POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTATION

( Prepared and compiled by K.V.Seetharaman, Sr.Mgr, Controls and Instrumentation, Product Engineering (Fossil Boiler), BHEL, Tiruchirapalli - 620 014 )

Power Plant Instrumentation can be broadly classified under two major headings viz. Sensors and their installation Sensors: Any device, which is physically connected to a process, either directly or indirectly and senses any of the process characteristic parameter, and transmit this characteristic parameter as a measurement, through a mechanical motion or as an electrical quantity. Installation: The methodology through which the sensor is positioned in a process at the point of contact with process, and connected directly or through a secondary device to a measuring instrument, in such a way to maximise its measurement with the best accuracy. Different parameters which are generally measured in a power plant temperature pressure flow density conductivity ph % oxygen % carbon monoxide

Power plant control: Basic constituents of any control: Measurement Controller Final control element With out measurement there is no control. absolute importance for precise control Accurate measurement is of

Thermometry

Temperature is one of the most measured of the physical quantities. Two main temperature measuring technologies to day are: Thermocouple Resistance Thermometer Main reason for their particular value to industry is that their outputs are in the form of electrical signals. Thermocouple cover a wide range -250 to +3000 deg c. RTD covers restricted range -200 to + 1000 de c. Thermocouples are generally characterised as rugged and versatile . Resistance thermometer permit better measurement accuracy and stability. THERMOCOUPLES Most conducting materials can produce a thermos electric outputs. But considerations like width of the temperature range, actual useful signal output, linearity and repeatability are taken into account, there is a somewhat restricted sensible choice. Full range can not be covered by just one thermocouple junction combination. Broadly the thermocouples can be classified under two groups, viz. Base metal thermocouples and Rare metal thermocouples. Signal output from rare metal types are small compared with those from base metal types. Base metal thermocouples: T J E K Cu-coon Fe-coon NiCr-CuNi NiCr-NiAl -185 to +300 +20 to +700 0 to +800 0 to +1100 de C de C deg C deg C

Rare metal thermocouples: R Pt 13%Rh-Pt 0 to1600 deg C S Pt 10% Rh-Pt 0 to 1500 deg C Selection of a particular thermocouple type for a sensing application, physical conditions, duration of exposure, sensor life time and accuracy all have to be considered. The reason for popularity of thermocouples are:

Range of types to cover all temperature Environmental and accuracy requirements Because they are small and easy to handle Ease with which they can be made and applied Availability of a vast variety of housing and special package to match almost every imaginable application.

As a rule of thumb , engineering practice has it that an exposed thermocouple is only recommended for the measurement of static or flowing non-corrosive gas temperatures where fast response is a key issue. Insulated thermocouples are more suitable, certainly for corrosive gases and liquids, accepting that thermal response is slower whether an outer sheath is involved or not. Standard insulating materials are : Ceramic Aluminium silicate High purity aluminium Mineral insulation Mineral insulated thermo couples are advantageous because of small size, ease of installation, good mechanical strength, excellent isolation of junction from hostile environment, high long term accuracy and stability, fast response and good insulation resistance. Thermo couple measurement calls for special cable requirement when connected to remote instruments. Extension cables use wires of nominally the same conductors as the thermocouple itself, which thus inherently possess similar thermo power characteristic, and present no connection problems. Compensating cable, on the other hand are low cost alloy conductor materials whose net thermo-electric coefficients are similar to those of the thermocouple in question, but which do not match them faithfully as do extension wires. The combination develop similar outputs to those of the thermocouple, but the operating temperature has to be restricted to keep miss-match errors acceptably small. Reference Junction (cold) compensation: Thermocouple output is proportional to difference in temperature and not to absolute temperature. To measure in absolute temperature, the reference junction to be maintained at a known temperature. Track the reference junction temperature and develop an equivalent voltage.

