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 The General Theory of Relativity

The general theory of relativity, Einstein’s theory of gravitation, has been included as a compulsory
subject in undergraduate and graduate courses in Physics and Applied Mathematics all over the
world. However, the physics-first approach that is taken by many textbooks is not universally used, as
the approach often depends on the instructors’ or students’ background. Conceived from the lecture
notes made by the author over a teaching career spanning 18 years, this book introduces the general
theory of relativity for advanced students with a strong mathematical background.
The proposed book takes a ‘math-first approach’, for which the mathematical formalism
comes first and is then applied to physics. It presents a concise yet comprehensive and structured
understanding of the general theory of relativity. The book discusses the mathematical foundation
of the general theory of relativity and focuses heavily on topics such as tensor calculus, geodesics,
Einstein field equations, linearized gravity, Lie derivatives and their applications, the causal structure
of spacetime, rotating black holes, and basic knowledge of cosmology and astrophysics. All of these
are explained through a large number of worked examples and exercises.

Farook Rahaman is a Professor of Mathematics at Jadavpur University, Kolkata. Besides writing

a book, The Special Theory of Relativity, he has published numerous research papers on galactic
dark matter, wormhole geometry, charged fluid model, topological defects in the early universe,
gravastars, black hole physics, star modeling, and the cosmological model of the universe.
The General Theory of
Relativity
A Mathematical Approach

Farook Rahaman
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 To
my parents
Majeda Rahaman and Late Obaidur Rahaman
and
my son and wife
Md Rahil Miraj and Pakizah Yasmin
Contents

List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xvii
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxi

Chapter 1 Tensor Calculus — A Brief Overview 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Transformation of Coordinates 1
1.3 Covariant and Contravariant Vector and Tensor 2
1.4 Operations on Tensors 6
1.5 Generalized Kronecker Delta 9
1.6 The Line Element 11
1.7 Levi-Civita Tensor or Alternating Tensor 18
1.8 Christoffel Symbols 20
1.9 Affine Connection 22
1.10 Covariant Derivative 24
1.11 Curvature Tensor 27
1.12 Ricci Tensor 29
1.13 Ricci Scalar 30
1.14 Space of Constant Curvature 32
1.15 The Affine Connection in Riemannian Geometry 36
1.16 Geodesic Coordinate 37
1.17 Bianchi Identity 38
1.18 Einstein Tensor 39
1.19 Weyl Tensor 41

Chapter 2 Geodesics 45
2.1 Geodesics Equation 45
2.2 Derivation of Euler–Lagrange Equation 46
2.3 Geodesic Equation in Curved Spacetime 47
2.4 Geodesic Deviation 49
2.5 Geodesics Are Auto Parallel 49
2.6 Raychaudhuri Equation 50

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 Einstein Field Equations 61

3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Three Types of Mass 62
3.3 Einstein Tensor 62
3.4 Some Useful Variations 63
3.5 Action Integral for the Gravitational Field 63
3.6 Einstein’s Equation from Variational Principle 64
3.7 Some Modified Theories of Gravity 76

Chapter 4 Linearized Gravity 85

4.1 Newtonian Gravity 85
4.2 Newtonian Limit of Einstein Field Equations or Weak Field Approximation
of Einstein Equations 88
4.3 Poisson Equation as an Approximation of Einstein Field Equations 90
4.4 Gravitational Wave 92

Chapter 5 Lie Derivatives and Killing’s Equation 95

5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Lie Derivative of a Scalar 96
5.3 Lie Derivative of Contravariant Vector 97
5.4 Lie Derivative of Covariant Vector 97
5.5 Lie Derivative of Covariant and Contravariant Tensors of Order Two 98
5.6 Killing Equation 101
5.7 Stationary and Static Spacetimes 108
5.8 Spherically Symmetric Spacetime 109
5.9 Cylindrically Symmetric Spacetime (Axially Symmetry) 110

Chapter 6 Spacetimes of Spherically Symmetric Distribution of

Matter and Black Holes 115
6.1 Spherically Symmetric Line Element 115
6.2 Schwarzschild Solution or Exterior Solution 117
6.3 Vacuum Solution or Exterior Solution with Cosmological Constant 122
6.4 Birkhoff’s Theorem 123
6.5 Schwarzschild Interior Solution 126
6.6 The Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff Equation 127
6.7 The Structure of Newtonian Star 129
6.8 Isotropic Coordinates 138
6.9 Interaction between Gravitational and Electromagnetic Fields 146
Contents ix

Chapter 7 Particle and Photon Orbits in the Schwarzschild Spacetime 159

7.1 Motion of Test Particle 159
7.2 Experimental Test for General Relativity 161
7.3 Gravitational Redshift 171
7.4 Stable Circular Orbits in the Schwarzschild Spacetime 173

Chapter 8 Causal Structure of Spacetime 187

8.1 Introduction 187
8.2 Causality 187
8.3 Causal Relation 196
8.4 Causal Function 210

Chapter 9 Exact Solutions of Einstein Equations and Their Causal

Structures 219
9.1 Minkowski Spacetime 219
9.2 de Sitter Spacetime 225
9.3 Anti-de Sitter Space 230
9.4 Robertson–Walker Spaces 233
9.5 Penrose Diagrams of Robertson–Walker Spacetime for the Dust Case 235
9.6 Spatially Homogeneous Cosmological Models 237
9.7 Schwarzschild Solutions 240
9.8 Null Curves in Schwarzschild Spacetime 241
9.9 Time-like Geodesics in Schwarzschild Spacetime 242
9.10 Tortoise Coordinates 245
9.11 Eddington–Finkelstein Coordinates 245
9.12 Kruskal–Szekeres Coordinates 248
9.13 Reissner–Nordström Solution 253

Chapter 10 Rotating Black Holes 261

10.1 Null Tetrad 261
10.2 Null Tetrad of Some Black Holes 266
10.3 The Kerr Solution 271
10.4 The Kerr Solution from the Schwarzschild Solution 272
10.5 The Kerr–Newmann Solution from the Reissner–Nordström Solution 274
10.6 The Higher Dimensional Rotating Black Hole Solution 276
10.7 Different Forms of Kerr Solution 279
10.8 Some Elementary Properties of the Kerr Solution 283
10.9 Singularities and Horizons 284
10.10 Static Limit and Ergosphere 286
10.11 Zero Angular Momentum Observers in the Kerr Spacetime 288
10.12 Stationary Observer in the Kerr Spacetime 288
10.13 Null Geodesics in Kerr Spacetime 290
x Contents

10.14 Kerr Solution in Eddington–Finkelstein Coordinates 292

10.15 Maximal Extension of Kerr Spacetime 293
10.16 The Hawking Radiation 295
10.17 Penrose Process 297
10.18 The Laws of Black Hole Thermodynamics 301

Chapter 11 Elementary Cosmology 305

11.1 Introduction 305
11.2 Homogeneity and Isotropy 307
11.3 Robertson–Walker Metric 309
11.4 Hubble’s Law 312
11.5 Dynamical Equation of Cosmology 313
11.6 Newtonian Cosmology 315
11.7 Cosmological Redshift 316
11.8 Derivation of Hubble’s Law 318
11.9 Angular Size 319
11.10 Number Count 320
11.11 Luminosity Distance 322
11.12 Olbers’ Paradox 324
11.13 Friedmann Cosmological Models 326
11.14 Dust Model 328
11.15 Cosmology with Λ 334
11.16 Einstein Static Universe 335
11.17 The de Sitter Universe 335
11.18 Perfect Cosmological Principle 337
11.19 Particle and Event Horizon 338
11.20 Radiation Model 339
11.21 Cosmological Inflation 341
11.22 Cosmography Parameters 342

Chapter 12 Elementary Astrophysics 345

12.1 Stellar Structure and Evolution of Stars 345
12.2 Equation of Stellar Structure 348
12.3 Simple Stellar Model 350
12.4 Jeans Criterion for Star Formation 357
12.5 The Birth of Star 360
12.6 White Dwarfs 361
12.7 Neutron Stars 364
12.8 Gravitational Collapse 366
12.9 Oppenheimer–Snyder Nonstatic Dust Model 366
12.10 Gravitational Lensing 370
12.11 General Spherically Symmetric Spacetime and the Deflection Angle 371
Contents xi

