in this area!
Developing Concepts of Data Analysis (Chapter 21)

Look for several important changes in Chapter 21. There are 12 new activities that empha-
size topics in CCSS. There also is more discussion on the shape of data, variability, and
distribution. And, there is a notable increase in middle grades content including attention
to dot plots, sampling, bivariate graphs, and, at the suggestion of reviewers, mean absolute
deviation (MAD).
Additional Important Chapter-Specific Changes

The following substantive changes (not mentioned above) include
Chapter 1: Information about the new NCTM Principles to Actions publication with a
focus on the eight guiding principles
Chapter 2: A revised and enhanced Doing Mathematics section and Knowing
Mathematics section
Chapter 3: A new section on Adapting Tasks (to create worthwhile tasks) and new tasks
and new authentic student work
Chapter 4: Open and parallel tasks added as ways to differentiate
Chapter 5: A more explicit development of how to use translation tasks to assess
students’ conceptual understanding
Chapter 6: Additional emphasis on multi-tiered systems of support including a variety
of interventions
18 Preface
Chapter 7: Revisions reflect current software, tools, and digital apps as well as resources
to support teacher reflection and collaboration
Chapter 8: Addition of Wright’s progression of children’s understanding of the number
10 and content from the findings from the new Background Research for the National
Governor’s Association Center Project on Early Mathematics
Chapter 9: An expanded alignment with the problem types discussed in the CCSS
document
Chapter 13: Expanded discussion of the written records of computing multiplication
and division problems including lattice multiplication, open arrays, and partial quotients
Chapter 14: A reorganization to align with the three strands of algebraic thinking;
a revamped section on Structure of the Number System with more examples of the
connection between arithmetic and algebra; an increased focus on covariation and
inequalities and a decreased emphasis on graphs and repeating patterns, consistent with
the emphasis in CCSS
Chapter 15: Many fun activities added (with manipulatives such as Play-Doh, Legos,
and elastic); expanded to increase emphasis on CCSS content, including emphasis on
number lines and iteration
Chapter 17: Chart on common misconceptions including descriptions and examples
Chapter 18: Major changes to the Strategies section, adding tape diagrams and
expanding the section on double number lines; increased attention to graphing ratios
and proportions
Chapter 19: An increased focus on converting units in the same measurement system,
perimeter, and misconceptions common to learning about area; added activities that
explore volume and capacity
Chapter 20: The shift in organizational focus to the four major geometry topics
from the precise van Hiele level (grouping by all level 1 components), now centered
on moving students from level to level using a variety of experiences within a given
geometry topic
Chapter 22: Major changes to activities and figures, an expanded focus on common
misconceptions, and increased attention to the models emphasized in CCSS-M (dot
plots, area representations, tree diagrams)
Chapter 23: A new section on developing symbol sense, expanded section on order of
operations, and many new activities
What You Will Find in This Book

If you look at the table of contents, you will see that the chapters are separated into two distinct
sections. The first section consists of seven chapters and covers important ideas that cross the
boundaries of specific areas of content. The second section, consisting of 16 chapters, offers
teaching suggestions and activities for every major mathematics topic in the pre-K–8 curricu-
lum. Chapters in Section I offer perspectives on the challenging task of helping students learn
mathematics. Having a feel for the discipline of mathematics—that is, to know what it means
to “do mathematics”—is critical to learning how to teach mathematics well. In addition, under-
standing constructivist and sociocultural perspectives on learning mathematics and how they
are applied to teaching through problem solving provides a foundation and rationale for how
to teach and assess pre-K–8 students.
You will be teaching diverse students including students who are English language learn-
ers, are gifted, or have disabilities. In this text, you will learn how to apply instructional strate-
gies in ways that support and challenge all learners. Formative assessment strategies, strategies
for diverse learners, and effective use of technological tools are addressed in specific chapters
in Section I (Chapters 5, 6, and 7, respectively), and throughout Section II chapters.
Preface 19
Each chapter of Section II focuses on one of the major content areas in pre-K–8 mathe-
matics curriculum. It begins with identifying the big ideas for that content, and also provides
guidance on how students best learn that content through many problem-based activities to
engage them in understanding mathematics. Reflecting on the activities as you read can help
you think about the mathematics from the perspective of the student. As often as possible, take
out pencil and paper and try the problems so that you actively engage in your learning about
students learning mathematics. In so doing, we are hopeful that this book will increase your own
understanding of mathematics, the students you teach, and how to teach them well.
Some Special Features of This Text

By flipping through the book, you will notice many section headings, a large number of figures,
and various special features. All are designed to make the book more useful as a long-term
resource. Here are a few things to look for.
Developing Fraction Concepts
15
Chapter
Learner OutCOmes
◀ Learning Outcomes [NEW]
After reading this chapter and engaging in the embedded activities and reflections, you should be
able to:
15.1 Describe and give examples for fractions constructs.
To help readers know what they should expect to learn,
15.2 Name the types of fractions models and describe activities for each.
each chapter begins with learning outcomes. Self-

15.3 Explain foundational concepts of fractional parts, including iteration and partitioning,
and connect these ideas to CCSS-M expectations.
checks
15.4 Illustrate examples across fraction models for developing the concept are numbered to cover and thus align with each
of equivalence.
15.5 Compare fractions in a variety of ways and describe ways to teach this topic conceptually.
15.6 Synthesize how to effectively teach fraction concepts. learning outcome.
F ractions are one of the most important topics students need to understand in order to be
successful in algebra and beyond, yet it is an area in which U.S. students struggle. NAEP
test results have consistently shown that students have a weak understanding of fraction con-
cepts (Sowder & Wearne, 2006; Wearne & Kouba, 2000). This lack of understanding is then
translated into difficulties with fraction computation, decimal and percent concepts, and the
use of fractions in other content areas, particularly algebra (Bailey, Hoard, Nugent, & Geary,
2012; Brown & Quinn, 2007; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Therefore, it is
absolutely critical that you teach fractions well, present fractions as interesting and important,
and commit to helping students understand the big ideas.
◀ Big Ideas
Big IDEAS Much of the research and literature espousing a
For students to really understand fractions, they must experience fractions across many
student-centered approach suggests that teachers plan
◆◆
constructs, including part of a whole, ratios, and division.
their instruction around big ideas rather than isolated

1
◆◆ Three categories of models exist for working with fractions—area (e.g., of a garden),
3
3 1
length (e.g., of an inch), and set or quantity (e.g., of the class).
4 2
◆◆
skills
Partitioning and iterating are ways for students to understand the meaning or concepts. At the beginning of each chapter in
of fractions,
especially numerators and denominators.
◆◆ Section
Equal sharing is a way to build on whole-number knowledge to introduce II, you will find a list of the key mathematical
fractional amounts.
Equivalent fractions are ways of describing the same amount by using different-sized
ideas associated with the chapter. Teachers find these
◆◆
fractional parts.
◆◆
lists helpful
Fractions can be compared by reasoning about the relative size of the fractions. Estimation
and reasoning are important in teaching understanding of fractions.
to quickly envision the mathematics they
are to teach.
339
M15_VAND8930_09_SE_C15.indd 339 12/4/14 2:58 PM

20 Preface
106 Chapter 6 Teaching Mathematics Equitably to All Children
You may decide instead to break the shape up into two rectangles and ask the student to find
the area of each shape and combine. Then have the student attempt the next shape without the
modification—you should always lead back to the original task. However, if you decide to begin
with rectangular regions and build to compound shapes composed of rectangles, you have scaf-
folded the lesson in a way to ramp up to the original task. In planning accommodations and mod-
ifications, the goal is to enable each student to successfully reach your learning objectives, not to
Self-Check Prompts [NEW] ▶ change the objectives. This is how equity is achieved—by reaching equal outcomes, not by equal
treatment. Treating students the same when they each learn differently does not make sense.
Complete an accommodation or Modification Needs table to reflect on how you will
plan for students in your classroom who have special needs. Record the evidence that you are
To help readers self-assess what they adapting the learning situation.
have just read, a self-check prompt Complete Self-Check 6.1: Mathematics for all Students
is offered at the end of each signif-