The temperature at the connection point might be determined by an integral resistance thermometer, thermister or transistor, and thus a suitable reference voltage developed. RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR ( RTD ) Using RTD is considerably easier to work with, in practice than the thermocouple thermometry. Firstly the measurement is absolute, and so reference junction compensation is required. Secondly, straight formed copper wires can be used between the sensor and the instrument. Platinum is the most widely used material in RTD thermometry to day. An important requirement for accurate resistance thermometry, therefore , is that the sensing element must be pure .it should be protected from contamination. A common assembly comprises helical platinum coil mounted in holes in a multibore alumina tube, with the coil being anchored by small amount of glass. Pressure measurement Measurement of absolute pressure, gage pressure, vacuum or draft pressure and differential pressure may be accomplished by two primary types of element. The familiar liquid column where the density and height of liquid are utilised to measure pressure. The metallic formed pressure element (expansion element) with or with out an opposing spring or a non-metallic element with an opposing spring. Pressure measuring devices are used in large quantities on power generation plant. Many applications are vital to the safe operation of the plant. Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. It can be expressed in three ways. Absolute pressure - above complete vacuum. Gage pressure - above atmospheric pressure. Differential pressure - the comparison of pressure, with out expressing either in absolute terms. Power industry has standardised on the units as bar or kg/sq.cm for high pressure and mbar or mmwc for low pressure. Expansion element are preferred for modern power plant. The element is usually metallic and its movement, which indicate the applied pressure, is either directly coupled by mechanical linkage or indirectly by an electrical transducer connected to a readout device. The group of expansion elements include: Slack diaphragm

Stiff diaphragm Capsule element Bellows element Bourdon tube

Materials used for expansion elements: Phosphor bronze: Commonly used and easy to fabricate. Beryllium copper: Stronger than phosphor bronze with negligible hysterisis Brass: Some bellows are manufactured from this. It is easy to form, but its hyterisis is greater than phosphor bronze and it is subject to stress cracking Ni-span C: High nickel alloy. Its main feature is that its change with temperature modulus of elasticity does not

The following pressure measuring devices are fitted in power plant: Direct Reading Pressure Gauges. Electrical Pressure Transmitters. Pressure Switches. Direct reading pr. Gauges: Bourdon Type Gauges Diaphragm Sealed Gauges Differential Pr. Gauges Draft Gauges Pressure transmitter: Capacitance Type Inductive Type Piezo Resistive Type Switches: Pressure Switches Differential Pressure Switches Direct reading pressure gauges are used for local plant indication only. Their sizes are limited to two , 100 mm and 150 mm diameter. The general construction and performance comply with BS 3693 [4]. The dial have graduation marks only. This style was chosen to those where the graduation

marks are joined either by a continuous arc on the outside edge or by two arcs joining the marks at both ends. Dial markings are to be clear, uncluttered and uniformity to be maintained irrespective of supplier. Electrical pressure transmitter Electrical pressure transmitters are used for remote indication and for inputs to control systems. In order to avoid the danger of bringing the high pressure lines into the control room, pressure transmitters are located in the field. Transmitter performance couples with BS 6447 [5]. The accuracy, ambient temperature etc.. Are defined in plant specification, depending on the application. It is normal for type of expansion element or transducer to be specified. Pressure switches: Pressure switches are pressure measuring devices used to switch electrical or pneumatic signals when a predetermined pressure setting is reached. The setting point may be either abnormal condition or the precise condition necessary for the correct operation of a particular process. Pressure switches use the expansion elements similar to those used in pressure gauges and pressure transmitters, but these only operate the switch actuating mechanism. The preference in the power industry is for blind switches - not displaying any indication of the measurement - that are capable of switching electrical circuits. For important applications, a pressure gauge is fitted near the switch; for all other applications, only a test pressure gauge connection is provided near the pressure switch. Flow measurement A universal flow meter for all applications in power stations is not available and probably never will be. Basically flow can be measured by flow rate and flow volume. Flow rate is integrated velocity of the individual stream lines making up the total velocity profile across the conduit. Flow volume is the total volume of fluid which has passed through the conduit over a given period. Flow rate Diffl. Pr. Electro Variable area dual flow volume positive displacement turbine