Appendix A Extrinsic Curvature or Second Fundamental Form 379

Appendix B Lagrangian Formulation of General Relativity 383

Appendix C 3+1 Decomposition 391

Bibliography 395
Index 399
Figures

1 S and S frames. 2
2 Two neighboring points in a space. 12
3 Locally Euclidean space. 22
4 Parallel transport. 23
5 Curves joining two fixed points. 46
6 Geodesic deviation. 49
7 The angle 𝜃 between Ai and ti is constant. 59
8 Sphere of uniform mass. 87
9 Phenomenological comparison of Einstein and Newtonian theories. 90
10 Two neighboring points under infinitesimal one parameter transformation. 96
11 Direction of Killing vector along time axis. 109
12 Spherical symmetry. 110
13 Spherically symmetric body with uniform density. 134
14 Proper radial distance in Schwarzschild spacetime for m = 1 and r0 = 2. 144
15 The embedding diagram for Schwarzschild spacetime for m = 1 in the left panel
and in the right panel we provide the entire imagining of the surface created by the
rotation of the embedded curve about the vertical z axis. 145
16 Plots for gtt of Reissner–Nordström black hole and Schwarzschild black hole. 151
17 Planets are moving around the sun in an elliptic orbit. 162
18 Precession of the perihelion of the planet. 165
19 Deviation of the light ray passing near the sun. 166
20 Light signal passing through the gravitational field of the sun, from earth to the
planet and back after being reflected from the planet. 168
21 Two observers are sitting with clocks. Observer 1 is sending radiation to observer 2. 171
2
22 (Left) Effective potential of massless particle against mr for different values of mh 2 .
h2 h2 h2
Curve 1 for m2
= 8, Curve 2 for m2
= 10, Curve 3 for m2
= 12, Curve 4 for
h2
m2
= 16. Note that V has only one extremum point, which is maximum. (Right)
r h2
Effective potential of massive particle against m
for different values ofm2
. Curve
h2 h2 h2 h2
1 for m2
= 8, Curve 2 for m2
= 10, Curve 3 for = 12, Curve 4
m2
for m2 = 16.
Note that V has both maximum and minimum points. 174
23 Chronological future and past. 188
24 Causal future and past. 189
25 q lies in future of p on the causal curve 𝛾. 190
26 Chronological (causal) future set of a set. 190

xiii
xiv Figures

27 Every point in I+ (p) is an interior point. 190

28 All the limit points of J+ (p) are not contained in J+ (p). 191
29 Every point in J+ (p) is not an interior point. 192
30 J+ (p) ⊂ I+ (p). 192
31 r is an interior point. 193
32 An event p lies just inside the boundary of the chronological future İ + (S). 193
33 A future set of a set is the union of I+ (p). 194
34 Achronal set. 194
35 I+ (p) ⊂ I+ (S). 194
36 Edge of a set. 195
37 Convex normal neighborhood N of x. 195
{ }
38 Every open neighborhood of x intersects infinity many 𝜆n . 196
39 Identifying t = 0 and t = 1 hypersurfaces. 197
40 The neighborhood V of p is contained in O. 198
41 The light cone of gab is strictly larger than that of gab . 198
42 −∇a f is future-directed. 199
43 When a future-directed nonspace-like curve leaves V, the limiting value of f is
greater than when a future-directed nonspace-like curve enters V. 200
44 Future and past domain of dependence. 201
45 Cauchy surface. 202
46 Future cauchy horizon. 202
47 No two points in H+ (S) are time-like related. 203
48 p ∈ D+ (S) − H+ (S). 204
49 The future domain of dependence D+ (S) and Cauchy horizon H+ (S). 205
50 S is asymptotically null to the right and becomes exactly null to the left. 205
51 The surface St of constant time in Minkowski spacetime. 206
52 S is not globally hyperbolic. 206
53 Example of nonglobally hyperbolic spacetime. 207
54 y lies strictly on the light cone. 207
55 One can join z and y through a time-like curve. 208
56 The point y lies outside of the causal future and past of x ∈ M. 208
57 Reflecting spacetime. 209
58 I+ (q) is strictly contained in I+ (p). 211
59 I+ (y) − I+ (x) contains an open set. 212
60 I+ (y) is strictly contained in I+ (x). 213
61 For future-directed time-like curve 𝛾 with a future end point p, I− (𝛾) = I− (p). 215
62 The shaded region in figure is the TIP representing the point p. 215
63 The time-like geodesics 𝛾 from p. 217
64 Null coordinate v(w) can be regarded as an incoming (outgoing) spherical wave. 221
65 (t, r) and (v, w) in a single origin. 221
66 Einstein static cylinder can be decomposed into various components. 223
67 Diagram of Minkowski spacetime in (t′ , r′ ) plane. 224
68 Any point can be causally connected with future time-like infinity. 225
Figures xv

69 The image of de Sitter spacetime. This is a hyperboloid embedded in a flat five-

dimensional spacetime given by general coordinates (t, 𝜒, 𝜃, 𝜙). 227
70 Einstein static universe. 228
71 Past infinity (I− ) and future infinity (I+ ), which are S3 sphere. 228
72 Particle horizon. 229
73 In Minkowski spacetime all the particles are seen at any event p on O′ s world. 229
74 An accelerating observer R in Minkowski space may have future event horizon. 230
75 Future and past event horizons. 230
76 Penrose diagram in anti-de Sitter space. 232
77 Robertson–Walker spacetime for k = 1 is mapped into the region in the Einstein
static universe. 236
78 Past infinity (I− ) and future infinity (I+ ) in Robertson–Walker spacetime for k = 1. 236
79 Penrose diagram of Robertson–Walker spacetime for k = −1. 237
80 Dust-filled Bianchi-I model in 𝜏 − 𝜂 plane. 240
81 Outgoing and ingoing radial null geodesics. 242
82 If we go toward r = 2m, the light cones become thinner and thinner and ultimately
collapse entirely. 242
83 (Left) A body takes finite proper time to reach from r = 2m to r = 0. (Right) Any
time-like particle requires infinite amount of time to touch the surface r = 2m. 243
84 The light cones in Schwarzschild geometry for the Tortoise coordinate (r∗ , t). 246
85 The behavior of the light cone in Eddington–Finkelstein coordinate. 247
86 The behavior of the light cone in Eddington–Finkelstein coordinate. 248
87 Kruskal–Szekeres diagram. 251
88 Penrose diagram of Schwarzschild solution in Kruskal coordinates. 253
89 Penrose diagram of naked singularity in Reissner–Nordström solution. 254
90 Light cones in Reissner–Nordström sacetime. 255
91 Light cones in Reissner–Nordström spacetime. 257
92 Light cones in extreme Reissner–Nordström spacetime. 258
93 The figure indicates the position of the horizons, ergosurfaces, and curvature
singularity in the Kerr black hole spacetime. 285
94 Light cones in Kerr spacetime. 287
95 Conformal structure of the Kerr spacetime. 294
96 Conformal structure of the extreme Kerr spacetime. 294
97 Hawking radiation. 295
98 Penrose process. 298
99 Particles are moving along nonintersecting geodesics. 308
100 The sides of a triangle are expanded by the same factor. 309
101 Galaxy has linear extend d(AB). 320
102 Universe with k = 0, −1, 1. 333
103 Behavior of a(t) in de Sitter model. 336
104 Photoelectric method. 346
105 H-R diagram. 346
106 Chemical compositions of stars. 347
xvi Figures

107 Internal structure of the star. 348

108 Fusion creates an external pressure that stabilizes the inward pressure caused by
gravity, steadying the star. 360
109 Collapsing star. 369
110 Gravitational lensing diagram. 369
111 3+1 foliation of spacetime: Decomposition of t𝛼 into lapse and shift. 392
Tables