Providing for students Who struggle and
icant text section. After answering Those with special needs
these quiz questions online and One of the basic tenets of education is the need for individualizing the content taught and the
methods used for students who struggle, particularly those with special needs. Mathematics
submitting their responses, users can learning disabilities are best thought of as cognitive differences, not cognitive deficits (Lewis,
2014). Students with disabilities often have mandated individualized education programs (IEPs)
review feedback on what the correct that guarantee access to grade-level mathematics content—in a general education classroom,
if possible. This legislation also implies that educators consider individual learning needs not
response is (and why). only in terms of what mathematics is taught but also how it is taught.
Prevention Models
In many areas, a systematic process for achieving higher levels performance for all students
includes a multitiered system of support frequently called response to intervention (RtI). This
approach commonly emphasizes ways for struggling students to get immediate assistance and
support rather than waiting to fail before they receive help. Multitiered models are centered on
the three interwoven elements: high-quality curriculum, instructional support (interventions),
and formative assessments that capture students’ strengths and weaknesses. These models were
designed to determine whether low achievement was due to a lack of high-quality mathematics
(i.e., “teacher-disabled students”) (Baroody, 2011; Ysseldyke, 2002) or due to an actual learning
disability. They can also help determine more intensive instructional options for students who
may need to have advanced mathematical challenges beyond what other students study.
Connecting Fractions
response 409
and Decimals rtI (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nkK1bT8ls0M)
to Intervention. is
a multitiered student support system that is often represented in a triangular format. As you
might guess, there are a variety of RtI models developed by school systems as they structure
Activity 17.2 their unique approaches to students’ needs.
CCSS- M: 4.NF.C.6; 5.NBt.a.1; 5.NBt.a.2; 5.NBt.a.3a
◀ Adaptations for Students
As you move up the tiers, the number of students involved decreases, the teacher–student
ratio decreases, and the level of intervention increases. Each tier in the triangle represents a level
Shifting Units of intervention with corresponding monitoring of results and outcomes, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Give students a collection of paper base-ten pieces created from Base-ten Materials, or base-ten blocks. ask with Disabilities and English
The foundational and largest portion of the triangle (tier 1) represents the core instruction that
should be used with all students based on a high-quality mathematics curriculum and instructional
Language Learners
them to pull out a particular mix—for example, a student might have three squares, sevenpractices
strips, and four engLisH
(i.e., manipulatives, conceptual emphasis, etc.) and on progress monitoring assessments.
Language
“tinies.” tell students that you have the unit behind your back; when you show it to them, they are to figure
For example, if usingout
a graphic organizer in tier 1 core math instruction, the following high-qual-
Learners
how much they have and to record the value. hold up one of the units. Observe what students ity practices
recordwould be expected in the three phases of the lesson—before, during, and after:
as their
value. ask students to accurately say their quantity aloud. For eLLs and students with disabilities,
• Before:
needed prior(and
particularly important that you write these labels with the visuals in a prominent place in the classroom
Chapter 6 provides detailed back-
it isStates lesson purpose, introduces new vocabulary, clarifies concepts from
knowledge in a visual organizer, and defines tasks of group members
(if groups are being used)
in student notebooks) so that they can refer to the terminology and illustrations as they participate in the
activity. repeat several times. Be sure to include examples in which a piece is not represented so that students stuDents
ground and strategies for how to
will understand decimal values like 3.07. Continue playing in partners with one student selecting a mix of
with
sPeCiaL
neeDs
support students with disabilities and
base-ten pieces and the other student deciding which one is the unit and writing and saying the number.
English language learners (ELLs). But,
▲ Activities M06_VAND8930_09_SE_C06.indd 106
many adaptations are specific to a 05/12/14 12:16 AM
The Length
numerous models. found
activities One of thein
bestevery chapter
length models offractions
for decimal Section II stick. Each
is a meter
decimeter is one-tenth of the whole stick, each centimeter is one-hundredth, and each milli-
particular activity or task. Therefore,
have always been rated
meter is one- by readers
thousandth. Any number-lineasmodel
onebroken
of the most
into 100 subparts is likewise a useful Section II chapters offer activities
model for hundredths.
valuable parts of the book. Some activity ideas are are also useful in help-
Empty number lines like those used in whole-number computation (look for the icon) that can meet the
ing students compare decimals and think about scale and place value (Martinie, 2014). Given
described directly in decimals,
two or more the text and
students in anthe
can use illustrations.
empty Others
number line to position the values, revealing needs of exceptional students includ-
what they know about the size of these decimals using zero, one-half, one, other whole num-
are presented inor the
bers, numbered
other decimal ActivityAboxes.
values as benchmarks. large number Every activity
line stretched across a wall or on ing specific instructions with adapta-
the floor can be an excellent tool for exploring decimals.
is a problem-based task (as described in Chapter 3) and is tions directly within the Activities.
set models. Many teachers use money as a model for decimals, and to some extent this is
designed to engage students
helpful. However, for students,inmoney
doing mathematics.
is almost exclusively a two-place system and is nonpro-
portional (e.g., one-tenth, a dime, does not physically compare to a dollar in that proportion.).
Numbers like 3.2 or 12.1389 do not relate to money and can cause confusion (Martinie, 2007).
Students’ initial contact with decimals should be more flexible, and so money is not recom-
mended as an initial model for decimals, although it is certainly an important application of
decimal numeration.
multiple names and Formats

We acquaint students with the various visual models to help students flexibly think of
196 frac-
quantities in terms of tenths and hundredths, and to learn to read and write decimal chapter 10 Developing Basic Fact Fluency
65
tions in different ways. Have students model a decimal fraction, say 100 , and then explore
the following ideas: Formative assessment Notes. When are students ready to work on reasoning strat-
egies? When they are able to (1) use counting-on strategies (start with the largest and
• Is this fraction more or less than 12 ? Than 23 ? Than 34 ? Some familiarity with decimal count up) and (2) see that numbers can be decomposed (e.g., that 6 is 5 + 1). Interview stu-
Formative Assessment Notes ▶

fractions can be developed by comparison with fractions that are easy to think about. dents by posing one-digit addition problems and ask how they solved it. For example, 3 + 8
• What are some different ways to say this fraction using tenths and hundredths? (Do they count on from the larger?) and 5 + 6 (Do they see 5 + 5 + 1?). For multiplication,
(“6 tenths and 5 hundredths,” “65 hundredths”) Include thousandths when appropriate. 3 * 8 (Do they know this is 3 eights? Do they see it as 2 eights and one more eight?). ■
65 6 5
• Show two ways to write this fraction (100 or 10 + 100 ).
Assessment should be an integral part of Complete Self-Check 10.1: Developmental phases for Learning the Basic Facts
Notice that decimals are usually read as a single value. That is, 0.65 is read “sixty-five hun-
instruction. Similarly, it makes sense to think
dredths.” But to understand them in terms of place value, the same number must be thought of
13
as 6 tenths and 5 hundredths. A mixed number such as 5 100 is usually read the same way as a
about what to be listening for (assessing)
decimal: 5.13 is “five and thirteen-hundredths.” Please note that it is accurate to use the word
teaching and assessing the Basic Facts
“and,” which represents the decimal point. For purposes of place value, it should also be under-
as you read about different areas of content
stood as 5 + 101 3
+ 100 . Making these expanded forms with base-ten materials will be helpful in
This section describes the different ways basic fact instruction has been implemented in schools,
followed by a section describing effective strategies.
translating fractions to decimals, which is the focus of Activity 17.3.
development. Throughout the content chap- Different approaches to teaching the Basic Facts
ters, there are formative assessment notes Over the last century, three main approaches have been used to teach the basic facts. The pros
and cons of each approach are briefly discussed in this section.
with brief descriptions of ways to assess memorization. This approach moves from presenting concepts of addition and multipli-
cation straight to memorization of facts, not devoting time to developing strategies (Baroody,
the topic in that section. Reading these Bajwa, & Eiland, 2009). This approach requires students to memorize 100 separate addition
facts (just for the addition combinations 0–9) and 100 multiplication facts (0–9). Students may
assessment notes as you read the text can
M17_VAND8930_09_SE_C17.indd 409
even have to memorize subtraction and division separately—bringing the total to over 300
12/5/14
isolated facts! There 8:29 AM evidence that this method simply does not work. You may be
is strong
also help you understand how best to assist tempted to respond that you learned your facts in this manner; however, as long ago as 1935
studies concluded that students develop a variety of strategies for learning basic facts in spite
of the amount of isolated drill that they experience (Brownell & Chazal, 1935).
struggling students. A memorization approach does not help students develop strategies that could help them
master their facts. Baroody (2006) points out three limitations:
• Inefficiency. There are too many facts to memorize.
• Inappropriate applications. Students misapply the facts and don’t check their work.
• Inflexibility. Students don’t learn flexible strategies for finding the sums (or products) and
therefore continue to count by ones.
Notice that a memorization approach works against the development of fluency (which includes
being able to flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately solve problems). According to
CCSS-M, students should have fluency with addition and subtraction facts (0–9) by the end
of second grade and fluency with multiplication and division facts by the end of third grade
In second grade a picture or bar graph can be made with one bar per student. However, is
it the best way to showcase the data in order to analyze it? If the data were instead categorized
by number of pockets, then a graph showing the number of students with two pockets, three
pockets, and so on will illustrate which number of pockets is most common and how the num-
ber of pockets varies across the class.
In sixth grade, a dot plot (also called a line plot) could be used to illustrate the spread and
shape of the data. Or a histogram can be created to capture how many students fall within a
range of songs listened to (e.g., between 0 and 10, 11 and 20, etc.). Or a box plot can be cre-
21
Preface
ated, boxing in the middle 50 percent to focus attention on the center of the data as well as
the range. Each of these displays gives a different snapshot of the data and provides different
insights into the question posed.
Creating graphs
Students should be involved in deciding how they want to represent their data, but they will
need to be introduced to what the options are and when each display can and cannot be used.
The value of having students actually construct their own graphs is not so much that they
learn the techniques, but that they are personally invested in the data and that they learn how
a graph conveys information. Once a graph is constructed, the most important activity is dis-
cussing what it tells the people who see it. Analyzing data that are numerical (number of pock-
◀ Standards for Mathematical Practice
ets) versus categorical (color of socks) is an added challenge for students as they struggle to
make sense of the graphs (Russell, 2006). If, for example, the graph has seven stickers above the
standards for
Margin Notes [NEW]
five, students may think that five people have seven pockets or seven people have five pockets. mathematical
Creating graphs requires care and precision, including determining appropriate scales and
labels. But the reason for the precision is so that an audience is able to see at a glance the sum-
Practice
mP6. Attend to precision. Connections to the eight Standards of Mathemati-
mary of the data gathered on a particular question.
standards for
cal Practice from the Common Core State Stan-
Technology Note. Computer programs and graphing calculators can provide a variety
of graphical displays. Use the time saved by technology to focus on the discussions about
the information that each display provides! Students can make their own selections from among
mathematical
Practice dards are highlighted in the margins. The location
mP5. Use appropriate
different graphs and justify their choice based on their own intended purposes. The graphing
calculator puts data analysis technology in the hands of every student. The TI-73 calculator is
tools strategically. of the note indicates an example of the identified
designed for middle-grade students. It will produce eight different kinds of plots or graphs, in-
cluding pie charts, bar graphs, and picture graphs, and will compute and graph lines of best fit. practice in the nearby text.
The Internet also offers opportunities to explore different graphs. Create a Graph (NCES Kids
M21_VAND8930_09_SE_C21.indd 537
▲ Technology Notes 12/5/14 8:53 AM
Infusing technological tools is important in learning mathematics, as you will learn in