Magnetic Vortex meters

functions Ultra sonic meters

In a steam generator, generally flow of air, water, steam, fuel, oil,solid fuel ,gas are measured. Most predominant method used being diffl. Pr. Method ,other methods also being adopted depending on the application, environment and other considerations. The choice of pressure difference method is the easiness with which it is adopted, the raggedness of the primary device and the ease of installation, interchangebility and suitability to the environment. The pr. Diff. Method depends on the change of pressure energy occurring when a fluid flows through a conduit (pipe or duct) of varying cross-section. The law of energy (Bernoulli) gives a definite relationship between the pressure energy and the flow energy. In order to produce a variation of cross-section, some of restriction throttling device, known as the primary element, is located in the conduit. This causes the conservation of a portion of the pressure energy into kinetic energy as the fluid accelerate when passing through the restriction Pressure difference system consists of: Primary element that forms the restriction in the conduit. Impulse pipe work and associated valve connected to the tapping points A device to measure the diffl. Head produced across the restriction Types of primary elements Orifice plate Flow nozzle Venturi Theoretical formulae for mass flow rate of an ideal non-compressible fluid can be expressed as m Where = a2 / (1- a2 / a1) * 2 g r sqrt ( dp) m mass flow rate a2 cross-sectional area of the bore of the restriction device in sq.m a1 cross-sectional area of the bore of the pipeline upstream in sq.m

g acceleration due to gravity r density of fluid upstream kg / cu. M dp pressure difference between upstream and down stream pressure tapping Advantages of Pr. Diff. System: Simple, no moving components Wide range of sizes of constriction available Suitable for most liquids and gases Very good repeatability Standard diffl. Pr. Measuring devices are readily available with designs to meet varied requirements

Long term stability is very good, where used in accordance with the standards. Disadvantages of Pr. Diff. System: The system has square root head/flow relationship. This limits the accuracy of flow measurement at the lower part of range. Flow range is limited to 4 : 1 Accuracy is affected by density and flow profile Use of restriction device in the pipeline results in unrecoverable pr. Loss Viscosity affects the flow range Installation can be time consuming and sometimes difficult Other types of flow measurement Variable Area Type Positive Displacement Type Electromagnetic Type Turbine Type Vortex Type Ultrasonic Type Mass Flow Meter

VARIABLE AREA FLOW METER: Normally used in water, gas lines. Falls under pr. Diffl. Type except for the fact that area of the restriction changes and the differential pressure remains constant. Flow meter consists of a vertical tapered tube containing a free float, of fixed weight. Tube tapers out from the bottom to top and the flow direction is also from bottom to top. As the flow increases, the float rises in the tube and the annular space around it increases until the lifting force, produced by the differential pressure developed across it equalises. The equilibrium height reached by the float, is a direct indication of flow rate.

Advantages of variable area flow meter Simple and can measure very low flows Flow range 10 : 1 Flow can be read directly from linear scale Substantially unaffected by approach of pipe work No power supply is required for glass tube meter Pressure loss due to the meter is low and constant Low cost and installation is easy

Disadvantages of variable area flow meter: Capacity for maximum flow is limited Meters must be mounted in the vertical position Only clean fluids can be used with glass tube type. Any build up of dirt on the glass makes reading difficulty Transmission and integration of flow are not available as standard Glass tube meter not suitable for high pressure which depends on tube diameter POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METER The positive displacement flow meter operates by trapping a known volume of fluid at an inlet point and passing it to an outlet point. As each swept volume occurs, the no. Of rotations are counted , usually by a pulse generator, either optical or electro- magnetic, to transmit the reading to a remote location. It is extremely accurate and repeatable. For fluids having high viscosity, this meter offers unequaled accuracy and flow range. Because of its high performance, this type of meter is widely used for flow measurement of fuel oils and other hydro carbon products. The meter is self powered and requires no electrical power to operate it, apart from the remote transmission. Advantages of PD meter: Wide flow range Good accuracy over a wide range. Very good repeatability. Suitable for high viscous fluids.