I Theoretical prediction and observed values of the advance of perihelion of some

planets 165
II Solution of Lane–Emden equation. 354

xvii
Preface

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Einstein spent many years developing a new theory
in physics. The newly developed theory is known as the theory of relativity. This is basically a
combination of two theories: the first one is known as the special theory of relativity and latter
one is dubbed as the general theory of relativity. The special theory of relativity is based on two
postulates, namely the principle of relativity or equivalence, that is, the laws of physics are the same
in all inertial systems, which means no preferred inertial system exists, while the second postulate
is the principle of the constancy of the speed of light. The general theory of relativity asserts that
there is no difference between the local effects of a gravitational field and that of acceleration of an
inertial system. In other words, spacetime is warped or distorted by the matter and energy in it as an
effect of gravity. According to the general theory of relativity, massive objects cause the outer space
to twist due to gravity like a heavy ball bending a thin rubber sheet that is holding the ball. Heavier
balls bend spacetime far more than lighter ones. Like the special theory of relativity, the general
theory of relativity attracted scientists a lot, immediately after its discovery by Einstein. As a result,
it has been included as a compulsory subject in graduate and postgraduate courses of physics and
applied mathematics all over the globe. Einstein proposed the field equations for the general theory
of relativity by applying his own intuition. Later, many other methods were developed to construct
Einstein’s field equations.
This book on the general theory of relativity is an outcome of a series of lectures delivered by me,
over several years, to postgraduate students of mathematics at Jadavpur University. I should mention
that it is not a fundamental book. This book has been written, from a mathematical point of view, after
consulting several books existing in the literature. I have provided the list of the reference books.
During my lectures, many students asked questions that helped me know their needs as well as the
shortcomings in their understanding. Therefore, it is a well-planned textbook that has been organized
in a logical order and every topic has been dealt with in a simple and lucid manner. A number of
problems with hints, taken from the question papers of different universities, are included in each
chapter.
The book is organized as follows:
In Chapter One a brief overview of tensor calculus, including the different types of tensors as
well as operations on tensors, is given. Generalized Kronecker delta, Christoffel symbols, affine
connection, covariant derivatives, geodesic coordinate, and various forms of tensors are described,
with examples, as a foreground to understand the basics of general relativity. Chapter Two starts
with a discussion of the geodesic equation in curved spacetime. In addition, several problems
for different spacetimes are provided on geodesics. Chapter Three begins with the statement
of three basic principles, namely Mach’s principle, equivalence principle, and the principle of
covariance. Next, the Einstein gravitational field equations are derived from the variational principle.

xix
xx Preface

Also, in this chapter, the outline of some modified theories of gravity, such as f(R) theory of
gravity, Gauss–Bonnet gravity, f(G) theory of gravity or modified Gauss–Bonnet gravity, f(T)
theory of gravity, f(R,T) theory of gravity, Brans–Dicke theory of gravity, and Weyl gravity, are
provided. A discussion on linearized gravity is given in Chapter Four. Newtonian limit of Einstein
field equations or weak field approximation of Einstein field equations is derived. It is shown
that Poisson’s equation can be viewed as an approximation of Einstein field equations. A short
mathematical description of gravitational wave is also provided. Chapter Five is dedicated to a
short discussion on Lie derivatives and their applications. Killing equations and Killing vectors are
also discussed with several examples. A short note on conformal Killing vector is also provided.
Chapter Six is devoted to discussions on spacetimes of spherically symmetric distributions of
matter. The exact exterior and interior solutions of Einstein field equations in spherically symmetric
spacetimes are discussed. The proof of Birkoff’s theory is provided. It states that a spherically
symmetric gravitational field in vacuum is necessarily static and must have Schwarzschild form. The
Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkov (TOV) equation is discussed. Isotropic coordinate system is a new
coordinate system whose spatial distance is proportional to the Euclidean square of the distances.
Some static spherically symmetric spacetimes are rewritten in an isotropic coordinate system. A
short discussion on interaction between the gravitational and electromagnetic fields are provided.
Reissner–Nordström solution is a static solution of the gravitational field outside of a spherically
symmetric charged body. Particle and photon orbits in the Schwarzschild spacetime are discussed
in Chapter Seven. Also, in this chapter, using the trajectory in the gravitational field of sun (i.e., in
the Schwarzschild spacetime), several tests of the theory of general relativity, namely the precession
of the perihelion motion of mercury, bending of light, radar echo delay, and gravitational redshift,
are explained. A discussion on the stable circular orbits in the Schwarzschild spacetime is given. A
general treatment is provided for the experimental test of general theory of relativity for a general
static and spherically symmetric configuration. Causal structure in the special theory of relativity,
i.e., in Minkowski spacetime or flat spacetime, is characterized so that no massive particle can
travel faster than light. In general relativity, locally there is no difference of the causality relation
with Minkowski spacetime. However, globally, the causality relation is significantly different due
to various spacetime topologies. A short discussion on causal structure of spacetimes is given
in Chapter Eight. Several basic definitions and some standard theorems related to causality are
explained. Chapter Nine deals with discussions on causal structures of specific spacetimes, which
are the standard exact solutions of Einstein field equations such as Minkowski spacetime, de Sitter
and anti-de Sitter spacetimes, Robertson–Walker spacetime, Bianchi-I spacetime, Schwarzschild
spacetime, and Reissner–Nordström black hole. A short elementary discussion on rotating black
holes is given in Chapter Ten. After introducing the tetrad, an outline of the derivation of the Kerr
and Kerr–Newman solutions is illustrated through the complex transformation algorithm for both
in four and higher dimensions. Some of the different forms of the Kerr solution are mentioned.
Some elementary properties of the Kerr solution including the maximal extension of Kerr spacetime
are discussed. Finally, brief discussions on Hawking radiation, Penrose process of extraction of
energy from a Kerr black hole, and laws of black hole thermodynamics are given. Chapters Eleven
and Twelve provide some simple applications of general theory of relativity in astrophysics and
cosmology, respectively. Some preliminary concepts of extrinsic curvature, Lagrangian formalism
of the general theory of relativity, and 3 + 1 decomposition of spacetime are given as appendices.
Acknowledgments

This book has been made possible through the support, contributions, and assistance of many people
and various organizations. I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to all of them.
I would like to deeply and sincerely thank my mother (Majeda), wife (Pakizah), and son (Rahil),
without whose loving support and encouragement this book could not have been completed. I also
express my sincere gratitude to my father-in-law (Abdul Hannan), mother-in-law (Begum Nurjahan),
brother-in-law (Dr. Ruhul Amin), younger brother (Mafrook Rahaman), and niece (Ayat Nazifa)
for their patience and support during the entire period of the preparation of the manuscript. It is a
pleasure to thank Dr. Nupur Paul, Dr. Sayeedul Islam, Dr. Banashree Sen, Dr. Mosiur Rahaman,
Dr. Indrani Karar, Monsur Rahaman, Dr. Shyam Das, Lipi Baskey, Nayan Sarkar, Md Rahil Miraj,
Dr. Arkopriya Mallick, Sabiruddin Molla, Dr. Ayan Banerjee, Dr. Tuhina Manna, Dr. Amna Ali,
Dr. Nasarul Islam, Ksh. Newton Singh, Somi Aktar, Bidisha Samanta, Dr. Sourav Roychowdhury,
Dr. Debabrata Deb, Dr. Amit Das, Dr. Abdul Aziz, Dr. Anil Kumar Yadav, Monimala Mandal,
Antara Mapdar, Dr. Saibal Ray, Dr. Mehedi Kalam, Susmita Sarkar, Dr. Piyali Bhar, Dr. Gopal
Chandra Shit, Dr. Ranjan Sharma, Dr. Shounak Ghosh, and Dr. Iftikar Hossain Sardar for their
technical assistance in the preparation of the book. I remain thankful to all the professors and
non-teaching staff members of the Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University for providing
me with all the available facilities and services whenever needed. Particularly I would like to
mention the library staff for their excellent support. Finally, I am also thankful to the authority of
the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Pune, India for providing all
kinds of working facility and hospitality under the Associateship Scheme.

xxi
 CHAPTER

Tensor Calculus — A Brief Overview

1

1.1 Introduction
The principal target of tensor calculus is to investigate the relations that remain the same when we
change from one coordinate system to any other. The laws of physics are independent of the frame
of references in which physicists describe physical phenomena by means of laws. Therefore, it is
useful to exploit tensor calculus as the mathematical tool in which such laws can be formulated.