Chapter 7. We have infused technology notes throughout Section II. A technology icon is
used to identify places within the text or activity where a technology idea or resource is
discussed. Descriptions include open-source (free) software, applets, and other Web-based
resources, as well as ideas for calculator use.
192 chapter 9 Developing Meanings for the Operations
reFLectiOns ON CHAPTER 9
Writing tO Learn FOr DiscussiOn anD exPLOratiOn
Click here to assess your understanding and application of ◆◆ The National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008)
chapter content. deemed number properties as a critical foundation for
◀ End of Chapter Resources

1. Make up a compare story problem. Alter the problem school mathematics. What is the importance of stu-
to provide examples of all six different possibilities for dents learning the underlying principles of the fun-
compare problems. damental properties of the operations (commutative,
2. Explain how missing-part activities prepare students for associative, distributive, etc.)? How does this knowl-
mastering subtraction facts. The end of each chapter includes two major subsections: Reflections, which includes
edge prepare students for making generalizations and
thereby develop their ability to reason algebraically?
3. Make up multiplication story problems to illustrate the
difference between equal groups and multiplicative com- “Writing
See howto
◆◆
Learn”
many different and “For structures
story problem Discussion and Exploration,” and Resources, which includes
parison. Then create a story problem involving rates, (including unknowns in all positions) you can find in a
area or arrays. “Literature Connections”
textbook. In the primary grades, look for (found
join, separate,in all Section II chapters) and “Recommended Readings.”
4. Why is the use of key words not a good strategy to teach part-part-whole, and compare problems. For grades 3
and up, look for multiplicative structures. Are the vari-
children?
Writing to structures
ous problem Learnwith[ENHANCED].
unknowns in all positions Questions are provided that help you reflect on the
well represented?
important pedagogical ideas related to the content in the chapter. Actually writing out the
answers to these questions in your own words, or talking about them with peers, is one
of the best ways for you to develop your understanding of each chapter’s main ideas.
resOurces FOR CHAPTER 9
For Discussion and Exploration. These questions ask you to explore an issue related to
Literature cOnnectiOns that chapter’s
The first content,
tells the tale of 100 ants on a applying
trip to a picnic. what you have learned. For example, questions may ask
In an attempt to speed their travel, the ants move from a
There are many books with stories or pictures concerning
collections, the purchase of items, measurements, and so on you to reflect on classroom
single-file of 100 to two rows of 50, then
observations, analyze curriculum materials, or take a position
four rows of 25,
that can be used to pose problems or, better, to stimulate chil- and so forth. This story uses visual representation of arrays
dren to invent their own problems. Perhaps the most widely on controversial issues. We hope that these questions will stimulate thought and cause
and students can be given different sizes of ant groups to
mentioned book in this context is The Doorbell Rang by Pat explore factors and products. The second book describes
the trials and tribulations of a parade formation of 25 bugs.
Hutchins (1986). You can check that one out yourself, as well spirited
as the following suggestions. As the queen conversations.
views the rectangular outline of the parading
bugs, she notices that 1 bug is trailing behind. The group
tries to create different numbers of rows and columns (ar-
Bedtime Math Overdeck (2013) Literature Connections.
rays), but again 1 bug Section
is always a “leftover” (remainder). Stu- II chapters contain great children’s literature for launch-
This book (and accompanying website) is the author’s at- dents can be given different parade groups and can generate
tempt to get parents to incorporate math problems into the
nighttime (or daytime) routine. There are three levels of dif-
ing into that
formations thewillmathematics
leave 1, 2, or none out ofconcepts
the group. in the chapter just read. For each title suggested,
Watch a remainder of One (https://www.youtube.com/
ficulty, starting with problems for “wee ones” (pre-K), “lit-
tle kids” (K–2), and “big kids” (grade 2 and up). Each set of
there is a brief description of how the mathematics concepts in the chapter can be con-
watch?v=s4zsaoAlMpM).
problems revolves around a high-interest topic such as roller

coasters, foods, and animals. Teachers can use these problems
nected
recOMMenDeD to the story. reaDings These literature-based mathematics activities will help you engage
in class for engaging students in all four operations.
students
articles in interesting contexts for doing mathematics.
Clement, L., & Bernhard, J. (2005). A problem solving alterna-
One Hundred Hungry ants Pinczes (1999) View
tive to using key words. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle
One hundred angry ants (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kmdSUHPwJtc) Recommended
School, 10(7), 360–365. Readings. In this section, you will find an annotated list of articles and
This article explores the use of sense making in solving word
a remainder of One Pinczes (2002) books
problemstoas aaugment the
replacement for using a keyinformation
word strategy. The found in the chapter. These recommendations include
These two books, written by a grandmother for her grand- emphasis is on the meanings of the operations as common student
child, help students explore multiplication and division. NCTM articles
misconceptions and books, and other professional resources designed for the classroom
are analyzed.
teacher. (In addition to the Recommended Readings, there is a References list at the end
of the book for all sources cited within the chapters.)
M09_VAND8930_09_SE_C09.indd 192 04/12/14 7:34 PM
22 Preface
Supplements for Instructors

Qualified college adopters can contact their Pearson sales representatives for information on
ordering any of the supplements described below. These instructor supplements are all posted
and available for download (click on Educators) from the Pearson Instructor Resource Center
at www.pearsonglobaleditions.com/vandewalle. The IRC houses the following:
• Instructor’s Resource Manual The Instructor’s Resource Manual for the ninth edition
includes a wealth of resources designed to help instructors teach the course, including
chapter notes, activity suggestions, and suggested assessment and test questions.
• Electronic Test Bank An electronic test bank (TB) contains hundreds of challenging
questions as multiple-choice or short-answer questions. Instructors can choose from
these questions and create their own customized exams.
• PowerPoint™ Presentation Ideal for instructors to use for lecture presentations or
student handouts, the PowerPoint presentation provides ready-to-use graphics and text
images tied to the individual chapters and content development of the text.
Acknowledgments
Many talented people have contributed to the success of this book, and we are deeply grateful
to all those who have assisted over the years. Without the success of the first edition, there
would certainly not have been a second, much less nine editions. The following people worked
closely with John on the first edition, and he was sincerely indebted to Warren Crown, John
Dossey, Bob Gilbert, and Steven Willoughby, who gave time and great care in offering detailed
comments on the original manuscript.
In preparing this ninth edition, we have received thoughtful input from the following
mathematics teacher educators who offered comments on the eighth edition or on the man-
uscript for the ninth. Each reviewer challenged us to think through important issues. Many
specific suggestions have found their way into this book, and their feedback helped us focus on
important ideas. Thank you to Jessica Cohen, Western Washington University; Shea Mosely
Culpepper, University of Houston; Shirley Dissler, High Point University; Cynthia Gautreau,
California State University in Fullerton; Kevin LoPresto, Radford University; Ryan Nivens,
East Tennessee State University; Adrienne Redmond-Sanogo, Oklahoma State University;
and Douglas Roebuck, Ball State University. We are indebted to you for your dedicated and
professional insight.
We received constant and valuable support and advice from colleagues at Pearson. We are
privileged to work with our development editor, Linda Bishop, whose positive demeanor and
upbeat responses on even the tightest of deadlines was most appreciated. Linda consistently
offered us sound advice and much encouragement. We are also fortunate to work with Mer-
edith Fossel, who has helped us define the direction of this edition, and helped us with the
important decisions that would make the book a better product for pre-service and in-service
teachers. We also wish to thank the production and editing team at MPS North America LLC,
in particular Katie Watterson, who carefully and conscientiously assisted in preparing this
edition for publication. Finally, our sincere thanks goes to Elizabeth Todd Brown, who helped
write some of the ancillary materials.
We would each like to thank our families for their many contributions and support. On
behalf of John, we thank his wife, Sharon, who was John’s biggest supporter and a sounding
board as he wrote the first six editions of this book. We also recognize his daughters, Bridget (a
fifth-grade teacher in Chesterfield County, Virginia) and Gretchen (an associate professor of
psychology and associate dean for undergraduate education at Rutgers University–Newark).
They were John’s first students, and he tested many ideas that are in this book by their sides.
We can’t forget those who called John “Math Grandpa”: his granddaughters, Maggie, Aidan,
and Gracie.
Preface 23
From Karen Karp: I would like to express thanks to my husband, Bob Ronau, who as a
mathematics educator graciously helped me think about decisions while offering insights
and encouragement. In addition, I thank my children, Matthew, Tammy, Joshua, Misty, Matt,
Christine, Jeffrey, and Pamela for their kind support and inspiration. I also am grateful for my
wonderful grandchildren, Jessica, Zane, Madeline, Jack and Emma, who have helped deepen
my understanding about how children think.
From Jennifer Bay-Williams: I am forever grateful to my supportive and patient husband,
Mitch Williams. My children, MacKenna (12 years) and Nicolas (9 years), along with their
peers and teachers, continue to help me think more deeply about mathematics teaching and
learning. My parents, siblings, nieces, and nephews have all provided support to the writing of
this edition.
Most importantly, we thank all the teachers and students who gave of themselves by as-
sessing what worked and what didn’t work in the many iterations of this book. In particular
for the ninth edition, we thank teachers who generously tested activities and provided student
work for us: Kimberly Clore, Kim George, and Kelly Eaton. We continue to seek suggestions
from teachers who use this book so please email us at teachingdevelopmentally@gmail.com
with any advice, ideas, or insights you would like to share.
Pearson would like to thank the following people for their work on the Global Edition:
Contributor:
Somitra Kumar Sanadhya, C.R. Rao Advanced Institute for Mathematical Sciences
Reviewers:
Santanu Bhowmik, Pathways World School, Aravali
Pranab Sarma, Assam Engineering College
B.R. Shankar, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal
This page intentionally left blank
Teaching Mathematics
1
Chapter
in the 21st Century

Learner Outcomes
After reading this chapter and engaging in the embedded activities and reflections, you should be
able to:
1.1 Summarize the factors that influence the teaching of mathematics.