Disadvantages of PD meter: Frequent maintenance required. For larger pipe sizes, they are bulky. They develop a high un-recoverable head loss. Installation is difficult and time consuming. They are expensive, especially for larger sizes. They are not suitable for dirty, non-lubricated or abrasive liquids.

 Readout is directly in volumetric units. ELECTRO MAGNETIC FLOW METER The electro magnetic floe meter operates on the principle established by faraday, that the emf induced in conductor moving through a magnetic field is proportional to velocity of that conductor. The electro-magnetic flow meter consists of a non-magnetic stainless steel pipe lined with insulation material. A magnetic field is produced across the pipe by exciting coils or by a permanent magnet arranged on the outside of the pipe. The conducting fluid passing through the flow meter acts as a conductor. Two small electrodes , mounted opposite to each other and flush with the lining of the pipe wall, detect the induced, em which is amplified into a current signal for use with standard receiving and control units. This flow meter has no projections into the pipe bore and therefore offers no obstruction to the flow, and the pr. Loss through the meter is no greater than equivalent length of straight pipe. Advantages (EM flow meter): No moving parts. Completely unobstructed pipe bore. Can be used with virtually any chemical. Can be used with abrasive liquids, slurries and non- lubricating media. Unaffected by viscosity, pressure, temperature and humidity. Extensive ranges of sizes and flow rate.

Disadvantages ( EM flow meter): Fluid must be electrically conductive. Subject to drift and therefore requires frequent checking. Sensitive to asymmetric flow profile. Maximum operating temperature is limited by material of construction . Individual calibration is required. Subject to fouling of electrode on some application. Expensive, particularly in small sizes.

MASS FLOW METER Every mass flow meter operates according to the same principle - an application of Newtons second law of motion: Force = Mass * Acceleration ( F= Ma) All of the fluid being measured flows through the sensor tube where its mass flow rate is measured directly. Inside the meter housing, the flow sensor tube is vibrated at its natural frequency by an electromagnetic drive system. Its vibration

is similar to that of vibrating fork, typically having an amplitude of less than 1 mm and a frequency of about 80 Hz. As fluid moves through the vibrating tube, it is forced to take on the tubes vertical momentum. During half of the vibration cycle when the tube is moving upward, fluid flowing into the meter pushes downward against the tube resisting this upward force. Conversely, fluid flowing out of the meter, having been forced upward, now resists having its vertical momentum decreased and pushes upward against the tube. This combination of resistive forces causes the flow sensor tube to twist. This is called the Coriolis effect . During the second half of the vibration cycle when the tube moves downward, the resultant twist will be in the opposite direction. The amount that the sensor tube twists is directly proportional to the mass flow rate of the fluid flowing through it. Electromagnetic sensors are located on each side of the flow tube to measure the respective velocity of the vibrating tube at these two points. Any time difference between these two velocity signals caused by the twisting of the tube. The sensors send this information to the meters electronics unit where it is processed and converted to an output signal directly proportional to mass flow rate. Different design of sensor are available: Single Tube Design Double Tube Design Tennis Racket Omega Tube S Type Sensors Tube INSTALLATION For instance a pr. Gauge to be mounted on a pipeline. Type of mounting welded, screwed or flanged to be decided. It calls for a stub on the pipe line (tapping point) It may be required to change the gauge or calibrate it at lab. It calls for isolation of the line. Introduces one more component viz. Valve. Valve to be interposed between gauge and pipeline. Valve is to be either welded, screwed or to be flanged. Suppose pipeline is overhead or in inaccessible place, gauge to be mounted at a convenient location. Calls for impulse line. Naturally size, bend, type of joining each bits, routing etc. to be firmed up. Removal of pressure gauge for maintenance calls for head and tail piece.

Suppose application is for measuring pressure in a steam line it calls for condensing loop. Vent, drain, additional valve requirement. In case of temperature measurement, in a pressure part application, calls for thermowells. It is mandatory to use valve manifold, 5 valve or 3 valve manifold,, in case of differential pressure measuring devices, installed in high pressure application.