1.2 Transformation of Coordinates

Let there be two reference systems, S with coordinates (x1 , x2 , … , xn ) and S with coordinates
1 2 n
(x , x , … , x ) (Fig. 1). The new system S depends on the old system S as
i
x = 𝜙i (x1 , x2 , … , xn ); i = 1, 2, … , n. (1.1)

Here 𝜙i are single-valued continuous differentiable functions of x1 , x2 , … , xn and further the

Jacobian

| 𝜕𝜙1 𝜕𝜙1 𝜕𝜙1 … 𝜕𝜙1 |

| 𝜕x1 𝜕x2 𝜕x3 𝜕xn |
| 𝜕𝜙i | || 𝜕𝜙2 𝜕𝜙2 𝜕𝜙2 𝜕𝜙2 ||
| | … 𝜕xn |
| j | = || 𝜕x1 𝜕x2 𝜕x3 ≠ 0.
| 𝜕x | |. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .||
| | | n n n |
| 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 … 𝜕𝜙n |
| 𝜕x1 𝜕x2 𝜕x3 𝜕xn |

Differentiation of Eq. (1.1) yields

i
∑
n
𝜕𝜙i ∑n
𝜕x r ∑ i r
i n
dx = dxr = dx = ar dx .
r=1
𝜕x r
r=1
𝜕xr r=1

∑
Now and onward, we use the Einstein summation convention, i.e., omit the summation symbol
and write the above equations as
i
i 𝜕x r i
dx = dx = ar dxr , (1.2)
𝜕xr

1
2 Tensor Calculus — A Brief Overview

Figure 1 S and S frames.

or
𝜕xi m m
dxi = m dx = am dx .
i
(1.3)
𝜕x
The repeated index r or m is known as dummy index. The index i is not dummy and is known as
free index.
The transformation matrices are inverse to each other
i
ar am
i
= 𝛿rm . (1.4)

The symbol 𝛿rm is Kronecker delta, is defined as

𝛿rm = 1 if m = r
= 0 if m ≠ r

Obviously vectors in (S) system are linked with (S) system.

1.3 Covariant and Contravariant Vector and Tensor

Usually one can describe the tensors by means of their properties of transformation under coordinate
transformation. There are two possible ways of transformations from one coordinate system (xi ) to
i
the other coordinate system (x ).
Let us consider a set of n functions Ai of the coordinates xi . The functions Ai are said to be the
components of covariant vector if these components transform according to the following rule

𝜕xj
Āi = i Aj . (1.5)
𝜕 x̄
𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕xj j j
Also, one can find by multiplying 𝜕xk
and using 𝜕xk 𝜕 x̄ i
= 𝛿k and 𝛿k Aj = Ak

𝜕 x̄ i ̄
Ak = A.
𝜕xk i
Covariant and Contravariant Vector and Tensor 3

Exercise 1.1
𝜕B
Gradient of a scalar B, i.e., Bi = 𝜕xi
is a covariant vector.

Here, Ai is known as the covariant tensor of first order or of the type (0, 1).
The functions Ai are said to be the components of the contravariant vector if these components
transform according to the following rule

𝜕 x̄ i
Ā i = j Aj (1.6)
𝜕x
𝜕xk
Also, one can find by multiplying both sides with 𝜕 x̄ i
and using 𝛿jk Aj = Ak

𝜕xk ̄i
Ak = A.
𝜕 x̄ i

Here, Ai is known as the contravariant tensor of first order or of the type (1, 0).

Exercise 1.2
dxi
Tangent vector du
of the curve xi = xi (u) is a contravariant vector.

Exercise 1.3
Let components of velocity vector in Cartesian coordinates are ẋ and y. ̇ Find corresponding
components in polar coordinates. √
1 2
Hint: Here, x1 = x , x2 = y, and x = r, x = 𝜃 with x = r cos 𝜃, y = r sin 𝜃, i.e., r = x2 + y2 ,
𝜃 = tan−1 ( yx ).
1 2
̇ A2 = y.
Let A1 = x, ̇ We will have to find A , A .
(“dot” denotes differentiation with respect to t.)
i 𝜕 x̄ i j
Using the definition A = 𝜕xj
A, we have

1 𝜕 x̄ 1 1 𝜕 x̄ 1 2 1 𝜕r 𝜕r
A = A + 2 A or, A = ẋ + ẏ = r.̇
𝜕x 1 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y

Similarly,

2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃
A = ẋ + ẏ = 𝜃.̇
𝜕x 𝜕y

Exercise 1.4
Let components of acceleration vector in Cartesian coordinates be ẍ and ÿ . Find corresponding
components in polar coordinates.
4 Tensor Calculus — A Brief Overview

1 2
Hint: Let A1 = ẍ , A2 = ÿ . We will have to find A , A .
Here,
1 𝜕r 𝜕r ̇ A = 𝜕𝜃 ẍ + 𝜕𝜃 ÿ = 𝜃̈ + 2 𝜃̇ r.̇
2
A = ẍ + ÿ = r̈ − r𝜃,
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕x 𝜕y r

1.3.1 Invariant
Let 𝜙 be a function of coordinate system (xi ) and 𝜙 be its transform in another coordinate system
i
(x ). Then, 𝜙 is said to be invariant if 𝜙 = 𝜙.

Exercise 1.5
The expression Ai Bi is an invariant or scalar, i.e.,

Āi B̄i = Ai Bi . (1.7)

Hint: Use definitions given in Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6).

An invariant or scalar is known as the tensor of the type (0, 0).

1.3.2 Contravariant and covariant tensors of rank two

Let Ci and Bj be two contravariant vectors with n components, then Ci Bj = Aij has n2 quantities, i.e.,
Aij are the set of n2 functions of the coordinates xi . If the transformation of Aij is like

𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕 x̄ j
Āij = k l Akl , (1.8)
𝜕x 𝜕x

then Aij is known as contravariant tensor of rank two. Here, Aij is also known as the contravariant
tensor of order two or of the type (2, 0).
If we multiply both sides of (1.8) by 𝜕x
r 𝜕xs

𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕 x̄ j
, then

𝜕xr 𝜕xs ̄ ij
Ars = A .
𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕 x̄ j

Again, if Ci and Bj are two covariant vectors with n components, then Ci Bj = Aij form n2
quantities, i.e., Aij are the set of n2 functions of the coordinates xi .
If the transformation of Aij is like

𝜕xk 𝜕xl
Ā ij = i j Akl , (1.9)
𝜕 x̄ 𝜕 x̄
then Aij is known as covariant tensor of rank two.
Here, Aij is also known as the covariant tensor of order two or of the type (0, 2).
Covariant and Contravariant Vector and Tensor 5

𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕 x̄ j
If we multiply both sides of (1.9) by 𝜕xr 𝜕xs
, then

𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕 x̄ j ̄
Ars = A .
𝜕xr 𝜕xs ij

1.3.3 Mixed tensor of order two Aij

Suppose Aij is a set of n2 functions of n coordinates. If the transformation obeys the following rule

𝜕 x̄ i 𝜕xl
Ā ij = k j Akl ,
𝜕x 𝜕 x̄

then Akl is known as the mixed tensor of order two or of the type (1, 1).
Thus, mixed tensor of order two can be obtained by taking a covariant vector Ai and a
j
contravariant vector Bj , i.e., Ci = Ai Bj .

Exercise 1.6
j
Kronecker delta 𝛿i is a mixed tensor of order two.
j j
Hint: If 𝛿i can be combined with components of two vectors to form a scalar, then 𝛿i will be a tensor.
Now
j
Ai Bj 𝛿i = Ai Bi = scalar.

If the transformation obeys the following rule

𝜕 x̄ i1 𝜕 x̄ i2 𝜕 x̄ ip 𝜕xl1 𝜕xl2 𝜕xlq k k …k

Ā j1 j2 …jp = k
i i …i
… k … j Al 1l 2…l p ,
1 2 q 𝜕x 1 𝜕x 2 k
𝜕x p 𝜕 x̄ 1 𝜕 x̄ 2
j j
𝜕 x̄ q 1 2 q
k k …k
then Al 1l 2…l p is known as mixed tensor of the type (p, q).
1 2 q

1.3.4 Symmetric and skew-symmetric tensors

If a tensor is unaltered after changing every pair of contravariant or covariant indices, then it is said
to be a symmetric tensor. Let T𝛼𝛽 be a covariant tensor of rank two.
If T𝛼𝛽 = T𝛽𝛼 , then it is known as symmetric tensor.
If a tensor is altered in its sign but not in magnitude after changing every pair of contravariant
or covariant indices, then it is said to be a skew-symmetric tensor.
If T𝛼𝛽 = −T𝛽𝛼 , then it is known as antisymmetric or skew-symmetric tensor.