1.2 Describe the important documents that are a part of the movement toward a set of
shared expectations for students.
1.3 Explore the qualities needed to learn and grow as a professional teacher of
mathematics.
S omeday soon you will find yourself in front of a class of students, or perhaps you are already
teaching. What general ideas will guide the way you will teach mathematics? This book will
help you become comfortable with the mathematics content of the pre-K–8 curriculum. You will
also learn about research-based strategies for helping students come to know mathematics and
be confident in their ability to do mathematics.These two things—your knowledge of mathemat-
ics and how students learn mathematics—are the most important tools you can acquire to be
successful.
Becoming an Effective Teacher of Mathematics

Before we get started, think back to when you were in pre-K–8 classrooms as a student. What
are your remembrances of learning mathematics? Here are some thoughts from in-service and
pre-service teachers of whom we asked the same question. Which description do you resonate
with?
I was really good at math in lower elementary grades, but because I never understood
why math works, it made it very difficult to embrace the concepts as I moved into higher
grades. I started believing I wasn’t good at math so I didn’t get too upset when my grades
reflected that. Kathryn
As a student I always felt lost during mathematics instruction. It was as if everyone
around me had a magic key or code that I missed out on getting. Tracy
I remember math being very challenging, intimidating, and capable of making me
literally sick to my stomach. Math was a bunch of rules and formulas I was expected
to memorize, but not to understand. Mary Rebekah
25
26 Chapter 1 Teaching Mathematics in the 21st Century
I consider myself to be really good at math and I enjoy mathematics-related activities,

but I often wonder if I would have been GREAT at math and had a completely different
career if I cared about math as much as I do now. Sometimes I feel robbed. April
Math went from engaging, interactive instruction that I excelled at and loved, to lecture-style
instruction that I struggled with. I could not seek outside help, even though I tried, because
the teacher’s way was so different from the way of the people trying to help me. I went from
getting all As to getting low Bs and Cs without knowing how the change happened.
Janelle
Math class was full of elimination games where students were pitted against each other
to see who could answer a math fact the fastest. Because I have a good memory I did
well, but I hated every moment. It was such a nerve-wracking experience and for the
longest time that is what I thought math was. Lawrence
Math was never a problem because it was logical, everything made sense. Tova
As you can see these memories run the gamut with an array of emotions and experiences. The
question now becomes, what do you hope your students will say as they think back to your
mathematics instruction? The challenge is to get all of your students to learn mathematics
with understanding and enthusiasm. Would you relish hearing your students, fifteen years after
leaving your classroom, state that you encouraged them to be mathematically minded, curious
about solving new problems, self-motivated, able to critically think about both correct and
incorrect strategies, and that you nurtured them to be a risk takers willing to try and persevere
on challenging tasks? What will your legacy be?
As part of your personal desire to build successful learners of mathematics, you might
recognize the challenge that mathematics is sometimes seen as the subject that people love
to hate. At social events of all kinds—even at parent–teacher conferences—other adults will
respond to the fact that you are a teacher of mathematics with comments such as “I could
never do math,” or “I can’t even balance my checking account.” Instead of dismissing these
disclosures, consider what positive action you can take. Would people confide that they don’t
read and hadn’t read a book in years? That is not likely. Families’ and teachers’ attitudes toward
mathematics may enhance or detract from students’ ability to do math. It is important for you
and for students’ families to know that mathematics ability is not inherited—anyone can learn
mathematics. Moreover, learning mathematics is an essential life skill. You need to find ways of
countering these statements, especially if they are stated in the presence of students, pointing
out that it is a myth that only some people can be successful in learning mathematics. Only in
that way can the chain of passing apprehension from family member to child, or in rare cases
teacher to student, be broken. There is much joy to be had in solving mathematical problems,
and you need to model this excitement and nurture that passion in your students.
Your students need to ultimately think of themselves as mathematicians in the same way as
many of them think of themselves as readers. As students interact with our increasingly math-
ematical and technological world, they need to construct, modify, communicate or integrate
new information in many forms. Solving novel problems and approaching circumstances with
a mathematical perspective should come as naturally as reading new materials to comprehend
facts, insights, or news. Consider how important this is to interpreting and successfully surviv-
ing in our economy and in our environment.
The goal of this book is to help you understand the mathematics methods that will make
you an effective teacher. As you dig into the information your vision and confidence will grow.
A Changing World
In his book The World Is Flat (2007), Thomas Friedman discusses the need for people to have
skills that are lasting and will survive the ever-changing landscape of available jobs. These are
specific categories within a larger group that are called “untouchables” as regardless of the shift-
ing landscape of job options—they will be successful in finding jobs. He is the one who defined
these broad categories—such as math lover. Friedman points out that in a world that is digitized
A Changing World 27
and surrounded by algorithms, math lovers will always have career opportunities and options.
This is important as science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) jobs, because of a skills
gap, take more than twice as long to fill as other jobs in the marketplace (Rothwell, 2014). This
is also aligned with the thinkers who believe students need to not just be college ready but inno-
vation ready (Wagner, 2012).
Now it becomes the job of every teacher of mathematics to prepare students with skills for
potential careers and develop a “love of math” in students. Lynn Arthur Steen, a well-known
mathematician and educator, stated, “As information becomes ever more quantitative and as
society relies increasingly on computers and the data they produce, an innumerate citizen
today is as vulnerable as the illiterate peasant of Gutenberg’s time” (1997, p. xv).
The changing world influences what should be taught in pre-K–8 mathematics classrooms.
As we prepare pre-K–8 students for jobs that possibly do not currently exist, we can predict
that there are few jobs for people where they just do simple computation. We can also predict
that there will be work that requires interpreting complex data, designing algorithms to make
predictions, and using the ability to approach new problems in a variety of ways.
As you prepare to help students learn mathematics for the future, it is important to have
some perspective on the forces that effect change in the mathematics classroom. This chap-
ter addresses the leadership that you, the teacher, will develop as you shape the mathematics
experience for your students. Your beliefs about what it means to know and do mathematics
and about how students make sense of mathematics will affect how you approach instruction
and the understandings and skills your students take from the classroom.
Factors to Consider
For more than two decades, mathematics education has constantly undergone change. There
have been significant reforms that reflect the technological and informational needs of our
society, research on how students learn mathematics, the importance of providing opportunities
to learn for all students, and ideas on how and what to teach from an international perspective.
Just as we would not expect doctors to be using the exact same techniques and medicines that
were prevalent when you were a child, teachers’ methods are evolving and transforming via a
powerful collection of expert knowledge about how the mind functions and how to design
effective instruction (Wiggins, 2013).
There are several significant factors in this transformation. One factor is the public or
political pressure for change in mathematics education due largely to information about stu-
dent performance in national and international studies. These large scale comparisons of stu-
dent performance continue to make headlines, provoke public opinion, and pressure legisla-
tures to call for tougher standards backed by testing. The pressures of testing policies exerted
on schools and ultimately on teachers may have an impact on instruction. These studies are
important because international and national assessments provide strong evidence that mathe-
matics teaching must change if our students are to be competitive in the global market and able
to understand the complex issues they must confront as responsible citizens.
National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP). Since the 1960s, at reg-

ular intervals, the United States gathers data on how fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade stu-
dents are doing in mathematics on the NAEP. These data provide an important tool for policy
makers and educators to measure the overall improvement of U.S. students over time in what
is called the “Nation’s Report Card.” NAEP uses four achievement levels: below basic, basic,
proficient, and advanced, with proficient and advanced representing substantial grade-level
achievement. The criterion-referenced test is designed to reflect the current curriculum but
keeps a few stable items from 1982 for purposes of comparison (Kloosterman, Rutledge, &
Kenney, 2009b). In the most recent assessment in 2013, less than half of all U.S. students in
grades 4 and 8 performed at the desirable levels of proficient and advanced (42 percent in
fourth grade and 35 percent in eighth grade) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013).
Despite encouraging gains in the NAEP scores over the last 30 years due to important shifts in
instructional practices (particularly at the elementary level) (Kloosterman, Rutledge, & Ken-
ney, 2009b), some U.S. students’ performance still reveals disappointing levels of competency.
28 Chapter 1 Teaching Mathematics in the 21st Century
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In the