Exercise 1.7
Kronecker delta 𝛿ij is a symmetric tensor.
6 Tensor Calculus — A Brief Overview

Exercise 1.8
𝜕Ai 𝜕Aj
If Ai is covariant vector, then curlAi = 𝜕xj
− 𝜕xi
is a skew-symmetric tensor.
𝜕Ai 𝜕Aj
Hint: Use curlAi = 𝜕xj
− 𝜕xi
= Bij and show that Bij = −Bji .

Note 1.1
Symmetry property of a tensor is independent of the coordinate system.

Note 1.2
n(n+1)
A symmetric tensor of order two in n-dimensional space has at most 2
independent components
n(n−1)
whereas an antisymmetric tensor of order two has at most 2
independent components.

1.4 Operations on Tensors

i. The addition and subtraction of two tensors of the same type is a tensor of same type.

Exercise 1.9

j j j
Aij ± Bij = Cij , Aij ± Bij = Cij , Ai ± Bi = Ci

Exercise 1.10
Any covariant or contravariant tensor of second order can be expressed as a sum of a symmetric and
a skew-symmetric tensor of order two.
Hint:
1 1
aij = (a + aji ) + (aij − aji ), etc.
2 ij 2
ii. The type of the tensor remains invariant by multiplication of a scalar 𝛼.

Exercise 1.11

j j
𝛼Aij = Cij , 𝛼Aij = Cij , 𝛼Ai = Ci

iii. Outer product: The outer product of two tensors is a new tensor whose order is the sum of the
orders of the given tensors.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “Is Miss Comfort being evicted from house by your order?
Public opinion in arms. Answer.”

“Huh,” said Ned, “public opinion can’t be ‘in arms,’ you silly
chump.”
“That’s only two words less than mine,” said Bob.
“Well, we’ll see if we can’t get it into ten,” replied Laurie
untroubledly. “Now then!” He took up his pencil again. “We might say
‘Comfort’ instead of ‘Miss Comfort,’ but it doesn’t sound quite
respectful.”
“Leave out ‘from house,’” suggested Bob. “He will understand that
she isn’t being evicted from the stable!”
“That’s so! ‘Is Miss Comfort being evicted by your order? Public
opinion—er—’”
“‘Against it,’” offered Ned.
“‘Opposed,’” said Bob.
“I’ve got it!” exclaimed Laurie, erasing and starting a new draft.
“How’s this? ‘Have you authorized eviction aged sister-in-law?
Orstead indignant. Answer immediately.’ That ought to fetch him!
Only ten words, too!”
“How about sister-in-law?” asked Bob. “Will they call it one word or
three?”
“One, of course. Or ‘aged relative’ might do just as well. ‘Orstead
indignant’ will give him a jolt, I’ll bet!”
“What are you going to sign it?” asked Ned anxiously.
Laurie hadn’t thought of that. Bob suggested “Friend,” but Ned
reminded him that if they expected to get a reply they’d have to give
more of an address than that. Laurie took a deep breath and leaped
the Rubicon. He signed “Laurence S. Turner” boldly and drew a
heavy mark under it for emphasis. Ned shook his head doubtfully,
but Bob was thrilled.
 “He will probably think you’re one of the town’s leading citizens,”
he chuckled.
“Well, so I am,” answered Laurie, “in this affair. Now we’ll go down
and get it off at night-rates.”
“Say,” said Ned, “we’re a set of dumb-bells! We could have sent a
night-letter of fifty words for the same price.”
“That’s so,” admitted Laurie. “I think a night-letter costs a little
more, though, doesn’t it? Anyway, this is more—more succinct. It
sounds more businesslike. What do you think?”
They agreed that it did, and presently, a fresh copy of the
message in his pocket, Laurie led the way from the room, followed
by the others. The languid youth who accepted the telegram at the
office appeared to hesitate over “sister-in-law,” but he made no
objection to its inclusion as one word, and he brightened perceptibly
as the sense of the message percolated in his mind. He looked
curiously at the three boys, re-read the message, and then shook his
head incredulously.
“Sick ’em, Prince,” he murmured.
The cost of the telegram was less than Laurie had dared hope it
would be, and in the first moment of relief he magnanimously offered
to pay a full half. Fortunately for his purse, though, the others
insisted on sharing equally, and, the second moment having now
arrived, Laurie allowed them to do it.
Returning to school, Ned was preyed on by doubts. Now that the
telegram was an accomplished fact, he spoke dismally of the laws
concerning libel. When Laurie refused to be concerned he wanted to
know what they were to do if Mr. Goupil wired back that he had
authorized Miss Comfort’s eviction. Laurie wasn’t prepared to
answer that question. “We’ll cross that bridge when we come to it,”
he replied with dignity.
As a matter of fact, Laurie didn’t intend to do anything in such a
case. He had saved his face, and that was sufficient. After this he
meant to refrain from too much talking and keep out of affairs that
didn’t concern him. Unfortunately, as he was to discover, it is
frequently easier to start than it is to stop, and to make good
resolutions than to follow them!
As he secretly considered the episode ended, Laurie would have
put Miss Comfort and Mr. A. G. Goupil completely out of his mind for
the rest of the evening if Ned hadn’t insisted on speculating as to the
effect of the telegram on the addressee. Ned just couldn’t seem to let
the subject alone. Laurie became very much bored, and when Ned,
later, came out with the brilliant suggestion of having Miss Comfort
added to the school faculty as professor of pastry Laurie threw a
book at him.
The following morning Kewpie was absolutely exasperating when
they met beside the gymnasium. He had brought his precious book
with him and insisted on pausing between pitches to study diagrams
and directions, occasioning long waits and leaving Laurie with
nothing to do save indulge in feeble sarcasms that affected Kewpie
no whit. Kewpie was struggling with what he earnestly told Laurie
was an out-drop. Laurie sarcastically replied that Kewpie was at
liberty to call it anything he pleased, out-drop, floater, in-shoot, or
fade-away; they all looked the same to him when Kewpie pitched
’em! Kewpie looked almost hurt, and Laurie recalled Polly’s
injunction not to discourage the aspirant for pitching honors, and so
presently told Kewpie that one of his offerings “looked pretty good.”
After that Kewpie cheered up a lot and pitched a ball high over the
back-stop.
All that day Laurie looked for a telegram. It was, he thought,
inconceivable that the Goop guy, as he privately called Mr. A. G.
Goupil, should delay in answering such a communication, and when,
after school was over for the day, no telegram had been delivered at
East Hall, he hurried down to the telegraph office and made
inquiries. The man in charge, who was not the one who had been on
duty the evening before, went to a deal of trouble before informing
Laurie that no message had been received. Going back, Laurie
pondered. It might mean that Mr. Goupil had chosen to communicate
with his lawyer instead of him, Laurie. Or it might mean that Mr.
Goupil was taking time to consider the matter. Laurie dismissed the
business from his mind, and, although well ahead of time, went over
to the gymnasium and leisurely donned his baseball togs. There had
been talk of getting out on the field to-day, but the turf was still a little
too soft.
In the baseball cage four other early arrivals were on hand; Nate
Beedle, Hillman’s first-choice pitcher, Captain Dave Brewster, third
baseman, Gordon Simkins, in-field candidate, and Elkins Thurston.
The last two were passing, while Beedle and Brewster sat on the
floor with their backs against the wire.
“Hello, Nod!” greeted Nate. “Hear you’ve started a kindergarten for
pitchers, sonny.”
Nate was a nice chap, and Nod didn’t mind being “ragged” by him
a bit. “Yes, that’s so,” Laurie agreed. “Want to join?”
The others laughed; all save Elk. Elk, tossing the ball back to
Simkins, sneered, “The way I got it, Proudtree’s trying to teach
Turner how to catch!”
“Fact is,” replied Laurie, “it’s sort of mutual. Kewpie’s improving his
pitching, and I’m improving my catching.”
“Can he pitch at all?” asked Dave Brewster.
“Kewpie? Well, he hasn’t much just now, but—”
“But you’re teaching him the trick, eh?” jeered Elk. “Say, Nate,
you’d better watch out or you’ll lose your job.”
Nate laughed good-naturedly. “That’s right. I’ll say one thing,
though. If Kewpie could pitch the way he can play center I’d be
worried. Does he think he can get on the squad, Nod?”
“Guess he’d like to.”
“He’s got a swell chance,” said Elk.
“Oh, I don’t know,” answered Laurie. “They took you on.”
“Is that so? Don’t get fresh, youngster. I suppose you think you’ve
got such a pull with Pinky that he’ll take on any fellow you
recommend. Say, Nate, can’t you just see Proudtree running
bases?” And Elk laughed vociferously.
 Laurie, just at present inclined to resent anything that Elk said,
merely on general principles, found cause for added resentment
now. Kewpie was both friend and pupil, and consequently
disparagement of Kewpie was disparagement of him. Simkins’s
remark that Kewpie had shown pretty good speed on the football
field was cut into by Laurie with:
“He isn’t out to become a sprinter, Elk. He’s going to be a pitcher.
You don’t expect a pitcher to be much of a hand on the bases. As for
his chance of getting on the squad, well, when I get through with him
I guess he can have a place if he wants it.”
“When you— Oh, my sainted aunt!” cried Elk. “When you get
through with him! What do you know about pitching, I’d like to know?
You’re a swell teacher, you are! You never caught behind the plate
until two or three weeks ago.”
“What of it? That doesn’t prevent me from knowing a natural-born
pitcher when I see him. And if—”
“Natural-born pitcher! Kewpie Proudtree? Don’t make me laugh! I’ll
bet he can’t pitch a straight ball!”
“Can’t, eh? Listen, Elk. Kewpie’s a better pitcher right now than
you are a catcher. If he wasn’t I wouldn’t bother with him.”
“Oh, piffle! He can’t pitch and you can’t teach him, kid. And as for
catching, if I dropped every ball that comes over I wouldn’t be
shooting my mouth off, you fresh guy!”
“I get my glove on ’em, and that’s more than you do, Elk, old son.
And if you think I don’t know what I’m talking about when I say that
Kewpie’s got the making of a pitcher, why, you just keep your eyes
open.”
“Sure! You’re going to have him on the squad next week, I
suppose!”
“No, not next week, but I’ll tell you one thing. He will be pitching for
this team before the season’s over!”
“What!” It was a chorus of blank incredulity. Then there was
laughter, through which struggled Nate’s voice saying, “Nod, you’re
as crazy as a coot!” The burst of merriment acted on Laurie
somewhat like a wet sponge on the face of a sleeper. He awoke
suddenly to the enormity of his assertion, and caution urged him to
prompt retraction, or, at least, compromise. But there was Elk
Thurston grinning and sneering, his very attitude a challenge. Laurie
swallowed hard and summoned a smile of careless ease to his
countenance.
“You heard what I said,” he remarked calmly.
Then Coach Mulford came in, and the die was cast. Laurie waved
a nonchalant hand to Dave Brewster. In appearance he looked as
care-free and untroubled as any person there, but to himself he was
saying bitterly, “There, you poor fish, you’ve been and gone and
done it again!”
 CHAPTER VII
POLLY APPROVES

P ractice over, Laurie set out to find Ned. He was very low in his
mind, was Laurie, and he wanted comfort in the worst way. But
Ned wasn’t in the room. The door of No. 15, across the corridor, was
half ajar, and through it issued the voice of Kewpie. “That you, Nid?”
inquired Kewpie. “Say, come in here. I’ve—”
“No!” replied Laurie emphatically as he hurried, toward the stairs.
Kewpie Proudtree was the last person in the whole world he wanted
to hold converse with just then. In fact, he wasn’t sure that he would
be able to control himself in Kewpie’s presence. Murder, he reflected
gloomily, had been committed for less cause than he had!
He set out toward the Widow Deane’s, going the long way around,
since he had no heart for Bob Starling’s questions and surmises
regarding Mr. A. G. Goupil. He had so thoroughly forgotten that flinty-
hearted person that he had not even looked on the table in No. 16 to
see if the telegram had arrived, and only the thought of encountering
Bob had reminded him of it. Turning into Garden Street, he heard
some one call: “Oh, Ned! Oo-ee!” It was no new thing to be mistaken
for Ned. During the first two months, or thereabouts, of their stay at
Hillman’s, he and Ned had been daily, hourly, almost constantly
mistaken one for the other, and even to this moment such mistakes
were not uncommon, which, considering the fact that the twins were
as alike as two peas, was not unnatural. He wasn’t Ned, but he
turned to see who was calling. It proved to be Mae Ferrand. She was
on the opposite side of the street waving to him. Laurie crossed with
little enthusiasm.
“Hello,” he said. “I’m looking for him, too, Mae.”
“Oh, it’s Laurie!” she exclaimed. “I do wish you boys wouldn’t
dress just alike!”
 “We don’t,” said Laurie somberly. “He’s wearing brown stockings,
and I’m wearing green.” He looked down at them. “Sort of green,
anyway.”
“Just as though any one could tell you by that,” laughed Mae. “Are
you going to Polly’s?”
Laurie acknowledged that he was, and they went on together.
“Isn’t it too bad about that poor, dear little Miss Comfort?” asked
Mae. “Polly told you, didn’t she?”
Laurie nodded. “Yes,” he answered. “Yes, it is too bad. At her age,
too. Eighty-something, isn’t she?”
“Why, no, of course not! The idea! She can’t be a day over sixty-
five.”
“Oh!” Laurie sounded a trifle disappointed. “Well, that’s different,
isn’t it?”
“Yes, I suppose it is,” agreed Mae without, however, quite getting
his point of view, “but it doesn’t make it much easier for her, I guess.”
“N-no.” Laurie was acquiring something close to distaste for the
subject. “Well, something may turn up,” he added vaguely, “before
the first of the month.”
“I hope so,” said Mae. But she didn’t sound hopeful. Laurie was
glad when she changed the subject with her next remark, although
he could have chosen a more welcome one: “Polly says that the—
the conspiracy is working just beautifully, Laurie. She says that
Kewpie Proudtree is quite like another boy the last day or two. Is he
doing any better with his pitching?”
Laurie turned and regarded her balefully. “Better? No, and he
never will,” he answered disgustedly. “Why that poor prune couldn’t
pitch ball if—if—” He stopped, suddenly recalling his statements
made in the cage a scant hour and a half since. He felt rather
confused. Mae nodded sympathetically.
“Well, I think it’s darling of you to take so much trouble with him,”
she said. “Sometimes I think that friendship means so much more
with boys than it does with girls.”
 “Friendship!” blurted Laurie.
“Why, yes, don’t you call it friendship? Every one knows what
great pals you and Kewpie have been all winter. I think it’s perfectly
lovely!”
“Huh,” growled Laurie.
“For goodness’ sake, what is the matter with you to-day?” asked
Mae concernedly. “You’re—you’re awfully funny!”
Laurie summoned a mirthless and hollow laugh. “I’m all right,” he
replied, “only I—I’ve got a lot of things to think of just now, and—”
Further explanation was spared him, for just then they reached the
shop and Laurie opened the door with a sigh of relief. Ned was
there, and so were Polly and Mrs. Deane. Laurie morosely declined
the offer of a soda, slung himself to a counter, met the surprised and
mildly disapproving gaze of the Widow, and got down again. The
talk, interrupted by their arrival, began once more. Of course it was
about Miss Comfort. (Mrs. Deane had been to see her that
forenoon.) She hadn’t heard again from the lawyer or from her
brother-in-law, and she had begun to pack her things. Laurie felt
Ned’s gaze on him and turned. Ned’s look was inquiring. Laurie
didn’t know what he meant by it, and frowned his perplexity. Ned
worked around to him and whispered in his ear.
“Did it come? Did you get it?” he asked.
“Get what?”
“Shut up! The telegram, you chump!”
“Oh! No, I don’t think so.”
“You don’t think—” began Ned in impatient sibilation.
“What are you two whispering about?” inquired Polly.
“Oh, nothing,” answered Ned airily.
“Ned Turner, don’t tell fibs,” said Polly severely. “There’s
something going on that we don’t know about, Mae. Mama’s in on it,
too. I can tell. She can no more hide a secret than she can fly. And I
don’t think,” ended Polly with deep pathos, “that it’s very nice of you
to have a secret from Mae and me.”
Ned looked concerned and apologetic. He viewed Laurie
inquiringly. “Shall we tell them?” he asked. Laurie shrugged.
“I don’t care,” he answered moodily.
“Oh, of course, if you don’t want us to know,” began Polly very
haughtily. Laurie managed a most winning smile.
“Of course I do,” he assured her. “I—I was going to tell you,
anyhow.”
Polly didn’t look wholly convinced, but, “Well?” she said. “Go on
and tell, then.” Laurie waved toward Ned.
“Let him do it,” he said.
So Ned confessed about the telegram to Mr. Goupil, taking rather
more credit to himself than, perhaps, the facts warranted—
something that might have brought a protest from Laurie had that
youth been any longer interested in what to him seemed now a
closed incident. Polly exclaimed applaudingly; Mae clapped her