mid-1990s, 41 nations participated in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study,
the largest study of mathematics and science education ever conducted. Data were gathered in
grades 4, 8, and 12 from 500,000 students as well as from teachers. The most widely reported
results revealed that U.S. students performed above the international average of the TIMSS
countries at the fourth grade, below the average at the eighth grade, and significantly below
average at the twelfth grade (National Academy Press, 1999; U.S. Department of Education,
1997).
TIMSS studies were repeated often with the most recent in 2011 in which 57 countries
participated. For details, please visit the TIMSS website. The 2011 TIMSS found that U.S.
fourth and eighth graders were above the international average but were significantly out-
performed at fourth-grade level mathematics by education systems in Singapore, Republic of
Korea, Hong Kong, Chinese Taipei, Japan, Northern Ireland, Belgium, Finland, England, and
the Russian Federation and outperformed at the eighth-grade level by education systems in
Republic of Korea, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Japan, Russian Federation, Israel,
and Finland.
One of the most interesting components of the study was the videotaping of eighth-grade
classrooms in the United States, Australia, and five of the highest-achieving countries. The
results indicate that teaching is a cultural activity and, despite similarities, the differences in
the ways countries taught mathematics were often striking. In all countries, problems or tasks
were frequently used to begin the lesson. However, as a lesson progressed, the way these prob-
lems were handled in the United States was in stark contrast to high-achieving countries.
Analysis revealed that, although the world is for all purposes unrecognizable from what it was
100 years ago, the U.S. approach to teaching mathematics during the same time frame was
essentially unchanged (Stigler & Hiebert, 2009). Other countries incorporated a variety of
methods, but they frequently used a problem-solving approach with an emphasis on concep-
tual understanding and students engaged in problem solving (Hiebert et al., 2003). Teaching
in the high-achieving countries more closely resembles the recommendations of the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, the major professional organization for mathematics
teachers, discussed next.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). One transformative factor

is the professional leadership of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). The
NCTM, with more than 80,000 members, is the world’s largest mathematics education organi-
zation. This group holds an influential role in the support of teachers and an emphasis on what is
best for learners. Their guidance in the creation and dissemination of standards for curriculum,
assessment, and teaching led the way for other disciplines. For an array of resources, including
the Illuminations component which consists of a set of exciting instructional experiences for your
students, visit the NCTM website.
Complete Self-Check 1.1: A Changing World
The Movement toward Shared Standards

The momentum for reform in mathematics education began in earnest in the early 1980s. The
main impetus was a response to a need for more problem solving as well as the research of
developmental psychologists who identified how students can best learn mathematics. Then in
1989, NCTM published the first set of standards for a subject area in the Curriculum and Eval-
uation Standards for School Mathematics. Many believe that no other document has ever had such
an enormous effect on school mathematics or on any other area of the curriculum.
NCTM followed in 1991 with a set of standards for teaching that articulated a vision of
teaching mathematics for all students, not just a few. In 1995, NCTM added to the collection
the Assessment Standards for School Mathematics, which focused on the importance of integrating
Another random document with
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are characteristic for each species. The Nematus larvae that inhabit
galls possess all the characteristics of those that feed externally. As
a rule the skin of the larva is naked and free from hair, but it is often
minutely tuberculate, and in a few species it is armed with
remarkable forked spines. These spines may exist during part of the
larval life, and completely disappear at one of the moults. The
creatures are as a rule very sluggish, and move about much less
than Lepidopterous larvae; many of them, when alarmed, have the
power of exuding a disagreeable liquid, either from the mouth or
from pores in the skin; in the latter case it may be sent as a sort of
spray to some little distance from the body. This operation is said to
be very efficacious as a means of protecting the larvae from the
attacks of parasitic flies that are desirous of laying eggs in their
bodies. One peculiarity as to their colour has attracted the attention
of Réaumur and subsequent naturalists, namely, that in the case of
many species a great change takes place in the colour during the life
of the larva, and more especially at the period of the last moult. The
change to the pupal state usually takes place in a cocoon, and some
species have the peculiar habit of forming a double cocoon, the
outer one being hard and coarse, while the inner is beautifully
delicate. The cocoon is sometimes formed in the earth, and in that
case it may be to a large extent composed of earthy matter. The
Insect frequently remains a long time in its cocoon before emerging
as a perfect Insect; however long this time may be, it is nearly all of it
passed in the larval state; when the Insect does change to a pupa it
speedily thereafter emerges as a perfect Insect. In the pupa the
parts of the imago may be seen enveloped in a very delicate,
transparent skin.
In Brazil Dielocerus ellisii, a sawfly allied to Hylotoma, constructs a

nest in which the cocoons of many specimens are crowded together,
being packed side by side like the cells in the comb of the bee, while
the whole mass is protected by a thick outer wall. It is not known in
what manner this communal work is carried out, but it is interesting
to note that the cocoons assume to a considerable extent the
hexagonal form of the cells in the comb of the bee. Some doubt was
expressed as to the interpretation put on this structure by Curtis, but
his observations have been confirmed by Smith and Peckholt.
Several species of sawflies are known to be very injurious to crops.

One of these—the sawfly of the turnip, Athalia spinarum (centifoliae
Panz.)—sometimes commits excessive depredations on the turnip
crops in this country as well as on the continent of Europe; its life-
history and anatomy were described by Newport in an essay
published by the Entomological Society in 1838. The eggs, it
appears, are laid singly at the edges of the leaves in the month of
May, as many as 200 or 300 being deposited by one female; as the
parent flies are usually gregarious, appearing in large numbers in
fields of turnips, it is not difficult to form an idea of the serious nature
of their depredations. The egg grows very considerably; the
development of the embryo is rapid, occupying, even in unfavourable
weather, only seven or eight days, while in quite congenial
circumstances it is probable that the eggs may hatch about the
fourth day after their deposition. The young grub immediately begins
to feed, and in about five days changes its skin for the first time; it
repeats this operation twice at similar or slightly longer intervals, the
third moult thus occurring when the larva is three or four weeks old; it
is then that the larva begins to be most destructive. Sunshine and
warm weather are very favourable to it, and under their influence it
grows so rapidly that in a few days a field may be almost completely
stripped of its foliage. This larva is of a sooty black colour, and will
live on other Cruciferous plants quite as well as on the turnip. When
full grown it buries itself to a slight depth under the surface of the
earth, and forms an oval cocoon of a firm texture, and with many
particles of earth closely adherent to it. The perfect fly emerges
towards the end of July, and a second brood will be produced in the
same season if circumstances are favourable; in that case the
resulting larvae enter the ground for the formation of their cocoons in
September or October, and pass the winter in their cocoons, but still
in the larval state; changing to pupae in the following spring, and
appearing as perfect Insects in May. From this account it appears
not improbable that the offspring of a single female existing in the
April of one year may amount by the following May—three
generations having been passed through in the interval—to as many
as 27,000,000 larvae. Fortunately the creatures are, as Frauenfeld
observed, destroyed in very large numbers by a parasitic fungus and
by a Nematode (Filaria).
We have, earlier in the chapter, alluded to the fact that the

phenomena of parthenogenesis prevail somewhat extensively
among sawflies. It is the rule in the family that males are very much
less numerous than females, and there are some species of which
no males have been discovered. This would not be of itself certain
evidence of the occurrence of parthenogenesis, but this has been
placed beyond doubt by taking females bred in confinement,
obtaining unfertilised eggs from them, and rearing the larvae
produced from the eggs. This has been done by numerous
observers with curious results. In many cases the parthenogenetic
progeny, or a portion of it, dies without attaining full maturity. This
may or may not be due to constitutional weakness arising from the
parthenogenetic state. Cameron, who has made extensive
observations on this subject, thinks that the parthenogenesis does
involve constitutional weakness, fewer of the parthenogenetic young
reaching maturity. This he suggests may be compensated for—when
the parthenogenetic progeny is all of the female sex—by the fact that
all those that grow up are producers of eggs. In many cases the
parthenogenetic young of Tenthredinidae are of the male sex, and
sometimes the abnormal progeny is of both sexes. In the case of
one species—the common currant sawfly, Nematus ribesii—the
parthenogenetic progeny is nearly, but not quite, always, entirely of
the male sex; this has been ascertained again and again, and it is
impossible in these cases to suggest any advantage to the species
to compensate for constitutional parthenogenetic weakness. On the
whole, it appears most probable that the parthenogenesis, and the
special sex produced by it, whether male or female, are due to
physiological conditions of which we know little, and that the species
continue in spite of the parthenogenesis, rather than profit by it. It is
worthy of remark that one of the species in which parthenogenesis
with production of males occurs—Nematus ribesii—is perhaps the
most abundant of sawflies.
Although many kinds of Insects display the greatest solicitude and
ingenuity in providing proper receptacles for their eggs, and in
storing food for the young that will be produced, there are extremely
few that display any further interest in their descendants; probably,
indeed, the majority of Insects die before the eggs are hatched, one
generation never seeing the individuals of another. It is therefore
interesting to find that a fairly well authenticated case of maternal
attachment, such as we have previously alluded to as occurring in
earwigs, has been recorded in Perga lewisii, an Australian sawfly of
the sub-family Cimbicides. The mother, having deposited about
eighty eggs on the leaf of a Eucalyptus, remains with them until they
hatch, after which she sits over her brood with outstretched legs, and
with admirable perseverance protects them, so far as she is able,
from the attacks of parasites and other enemies; she quite refuses to
be driven away from her charges. Mr. Lewis, to whom we are
indebted for this account,[427] states that the sawfly does not
recognise her own special brood, but will give equal attention to
another brood if she be transferred thereto; and he adds that many
of the batches of larvae were destitute of any maternal guardian.
There are about 2000 species of sawflies known. A large majority of

them are found in the European and North American regions; still, a
good many are known to live in South America, and Perga—one of
the genera of the family containing many species of large size—is
peculiar to the Australian region. Although the family includes so
many species, very few anomalies of structure have been detected
in it; one species, Pompholyx dimorpha Freymuth, is described as
being apterous in the female, and as having the thorax curiously
modified in its form. There are no very small Insects in the family,
and none over the middle size. Nearly 400 species have been
detected in Britain; this number could certainly be increased by
persevering researches. The palaeontological record has hitherto
given only a very meagre evidence about sawflies. Several species
have been preserved in amber, and three or four are known from
Tertiary strata in Europe and North America.
CHAPTER XXIII
HYMENOPTERA PETIOLATA–PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA–CYNIPIDAE OR