hands; and Mrs. Deane, proud of the fact that for once in her life she
had managed, if only for a few short hours, to keep something secret
from her daughter, beamed. Then praise was fairly lavished on
Laurie and Ned, the former receiving the lion’s share, since the
brilliant idea had been born in his stupendous brain. Laurie looked
decidedly bored, and the feminine portion of the assembly credited
his expression to modesty.
“Oh, Laurie,” exclaimed Polly, “I think you’re perfectly wonderful!
Don’t you, Mae?”
Mae was enthusiastically affirmative.
“It was just the one absolutely practical thing to do,” continued
Polly. “And I don’t see how Mr. Gou—Gou—whatever his name is—
will dare to go on with his disgusting plan, do you? If that telegram
doesn’t make him perfectly ashamed of himself, it—it—well, it ought
to!”
 “Sort of funny, though,” said Ned, “that he hasn’t answered before
this. If he doesn’t answer at all—well, do you think we ought to send
him another, Laurie?”
Laurie shook his head. “No good,” he said briefly.
“Oh, but he will answer it,” declared Polly. “Why, he’d simply have
to! His own self-respect would—would demand it!”
“Of course!” agreed Mae. “Maybe there’s a telegram waiting for
you now, Laurie.”
“That’s so.” Laurie spoke with more animation. “Let’s go and see,
Ned.”
“I didn’t say anything about it to Miss Comfort,” observed Mrs.
Deane in the tone of one asking commendation.
“Oh, no, you mustn’t,” said Polly. “If—if nothing came of it, after all,
she’d be too disappointed. Laurie, if Mr. Whatshisname still insists on
—on things going ahead as they are going, what will you do then?”
“Me?” Laurie regarded her unemotionally. Then he shrugged.
“Why, I guess that would settle it, wouldn’t it? Isn’t anything more I
could do, is there? Or any of us?”
“Oh, Laurie!” exclaimed Mae in vast disappointment. Polly, though,
only laughed.
“Don’t be silly, Mae,” she said. “Of course he’s only fooling. You
ought to know Laurie well enough to know that he isn’t going to give
up as easily as all that. I’ll just bet you anything he knows this very
minute what he means to do. Only he doesn’t want to tell us yet.”
“I don’t, either,” protested Laurie vehemently. “Look here, this isn’t
any affair of mine, and—and—”
“Just what I told him,” said Mrs. Deane agreeably. “I think he’s
been very nice to take such an interest and so much trouble, but I’m
sure he can’t be expected to do any more, Polly.”
Polly smiled serenely. She shared the smile between her mother
and a disquieted Laurie. Then she slipped an arm around Mae and
gave her a squeeze. “We know, don’t we, Mae?” she asked.
 Laurie stared helplessly for a moment. Then he seized Ned by the
arm and dragged him toward the door. “Come on,” he said
despairingly. “Come on home!”
“Say,” demanded Ned, once they were on the street, “what in the
world’s the matter with you?”
“Matter with me?” repeated Laurie a trifle wildly. “The matter with
me is that I talk too blamed much! That’s the matter with me! The
matter with me—”
“Yes, yes,” agreed Ned soothingly, “yes, yes, old-timer. But what’s
the present difficulty? Of course they don’t really expect us to find a
home for Miss Comfort, if that’s what’s biting you.”
“Well, I should hope not! But—but, listen, Neddie. Do you think
Kewpie knows enough about pitching to ever amount to a hill of
beans? Do you think that, if he practised like anything all spring, he
could—could get on the team?”
“Why, no, of course not,” replied Ned calmly. “Haven’t you said so
yourself a dozen times?”
“Yes. Yes, and now I’ve gone and said he could!”
“Who could? Could what?”
“Kewpie. Be a pitcher and get on the team.”
“Are you plumb loco?” asked Ned in astonishment.
“No.” Laurie shook his head mournfully. “No, it isn’t that. I—I just
talk too blamed much.”
“Well, who have you been talking to now? Get it off your chest,
partner.”
So Laurie told him. The narrative lasted until they had reached
their room, and after, and when, at last, Laurie ended his doleful tale
Ned looked at him in silence for a long, long moment. Finally, “You
half-portion of nothing!” breathed Ned pityingly. “You—you poor fish!”
“Well, what could I do?” asked Laurie. “I wasn’t going to let Elk
make me look like a fool.”
 “Huh! What do you think you look like now?”
Laurie began to prepare for supper without replying. He acted as if
chastened and worried. Ned watched him for a minute in frowning
perplexity. At last the frown vanished. “Well, what are you going to
do?” he asked.
Laurie shrugged. “How do I know? I did think that maybe
somehow or other Kewpie could learn to pitch, but I guess you’re
right about him. He never could.”
“No, but he’s got to!” was Ned’s astounding answer. “We’ve got to
see that he does, Laurie. You’ve said you were going to make a
pitcher of him—”
“I didn’t actually say I was going to do it.”
“Well, some one. You’ve said he was going to pitch on the team
this season. You might as well have said that I was going to be made
President. But you said it and, by heck, you’ve got to make good or
perish in the attempt. The honor of the Turners—”
“Looks to me like the honor of the Turners is going to get an awful
jolt,” murmured Laurie despondently. “Making a pitcher out of Kewpie
— Gee, Ned, the fellow who made a purse out of a pig’s ear had a
snap!”
“It’s got to be done,” reiterated Ned firmly. “After supper we’ll
decide how. Hold on, though! We don’t actually have to have him a
real pitcher, son. All we have to do is to get him on the team just
once, even if it’s only for two minutes, don’t you see?” Ned’s tone
was triumphant.
“Yes, but how can we do that if he doesn’t know how to pitch? I
don’t see that that’s going to make it any easier.”
“Maybe, maybe not. Anyhow, it helps. There might be some way of
faking him on there. Well, we’ve got nearly three months to do it in,
Laurie, so cheer up. Let’s go and eat. A truce to all trouble! The bell
rings for supper—”
“Of cold meat as chewy as Indian rupper!” completed Laurie.
“Quitter!” laughed Ned, pushing him through the door.
 CHAPTER VIII
KEWPIE AGREES

“K ewpie!”
“Yeah?”
“Come on over here!” It was Laurie calling from the doorway of No.
16. The door across the corridor opened, and the somewhat sleepy
countenance of Kewpie peered forth inquiringly. The hour was 9:40.
“What do you want?” asked Kewpie. “I’m just going to bed. I’m
tired, Nod.”
“You come over here,” was the stern, inexorable answer. “Ned and
I want to talk to you.”
“Well, gosh, I tell you I’m sleepy,” muttered Kewpie, but he crossed
the hall and followed Laurie into No. 16. Kewpie was chastely clad in
a suit of out-size pajamas, which were white with a broad blue stripe
at short intervals. Kewpie in night attire looked about half again as
large as he did when more or less confined in street costume. Laurie
thrust the visitor into the arm-chair. Kewpie subsided with a long sigh
and blinked wonderingly, first at Nid and then at the determined Nod.
Then he placed a large and pudgy hand in the neighborhood of his
face and yawned cavernously.
“What’s the matter with you fellows?” he inquired. “What are you
looking at me like that for?”
“Kewpie,” said Ned, “do you honestly think you can ever learn to
pitch?”
“What!” Kewpie woke up a trifle. “I can pitch right now. Who says I
can’t?”
“I do,” said Laurie emphatically. “You can pitch now just about as
well as a toad can fly. What we want to know is whether, if you
practise hard and keep at it, you can learn.”
Kewpie looked hurt. “Say, what’s the matter with my drop-ball?” he
asked indignantly. “I suppose you think you could hit that, eh? Well,
I’d like to see you try it.”
“Cut out the bunk, Kewpie,” said Ned sternly. “We’re talking
business now. You know plaguey well you wouldn’t last ten seconds
against a batter, the way you’re pitching now. Laurie says you’ve got
a fair drop, when you get it right, and that’s all you have got. You
haven’t—haven’t— What is it he hasn’t got, Laurie?”
“He hasn’t got anything except that drop. He can’t pitch a straight
ball with any speed—”
“I don’t want to. Any one can hit the fast ones.”
“And he hasn’t a curve to his name. About all he has got is a
colossal nerve.”
“Nerve yourself,” replied Kewpie. “I don’t pretend to be a Joe
Bush, or—or—”
“Can you learn?” demanded Ned. “If Laurie and I help every way
we know how, if you study that book of yours, if you practise hard
every day for—for two months, say, will you be able to pitch decently
at the end of that time?”
Kewpie was plainly puzzled by this sudden and intense interest in
him; puzzled and a trifle suspicious. “What do you want to know for?”
he asked slowly.
“Never mind. Answer the question.” Ned was very stern.
“Sure, I’d be able to pitch after two months. Bet you I’d have
everything there is.”
“All right,” replied Ned. “Here’s the dope. Laurie and Elk Thurston
and Nate Beedle and two or three more were talking in the gym this
afternoon, and Elk said you were no good and never would be able
to pitch, and—”
“Elk!” interrupted Kewpie contemptuously. “He’s just a big blow-
hard, a bluff, a—”
 “Never mind that. Laurie said you could pitch and that before the
season was over you’d be pitching on the nine. Get that?”
Kewpie nodded, glancing from one to the other of the twins, but he
seemed at a loss for words. Finally, though, he asked awedly, “Gosh,
Nod, did you tell ’em that?”
“Yes, like a blamed idiot I did! I guess I had a brain-storm or
something. Well, never mind that now. What do you say?”
“Me?” Kewpie cleared his throat. “Well, now, look here, I never told
you I could pitch on the team, did I?”
“If you didn’t you might just as well have,” answered Laurie
impatiently. “You’ve been cracking yourself up for a month. Now,
what Ned and I want to know—”
“Well, but hold on! How would I get to pitch, with Nate Beedle and
two or three others there? Gosh, those sharks have been at it for
years!”
“Never you mind how,” said Ned sharply. “That’s not the question.
Laurie’s gone and put himself in a hole, and you’ve got to help pull
him out. Will you do it?”
Kewpie was again silent for a moment. Then he nodded. “Sure,”
he said dubiously. “I’ll do what I can, but—”
“There aren’t any ‘buts,’” declared Ned. “If you’ll take hold
seriously and do your best and learn to pitch—well, fairly decently,
Kewpie, Laurie and I’ll look after the rest of it. We’ll see that you get
your chance somehow with the team.”
“How are you going to do it?” asked Kewpie.
Ned shrugged. “Don’t know yet. That’ll come later. Now, what do
you say? Will you be a game sport and buckle into it, or are you
going to throw us down? You’ll have to quit bluffing about what you
can do and work like the dickens, Kewpie. You’ll have to quit eating
sweet stuff and starchy things and get rid of about ten pounds, too.
Well?”
 Kewpie looked solemnly back at Ned for an instant. Then he
nodded shortly. “I’ll do it,” he said soberly. “Let’s go.”
The next day, which was a Saturday, the baseball candidates
forsook the gymnasium and went out on the field. The ground was
still soft in spots, and the diamond was not used. There was a long
session at the batting-net and plenty of fielding work to follow, and of
course, the pitching staff unlimbered and “shot ’em over” for awhile.
Beedle, Pemberton, and Croft comprised the staff at present, with
two or three aspirants applying for membership. George Pemberton
fell to Laurie’s share. Pemberton was not so good as Nate Beedle,
but he had done good work for the team last year and he was a
“comer.” Laurie, taking Pemberton’s shoots in his big mitten, for the
first time since he had been transferred from the out-field to a
position behind the plate, watched his pitcher’s work. Before this,
Laurie had concerned himself wholly with the ball. Now he gave
attention to the behavior of Pemberton, studying the latter’s stand,
his wind-up, the way his body and pitching arm came forward, the
way the ball left his hand. More than once Laurie became so
engrossed with the pitcher that the ball got by him entirely. He even
tried to discern how Pemberton placed his fingers around the sphere
in order to pitch that famous slow one of his that had foiled the best
batsmen of the enemy last spring. But at the distance Laurie couldn’t
get it.
Pemberton was eighteen, tall, rather thin, rather awkward until he
stepped into the box and took a baseball in his capable hand. After
that he was as easy and graceful as a tiger. The difference between
Pemberton’s smooth wind-up and delivery and Kewpie’s laborious
and jerky performance brought Laurie a sigh of despair. As he
stopped a high one with his mitt and quite dexterously plucked it
from the air with his right hand, Laurie was more than ever
convinced that the campaign on which he and Ned and Kewpie had
embarked last evening so grimly and determinedly was foredoomed
to failure. Gee! Kewpie would never be able to pitch like George
Pemberton if he lived to be a hundred years old and practised
twenty-four hours a day! Laurie almost wished that he had been born
tongue-tied! Later, returning to the gymnasium, Laurie ranged
himself beside Pemberton. He had provided himself with a ball, and
now he offered it to the pitcher. “Say, George, show me how you
hold it for that floater of yours, will you?” he said.
Pemberton took the ball good-naturedly enough. “What are you
trying to do, Nod?” he asked. “Get my job away from me? Well,
here’s the way I hold it.” He placed his long fingers about the ball
with careful regard for the seams. “But holding it isn’t more than half
of it, Nod. You see, you’ve got to flip it away just right. Your thumb
puts the drag on it, see? When you let go of it it starts away like this.”
Pemberton swung his arm through slowly and let the ball trickle from
his hand. Laurie recovered it from a few paces away and stared at it
in puzzled fashion. He guessed he wouldn’t be able to learn much
about pitching that way. Pemberton continued his explanation
carelessly. “You see, you’ve got to start it off with the right spin.
That’s what keeps it up after a straight ball would begin to drop. Now
you take the ‘fade-away.’ I can’t pitch it, but I know how it’s done.
You start it like this.”
Laurie listened and looked on with only perfunctory interest. It
wasn’t any use, he decided. Learning Pemberton’s stuff and
teaching it to Kewpie was beyond his abilities. Besides, when he
came to think about it, it didn’t seem quite fair. It was too much like
stealing another fellow’s patent. Of course there wasn’t more than
one chance in ten that Kewpie would progress to the stage where he
might burst on the Hillman’s baseball firmament as a rival to
Pemberton, but ... just the same.... The next time Pemberton let the
ball go Laurie picked it up and dropped it in his pocket.
The next day, Sunday, saw Ned and Laurie walking toward the
Widow Deane’s shortly after dinner was over. It had become a
custom to go for a walk on Sunday afternoons, when the weather
was gracious, with Polly and Mae and, sometimes, Bob Starling or
some of the other fellows. To-day, however, there were indications
that a late dinner was still going on at the Starlings’, and the twins
didn’t stop for Bob. It had rained during the night but a warm sun had
long since removed all signs of it. Along the streets bordering School
Park doors and windows were open to the spring-like air. In the park
the few benches were occupied, and, beyond, in the paved yard of
the high school, some small youths were indulging somewhat noisily
in an amusement suspiciously like baseball. Of course it couldn’t be
baseball, as Laurie pointed out, since the town laws sternly forbade
that game on Sundays. At the further corner of Pine Street a small
white house with faded brown shutters stood sedately behind a
leafless and overgrown hedge of lilac. The twins viewed the house
with new interest, for it was there that Miss Comfort lived. Ned
thought that through a gap in the hedge he had glimpsed a face
behind one of the front windows.
“Reckon this is her last Sunday in the old home,” observed Ned. It
sounded flippant, and probably he had meant that it should, but
inside him he felt very sorry for the little old lady. It was not much of a
house, as houses went even in Orstead, but it was home to Miss
Comfort, and Ned suddenly felt the pathos of the impending
departure.
Laurie grunted assent as they turned the corner toward the little
blue painted shop. “Guess we aren’t going to hear from the Goop,”
he said. “It’s three days now.”
“We—ell, he might be away or something,” answered Ned.
“I don’t believe so,” said Laurie. “He didn’t answer Miss Comfort’s
letter, and I guess he isn’t going to answer our telegram. The old
skinflint,” he added as an afterthought.