GALL-FLIES–PROCTOTRYPIDAE–CHALCIDIDAE–ICHNEUMONIDAE–
BRACONIDAE–STEPHANIDAE–MEGALYRIDAE–EVANIIDAE–PELECINIDAE–
TRIGONALIDAE.
We now pass to the consideration of the Hymenoptera of the sub-

Order Petiolata, or Apocrita, as they are styled by Brauer. We should
make use of the term Petioliventres, for it contrasts naturally by its
termination with Sessiliventres, were it not that the word is so
uncouth that we think it better to adopt the shorter and more
euphonious expression, Petiolata.
The members of this sub-Order, without exception, have the hind

body connected with the thorax by means of a deep constriction, so
that the base of the abdomen (Fig. 336, B, b) is very narrow; the
articulation between the two parts is effected by means of a complex
joint allowing great play, and facilitating the operations of boring and
stinging, processes that are of extreme importance in the economy
of the great majority of the species. The petiole is sometimes
extremely short, but it may be so long that it appears like a stalk, at
whose extremity is borne the remaining part of the abdomen (Fig.
369). When the petiole is very short the abdomen reposes close to
the back of the thorax (Fig. 331, C), and in this case the abdomen is
usually described as sessile; while, when it is evidently stalked, it is
said to be petiolate. These terms are, however, unsuitable, as the
words sessile and petiolate should be reserved for the conditions
characteristic of the two sub-Orders. We shall therefore use the
terms pseudo-sessile and pedicellate for the two conditions of the
Petiolata.
The Hymenoptera Petiolata comprises an enormous majority of the

Order. Although it includes many of the most interesting and
important of Insects, its classification is but little advanced, for a
great many of the forms are still rare or unknown. Three series may
be adopted for the purposes of nomenclature.
1. Parasitica.—Trochanters of two pieces, female with an ovipositor.
2. Tubulifera.—Trochanters undivided; abdomen consisting of only

three, four, or five visible segments.
3. Aculeata.—Trochanters undivided; abdomen consisting of six or

seven visible segments; female furnished with a retractile sting.
In the absence of any clear distinction between sting and ovipositor,

these groups are merely conventional. The character furnished by
the trochanters is unfortunately subject to some exceptions, there
being a few parasitic forms in which the trochanters are not divided,
and a few aculeates in which the reverse is more or less distinctly
the case; moreover, the division, when it exists, is in some cases
obscure, and the two pieces are of unequal size. Ratzeburg calls the
upper division, which is frequently much larger than the other, the
trochanter, and the lower division the apophysis. There is much
reason for believing that the apophysis is really merely a secondary
division of the femur. The Tubulifera are a comparatively small
group, and will probably be merged in one of the other two, when the
anatomy and morphology of the abdomen have been more
thoroughly elucidated.
Fig. 345.—Divided (ditrochous) trochanter of an Ichneumon: a, coxa; b,

the two divisions of the trochanter; c, femur. (For monotrochous
trochanter see Fig. 335, A, c.)
Hymenoptera Parasitica or Terebrantia.
This is one of the most extensive divisions of the class Insecta.

There can be little doubt that it contains 200,000 species, and
possibly the number may be very much greater than this. It is,
however, one of the most neglected of the great groups of Insects,
though it is perhaps of greater economic importance to mankind than
any other.
Insects derive their sustenance primarily from the vegetable

kingdom. So great and rapid are the powers of assimilation of the
Insect, so prodigious its capacity for multiplication, that the Mammal
would not be able to compete with it were it not that the great horde
of six-legged creatures has divided itself into two armies, one of
which destroys the other. The parasitic Hymenoptera are chiefly
occupied in destroying the tribes of vegetarian Insects; the parasites
do this by the simple and efficient device of dwelling in the bodies of
their hosts and appropriating the nutriment the latter take in. The
parasites do not, as a rule, eat the structures of their host,—many of
them, indeed, have no organs that would enable them to do this,—
but they absorb the vegetable juices that, in a more or less altered
state, form the lymph or so-called blood of the host. The host could
perhaps starve out his enemies by a judicious system of abstention
from food; instead, however, of doing this, he adopts the suicidal
policy of persistent eating, and as the result of his exertions,
furnishes sufficient food to his parasites, and then dies himself,
indirectly starved. Ratzeburg considers that the traditional view that
the larvae of parasitic Hymenoptera live by eating the fat-body of
their host is erroneous. They imbibe, he considers, the liquid that fills
the body of the parasitised Insect.[428]
The wide prevalence of Insect parasitism is appreciated only by

entomologists. The destructive winter moth—Cheimatobia brumata
—is known to be subject to the attacks of sixty-three species of
Hymenopterous parasites. So abundant are these latter that late in
the autumn it is not infrequently the case that the majority of
caterpillars contain these destroyers. Although Lepidoptera are very
favourite objects with parasitic Hymenoptera, yet other Insects are
also pertinaciously attacked; there is quite a host of Insect creatures
that obtain their sustenance by living inside the tiny Aphididae, or
"green-flies," that so much annoy the gardener. A still larger number
of parasites attack eggs of Insects, one or more individuals finding
sufficient sustenance for growth and development inside another
Insect's egg. As Insects have attacked Insects, so have parasites
attacked parasites, and the phenomena called hyperparasitism have
been developed. These cases of secondary parasitism, in which
another species attacks a primary parasite, are extremely numerous.
It is also pretty certain that tertiary parasitism occurs, and Riley is of
opinion that even quaternary destruction is not outside the range of
probability.
The physiological problems connected with Insect parasitism are of

great interest to the entomologist; the modes of nutrition and
respiration of these encaged creatures could not fail to be most
instructive were we fully acquainted with them. It is obvious that
when an Insect-egg is laid inside another Insect's egg, and the
parasite has to undergo the whole of its growth therein, it is in the
strangest condition as regards nutrition. It is unnecessary for the
intruded egg to have yolk of its own; moreover, the embryonic mode
of nutrition may be continued during what would, with other Insects,
be the larval period. And it seems to be the case that both these
conditions are actually met with in the lives of egg-parasites. The
embryology and post-embryonic development of parasitic
Hymenoptera have already been ascertained to be of the most
extraordinary nature. Great variety, however, will no doubt be found
to exist, as will be readily understood if we tabulate the conditions of
the early life of various parasitic Hymenoptera.
1. The egg may be laid outside a larva, and the embryonic and larval
developments may both be passed on the exterior.
2. The egg may be laid and the embryonic development passed
through, outside the host, but the parasite on hatching may enter the
host, so that the post-embryonic development is passed in the lymph
of the host.
3. The egg may be laid inside the host, both embryonic and post-
embryonic developments being gone through in the fluids of the
host.
4. The egg may be laid inside another egg, the embryonic and post-
embryonic developments being passed therein.
We shall find that all these conditions exist in the Insects we are
about to consider.
We shall treat the series as composed of ten families; but we must

remind the student that this great subject is still in a very
unadvanced state; the combined efforts of generations of naturalists
will be required to perfect it. Of the ten families five are
comparatively insignificant in number of species. Many of the
Cynipidae are not parasitic in habits, but live in galls. After what we
have said as to the mode of nutrition of parasites it will be
understood that the physiological conditions of life may not be so
different in a gall-dweller and a parasite as would at first be
supposed; and it is perhaps not a matter for much surprise that good
characters cannot be found to separate the gallicolous from the
parasitic forms.
Fam. I. Cynipidae—Gall-flies.
Wings with very few cells, with no dark patch (stigma) on the
anterior margin; pronotum fixed to the mesonotum, and at each
side extending back to the point of insertion of the front wing.
Antennae not elbowed but straight, composed of a moderate
number (12-15) of joints. Early stages passed either in galls or
as parasites in the bodies of other Insects.
Fig. 346.—Neuroterus lenticularis. Britain.
The Cynipidae are always small, frequently minute, Insects; usually

black or pitchy in colour. The simple structure of the antennae and
the number of their joints are of importance as an aid in identifying a
Cynipid. The mesonotum is usually remarkably convex, and has,
behind, a prominent scutellum, which more or less overhangs the
small metanotum and the median segment; these are perpendicular
in their direction; the sculpture of these posterior parts of the alitrunk
is usually deep and remarkable. The abdomen has usually only a
short petiole, so as to be pseudo-sessile; but there are some genera
in which this part is rather long. The abdomen is generally so very
much changed in outer form that its structure is not easily
understood. The visible portion is frequently in larger part made up of
the greatly enlarged dorsal plate of the second or third segment, or
of both. These large plates are really chiefly composed of free flaps,
and on lifting them up the large ventral plates are disclosed, although
these appeared previously to be nearly or quite absent. In the female
there is a very slender ovipositor, of which only a small part
protrudes, although the organ is really elongate; it is drawn into the
abdomen by means of a peculiar series of structures, the modified
terminal segments to which it is attached being folded over into the
interior of the body in such a way that the posterior part becomes
situated anteriorly. In conformity with this arrangement, the ovipositor
is bent double on itself, the anterior and the middle portions of the
borer being carried into the body, leaving only a small part projecting
beyond the extremity. The Cynipid ovipositor is an instrument of
much delicacy, and is capable of a great deal of movement; it is
usually serrate just at the tip, and although it looks so very different
from the cutting apparatus of the sawflies (Fig. 344), it seems that it
is really composed of pieces similar in their origin to those of the
Tenthredinidae.
Fig. 347.—Ovipositor of Neuroterus laeviusculus. (After Adler.) a, a,

The ovipositor partially coiled; b, extremity of posterior plate; c, c,
muscles.
The wings frequently bear fine hairs; the paucity of nervures and the
absence of the "stigma" are of importance in the definition of the
family. The most important of the cells is one called the radial cell,
situate just beyond the middle of the front part of the wing.
We cannot enter into a consideration of the classification of the

family, as authorities are not agreed on the subject.[429] As regards
their habits Cynipidae are, however, of three different kinds: (1) the
true gall-flies, or Psenides, which lay an egg or eggs in the tissues of
a growing plant, in the interior of which the larva lives after it is
hatched; this mode of life may or may not, according to the species,
be accompanied by formation of a peculiar growth called a gall: (2)
Inquilines,[430] or guest-flies; these lay their eggs in the galls formed
by the gall-makers subsequent to the growth of the galls, of which
they obtain the benefit: (3) Parasites; these live, like most
Ichneumon-flies, in the interior of the bodies of other living Insects;
they prey on a considerable variety of Insects, but chiefly, it is
believed, on Aphididae, or on Dipterous larvae. These parasitic flies
belong to the sub-family Figitides.
A great deal of discussion has occurred relative to the nature and

origin of galls, and many points still remain obscure. Considerable
light has been thrown on the subject by the direct observations of
modern naturalists. Previous to Malpighi, who wrote on the subject
two hundred years ago, it was supposed that galls were entirely
vegetable productions, and that the maggots found in them were due
to spontaneous generation, it having been an article of belief in the
Middle Ages that maggots in general arose from the various organic
substances in which they were found, by means of the hypothetical
process called, as we have said, spontaneous generation. Malpighi
was aware of the unsatisfactory nature of such a belief, and having
found by observation that galls arose from the punctures of Insects,
he came to the further conclusion that the growth of the gall was due
to the injection by the Insect into the plant of a fluid he termed Ichor,
which had, he considered, the effect of producing a swelling in the
plant, something in the same way as the sting of a bee or wasp
produces a swelling in an animal. Réaumur also made observations
on the gall-Insects, and came to the conclusion that the latter part of
Malpighi's views was erroneous, and that the swelling was not due to
any fluid, but simply to irritation caused by the prick; this irritation
being kept up by the egg that was deposited and by the subsequent
development of the larva. Observations since the time of Réaumur
have shown that the matter is not quite so simple as he supposed,
for though in the case of some galls the development of the gall
commences immediately after the introduction of the egg, yet in
other cases, as in the Cynipidae, it does not occur till some time
thereafter, being delayed even until after the hatching of the egg and
the commencement of the development of the larva. Galls are
originated by a great variety of Insects, as well as by mites, on many
plants; and it must not be concluded that a gall has been formed by
Hymenoptera even when these Insects are reared from one.
Extremely curious galls are formed by scale-Insects of the sub-family
Brachyscelides on Eucalyptus trees in Australia; they are much
inhabited by parasitic Hymenoptera, and Froggatt has obtained 100
specimens of a small black Chalcid from a single dead Brachyscelid.
[431] The exact manner in which many of these galls originate is not
yet sufficiently ascertained; but the subject of the galls resulting from
the actions of Cynipidae has received special attention, and we are
now able to form a conception of their nature. They are produced by
the meristematic or dividing tissue of plants, and frequently in the
cambium zone, which is caused to develop to an unusual extent, and
in a more or less abnormal manner, by the presence of the Insect.
The exact way in which a Cynipid affects the plant is perhaps not
conclusively settled, and may be found to differ in the cases of
different Cynipidae, but the view advocated by Adler and others, and
recently stated by Riley,[432] seems satisfactory; it is to the effect that
the activity of the larva probably affects the meristem, by means of a
secretion exuded by the larva. The mere presence of the egg does
not suffice to give rise to the gall, for the egg may be deposited
months before the gall begins to form. It is for the same reason
improbable that a fluid injected by the parent fly determines the gall's
growth. It is true that the parent fly does exude a liquid during the act
of oviposition, but this is believed to be merely of a lubricant nature,
and not to influence the development. It is said that the gall begins to
form in some cases before the larva is actually hatched, but the eggs
of some Hymenoptera exhibit remarkable phenomena of growth, so
that the egg, even during development of the embryo in it, may in
these cases, exert an influence on the meristem. It is to reactions
between the physiological processes of the meristem and the
growing Insect that the gall and its form are due.
The investigations of several recent naturalists lend support to the

view that only the meristematic cells of the plant can give rise to a
gall. Riley says that the rate of growth of the gall is dependent on the
activity of the meristem, galls on catkins developing the most quickly;
those forming on young leaves also grow with rapidity, while galls
formed on bark or roots may take months to attain their full size.
Fig. 348.—Bedeguar on rose, cut across to show the cells of the

larvae; in some of the cells larvae are seen.
It is a curious fact that Cynipid galls are formed chiefly on oaks, this
kind of tree supplying a surprising number and variety of galls. The
plants that furnish Cynipid galls in Europe are not numerous. A list of
them is given by Cameron.[433] Several species, of the genus
Rhodites, attack rose-bushes. One of the best known of our British
galls is the bedeguar, found in various parts of the country on both
wild and cultivated rose-bushes (Fig. 348), and caused by Rhodites
rosae (Fig. 349). This gall has the appearance of arising from a twig
or stem, but it is really a leaf gall. Pazlavsky[434] has described the
mode of formation of the bedeguar. The female Rhodites in the
spring selects a rose-bud—not a flower-bud—that should produce a
twig and leaves, and pricks this bud in a systematic manner in three
places. The three spots of the bud pricked by the Insect are the three
undeveloped leaves that correspond to a complete cycle in the
phyllotaxis of the plant. The three rudiments do not develop into
leaves, but by a changed mode of growth give rise to the bedeguar.
Usually this gall, as shown in our figure, is of large size, and contains
numerous cells; but abortive specimens are not infrequently met
with; sometimes a small one is seated on a rose-leaf, and it is
thought that these are due to a failure on the part of the Insect to
complete the pricking operation. Cynipidae will not go through their
gall-making operations except under natural conditions. Giraud[435]
attempted to obtain oviposition, on gathered twigs of oak, from flies
in confinement; but, although he experimented with thousands of
specimens, they on no occasion laid their eggs in the fresh shoots
placed at their disposal, but discharged their eggs in little heaps,
without attention to the twigs. The same observer has also called
attention to the fact that after being deposited in a bud the eggs of
certain species of Cynips will remain dormant without producing, so
far as can be seen, any effect on the tree for a period of fully ten
months, but when the bud begins to develop and the egg hatches
then the gall grows.
Fig. 349.—Rhodites rosae, female. Cambridge.
The exact mode in which the egg is brought to the requisite spot in
the plant is still uncertain. The path traversed by the ovipositor in the
plant is sometimes of considerable length, and far from straight; in
some cases before it actually pierces the tissues, the organ is thrust
between scales or through fissures, so that the terebra, or boring
part of the ovipositor, when it reaches the minute seam of cambium,
is variously curved and flexed. Now as the canal in its interior is of
extreme tenuity, and frequently of great length, it must be a very
difficult matter for the egg to reach the tissue where it should
develop. The eggs of Cynipidae are very remarkable bodies; they
are very ductile, and consist of a head, and of a stalk that in some
cases is five or six times as long as the head, and is itself somewhat
enlarged at the opposite end. Some other Hymenoptera have also
stalked eggs of a similar kind (Fig. 357, A, egg of Leucospis). It has
been thought that this remarkable shape permits of the contents of
the egg being transferred for a time to the narrower parts, and thus
allows the broader portion of the egg to be temporarily compressed,
and the whole structure to be passed through a very narrow canal or
orifice. It is, however, very doubtful whether the egg really passes
along the canal of the borer. Hartig thought that it did so, and Riley
supports this view to a limited extent. Adler, however, is of a different
opinion, and considers that the egg travels in larger part outside the
terebra. It should be remembered that the ovipositor is really
composed of several appendages that are developed from the
outside of the body; thus the external orifice of the body is
morphologically at the base of the borer, the several parts of which
are in longitudinal apposition. Hence there is nothing that would
render the view of the egg leaving the ovipositor at the base
improbable, and Adler supposes that it actually does so, the thin end
being retained between the divisions of the terebra. Riley is of
opinion that the act of oviposition in these Insects follows no uniform
system. He has observed that in the case of Callirhytis clavula,
ovipositing in the buds of Quercus alba, the eggs are inserted by the
egg-stalk into the substance of the leaf, and that the egg-fluids are at
first gathered in the posterior end, which is not inserted. "The fluids
are then gradually absorbed from this exposed portion into the
inserted portion of the egg, and by the time the young leaves have
formed the exposed [parts of the] shells are empty, the thread-like
stalk has disappeared, and the egg-contents are all contained within
the leaf tissue." He has also observed that in Biorhiza nigra the
pedicel, or stalk, only is inserted in the embryonic leaf-tissue, and
that the enlarged portion or egg-body is at first external. The same
naturalist also records that in the case of a small inquiline species,
Ceroptres politus, the pedicel of the egg is very short, and in this
case the egg is thrust down into the puncture made by the borer, so
that the egg is entirely covered.
Some Cynipidae bore a large number of the channels for their eggs
before depositing any of the latter, and it would appear that it is the
rule that the boring of the channel is an act separate from that of
actual oviposition. Adler distinguishes three stages: (1) boring of the
canal; (2) the passage of the egg from the base of the ovipositor,
where the egg-stalk is pinched between the two spiculae and the
egg is pushed along the ovipositor; (3) after the point of the
ovipositor is withdrawn, the egg-body enters the pierced canal, and
is pushed forward by the ovipositor until it reaches the bottom.[436]
About fifty years ago Hartig reared large numbers of certain species
of gall-flies from their galls, obtaining from 28,000 galls of Cynips
disticha about 10,000 flies, and from galls of C. folii 3000 or 4000
examples of this species; he found that all the individuals were
females. His observations were subsequently abundantly confirmed
by other naturalists, among whom we may mention Frederick Smith
in our own country, who made in vain repeated attempts to obtain
males of the species of the genus Cynips. On one occasion he
collected in the South of England 4410 galls of C. kollari (at that time
called C. lignicola), and from these he obtained 1562 flies, all of
which were females. A second effort was attended with similar
results. Hartig, writing in 1843, after many years' experience, stated
that though he was acquainted with twenty-eight species of the
genus Cynips, he had not seen a male of any one of them. During
the course of these futile attempts it was, however, seen that a
possible source of fallacy existed in the fact that the Insects were
reared from collected galls; and these being similar to one another, it
was possible that the males might inhabit some different gall. Adler
endeavoured to put the questions thus raised to the test by means of
rearing females from galls, and then getting these females to
produce, parthenogenetically, galls on small oaks planted in pots,
and thus completely under control. He was quite successful in
carrying out his project, and in doing so he made a most
extraordinary discovery, viz. that the galls produced by these
parthenogenetic females on his potted oaks, were quite different
from the galls from which the flies themselves were reared, and
were, in fact, galls that gave rise to a fly that had been previously
considered a distinct species; and of this form both sexes were
produced. Adler's observations have been confirmed by other
naturalists, and thus the occurrence of alternation of generations,
one of the two generations being parthenogenetic, has been
thoroughly established in Cynipidae. We may mention one case as
illustrative. A gall-fly called Chilaspis lowii is produced from galls on
oak-leaves at Vienna at the end of April, both sexes occurring. The
female thereafter lays eggs on the ribs of the leaves of the same
kind of oak, and thus produces a different gall from that which
nourished herself. These galls fall off with the leaves in the autumn,
and in July or August of the following year a gall-fly is produced from
them. It is a different creature from the mother, and was previously
known to entomologists under the name of Chilaspis nitida. Only
females of it occur, and these parthenogenetic individuals lay their
eggs in the young buds of the oak that are already present in the
autumn, and in the following spring, when the buds open and the
leaves develop, those that have had an egg laid in them produce a
gall from which Chilaspis lowii emerges in April or May. In this case
therefore the cycle of the two generations extends over two years,
the generation that takes the greater part of the time for its
production consisting only of females. Adler's observations showed
that, though in some species this alternation of generations was
accompanied by parthenogenesis in one part of the cycle, yet in
other species this was not the case. He found, for instance, that
some gall-flies of the genus Aphilothrix produced a series of
generations the individuals of which were similar to one another, and
were all females and parthenogenetic. In some species of the old
genus Cynips no males are even yet known to occur. A very curious
observation was made by the American, Walsh, viz. that of galls
gathered by him quite similar to one another, some produced
speedily a number of both sexes of Cynips spongifica, while much
later on in the season the remainder of the galls gave rise to females
only of an Insect called Cynips aciculata. It is believed that the galls
gathered by Walsh[437] were really all one species; so that parts of
the same generation emerge at different times and in two distinct
forms, one of them parthenogenetic, the other consisting of two
sexes. It has, however, been suggested that Cynips spongifica and
C. aciculata may be two distinct species, producing quite similar
galls.
Turning now to the questions connected with inquiline or guest-flies,

we may commence with drawing attention to the great practical
difficulties that surround the investigation of this subject. If we open a
number of specimens of any kind of gall it is probable that several
kinds of larvae will be found. In Fig. 350 we represent four kinds of
larvae that were taken out of a few bedeguar galls gathered on one
day in a lane near Cambridge. It is pretty certain that No. 1 in this
figure represents the larva of Rhodites rosae, and that Nos. 2 and 3
are larvae of inquilines, possibly of Synergus, or of a parasite; while
No. 4, which was engaged in feeding on No. 3 in the position shown,
is possibly a Chalcid of the genus Monodontomerus, or may be
Callimome bedeguaris. It is clear that, as we cannot ascertain what
is inside a gall without opening it, and thereby killing the tenants, it is
a most difficult matter to identify the larvae; the only safe method is
that of observation of the act of oviposition; this may be
supplemented by rearing the flies from galls, so as to ascertain what
variety of flies are associated with each kind of gall. This last point
has been well attended to; but the number of cases in which
oviposition of inquiline gall-flies in the galls formed by the Psenides
has been ascertained by direct observation is still very small; they
are, however, sufficient to show that the inquilines deposit their eggs
only after the galls are formed.
Fig. 350.—Larvae inhabiting bedeguar gall at Cambridge. 1, Rhodites

rosae in cell; 2 and 3, larvae of inquilines; 4, larva of a parasitic
Hymenopteron.
Bassett recorded the first case of the kind in connexion with a North
American species, Cynips (Ceroptres) quercus-arbos Fitch. He says:
"On the first of June galls on Quercus ilicifolia had reached their full
size, but were still tender, quite like the young shoots of which they
formed part. Examining them on that day, I discovered on them two
gall-flies, which I succeeded in taking. They were females, and the
ovipositor of each was inserted into the gall so deeply that they could
not readily free themselves, and they were removed by force."
The great resemblance of the inquiline gall-fly to the fly that makes
the gall both dwell in, has been several times noticed by Osten
Sacken, who says "one of the most curious circumstances
connected with the history of two North American blackberry galls is,
that besides the Diastrophus, which apparently is the genuine
originator of the gall, they produce another gall-fly, no doubt an
inquiline, belonging to the genus Aulax, and showing the most
striking resemblance in size, colouring, and sculpture to the
Diastrophus, their companion. The one is the very counterpart of the
other, hardly showing any differences, except the strictly generic
characters! This seems to be one of those curious instances, so
frequent in entomology, of the resemblance between parasites and
their hosts! By rearing a considerable number of galls of D.
nebulosus I obtained this species as well as its parasite almost in
equal numbers. By cutting some of the galls open I ascertained that
a single specimen of the gall frequently contained both species, thus
setting aside a possible doubt whether these Insects are not
produced by two different, although closely similar galls."[438]
The substance of which galls are composed, or rather, perhaps, a

juice they afford, is apparently a most suitable pabulum for the
support of Insect life, and is eagerly sought after by a variety of
Insects; hence by collecting galls in large quantities many species of
Insects may be reared from them; indeed by this means as many as
thirty different kinds of Insects, and belonging to all, or nearly all, the
Orders, have been obtained from a single species of gall. Some galls
are sought by birds, which open them and extract their tenants, even
in cases where it might be supposed that the nauseous flavour of the
galls would forbid such proceedings.
Not more than 500 species of Psenides and Inquiline Cynipidae are
known from all parts of the world; and of described Parasitic
Cynipidae there are only about 150 species. The British forms have
recently been treated by Cameron in the work we have already
several times referred to.[439]
A few Cynipidae have been found in amber; and remains of

members of the family, as well as some galls, are said by Scudder to
have been found in the Tertiary strata at Florissant.
Fam. II. Proctotrypidae, or Oxyura.

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Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics 37

Chapter 3 Teaching through Problem Solving 57

Chapter 4 Planning in the Problem-Based Classroom 81

Chapter 5 Creating Assessments for Learning 108

Chapter 6 Teaching Mathematics Equitably to All Children 128

Chapter 7 Using Technological Tools to Teach Mathematics 151

Section II Development of Mathematical Concepts and Procedures

Chapter 9 Developing Meanings for the Operations 191

Chapter 10 Developing Basic Fact Fluency 218

Chapter 11 Developing Whole-Number Place-Value Concepts 246

Chapter 12 Developing Strategies for Addition and Subtraction Computation 271

Chapter 13 Developing Strategies for Multiplication and Division Computation 301

Chapter 15 Developing Fraction Concepts 363

Chapter 16 Developing Fraction Operations 395

Chapter 17 Developing Concepts of Decimals and Percents 427

Chapter 18 Ratios, Proportions, and Proportional Reasoning 453

Chapter 19 Developing Measurement Concepts 477

Chapter 20 Geometric Thinking and Geometric Concepts 512

Chapter 21 Developing Concepts of Data Analysis 550

Chapter 22 Exploring Concepts of Probability 582

Chapter 23 Developing Concepts of Exponents, Integers, and Real Numbers 606

Appendix A Standards for Mathematical Practice A-1

Appendix B NCTM Mathematics Teaching Practices: from Principles to Actions A-5

Appendix C Guide to Blackline Masters A-7

Appendix D Activities at a Glance A-13

Section I Teaching Mathematics: Foundations and Perspectives

Chapter 1 Mathematical Proficiency 47

Problem Solving for All 78 Assessment Methods 111

Section II Development of Mathematical Concepts and Procedures

Promoting Good Beginnings 167 Teaching Operations through Contextual

Reflections on Chapter 9 216 Integrating Base-Ten Groupings with Words 249

For Discussion and Exploration 393 Computation with Decimals 440

Length 485 Transformations 533

Resources for Chapter 21 581 Chapter 23

Appendix A Standards for Mathematical Practice A-1

New to this Edition

Blackline Masters, Activity Pages and Teacher Resource Pages

Self-Assessment Opportunities for the Reader

Increased Focus on Common Core State Standards for

Reorganization and Enhancement to Section I

Major Changes to Specific Chapters

Developing Strategies for Addition and Subtraction

Fraction Operations (Chapter 16)