jgn is to see that the structy, ott Gy become unfit for use not Pog of deflections, vibrations, imiting conditions are fixe, i as f0F PCF Ned Te built is sag ate and it nly when it Collapses racks due to fatigue 10 consider a st the Structuy inet ad and probable strep, | i iting conditi sch. The safety factor for cach limiting conden corp pe to design every structure t i : 4 a risk based evaluation veo Ythstand “xceptional events fj cbt and en ‘ E The aed evaluation criteria is includes Th ny eran en that the structure remains fit for us, how isan : ¢ throughout j é Phy of limit state d Je limit of safety and serviceability requirenene vet tS Uesigned lite by por ts 5 earl ‘ski ‘on probable | ‘ ese lim; terials. Th, a . These condition may vanes 10 1 psi REQUIREMENTS ue sexture designed and constructed should satisfy city britle fracture, fatigue, fire and durability, s(IS 800-2007, clause 5.1.2); = i fit with adequate reliability during construction and us ye adequate durability ander normal maintenance ot suller overall damaye or collapse disproportionately under accidental events like explo- ‘ons, vehicle impact or due to Consequences of human error to an extent beyond local damage, The catastrophic damaye shall hited or avoided by appropriate choice of one or more of 1 the followin, ( Avoiding, eliminating or reducing exposure to hazards, which the structure is likely to sustain, (0) Choosing structural forms, layouts and details and designing such that: (0 the structure has low sensitivity to hazardous conditions and and be able to sustain all loads and other influences expe-Design of Steel. ‘Structures serious dama; (i) the structure survives with only local damage even after 5 BE tO any individual element by the hazard. (©) Choosing suitable material, designing an dure as relevant to the particular structure. .d detailing procedure and construction p,, an 15 percent of the floor or roof area gp. bove or below it, under a load equa 1 imposed load of permanent nature a the following conditions 4 a (a) The building should be effectively tied together at each principal floor level and I col should be effectively held in position. These ties may be steel members such as beams uj may be designed for other purposes or the shear connectors which connect floor with bean, and columns. These connections should be capable of resisting: (expected tensile force subjected to a minimum of 75 KN. i) _one percent of the maximum axial compression in the column. w (©) All column splices should be capable of resisting a tensile force equal to the largest of af tored dead and live load from the floor above or below the splice. (© Lateral load system to resist horizontal loads should be distributed throughout the building’, nearly orthogonal directions. (@ Floor or roof units should be effectively anchored in the direction of their spans either to ex other or directly to the support. é The collapse is considered disprop. collapses at that level and one adj g level either al or 0.9 times the dead load, 0.33 times temporary or ful times wind load acting together. To avoid disproportionate collapse, be satisfied: If above provisions are not made design should be checked for disproportionate collapse. 2.2 LIMIT STATES e Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no longer satisfied the specified performance = quirements. The various limit states to be considered in design may be grouped into the following’ major categories: a .- (a) Limit state of strength (b) Limit state of serviceability. (a) Limit state of strength: The limit states, prescribed to avoid collapse of structure which ma’ ! y endanger the safety of life property, are grouped under this category. The limit state of strength i includes: Pere ser (@ Loss of equilibrium of whole or part of the structure. Gi) Loss of stability of structure as a whole or part of it. Gi) Failure by excessive deformation. ppeniclisrinciples SLimiy Staie Dis ign 29 fracture. F gate opsersiceabliy 1 yeot erviceability include: FF sornations and deflections adverse ‘ format 7 Y affectin, Oe Sasne irpeoret functioning of equipmen, or tPPcarance OF effective use of structure tn SUUCIUTES OF any part of i, ‘eS OF causing damage to finish a ron ations damage or crack due to fatigue. Ponent limit lection ng its functional effectiveness. cor0i00- fi. js (LOADS) vl oS be considered in a design are: te 2B: deformations such as that duc to tem 0 f a 15800-2007, classified various acta Tollowing a otement (a) Permanent Actions (,,): Actions duc tw self weight @) lariable Actions (4° Action s dunng construction Strucuon and service sta; Be sucl ads, wind loads and earthquake loads ete aa aiicn (0 decidental Actions (Q,,). Netions expected duc ‘ explosions and impact of vehicles ete. gunateristic Actions (Q,) Techuncteristic actions ((),) are defined as the values coc with more than S percent probability, during tats by statistical analysis, in all special 8 three wroups: and fixed equipment ete, of different actions which are not expected to be the life of the structure, One can work out these Sasea, subject to minimum values specified in codes bndeabsence of statistical analysis, the loads Presented in IS 875 and other special codes may be con- anfond characteristic loads design Actions (Loads) ag the importa ince of safety in civil engineering structures and the uncenainties involved in the aiaiy design and construction, code specifies taking design actions as partal safety factor times the tions, The partial safety factors specified by cade for limut state of strength and service. t The partial safety tactors for loads are as given in Table 2.1 and design load Q, is to be ads a:Tn.e SW inparial safety factor for kth loadDesign of Steel Structures Se Table 2.1 Partial safety factors for loads, 7 for limit state Yo the [Table 4 of 1S ¥00-2007] 4 Limit State of Servi ‘ _ Hi Sat of Senet® a Y aa WUEL AL. DL wy 4 ae Accom. F ‘Accom- Leading panyin fe Combination Leading _panying ~ > te 0 f DL+LL+¢L 1s 1s 1.05 5 E be o8 on ei DL+LL+CL 12 12 1.05 06 e a 4 WUEL 12 12 053 1 eee - - DL+ WEL 15 - i oe 4 (0.9) - DL+ER 12 12 = . Tae : 7 vi 9) - DL+LL+ AL 10035 035 a SS - é Notes: fn “AL = Accidental Load, ER = Erection Loa | ad of yl 1. Lower value of 7 for DL is to be considered if DL causes higher value for load effect and lower valuc is to be Considered iy é or stability. Contributes to the stability of structure against overturning while designing f 2. DL = Dead Load, LL = Imposed Load, WL = Wind Load, CL = Crane Load, EL = Earthquake Load. 2.4 DESIGN STRENGTH ee In using the strength value of a material for design, the following uncertainties should be accouyg € on it (a) Possibility of unfavourable deviation of material strength from the characteristic value, | by (b) Possibility of unfavourable variation of member sizes. i |e, (©) Possibility of unfavourable reduction in member strength due to fabrication and tolerances. a) © (d) Uncertainty in the calculation of strength of materials. o Hence I$ 800-2007, recommends reduction in the strength of materials by a partial safety fay D4! which is defined as ‘8 S, iS. th Mma ie. i Ss : is sw where _S,,— ultimate strength and Sy~ design strength ti These values are as shown in Table 2.2. hi 2.5 DEFLECTION LIMITS , ‘ Deflection limits are specified from the consideration that excess deformations do not cause damg finishing. Deflections are to be checked to adverse but realistic combination of service loads aot |Principles of Limit State Design 31 Table 2.2 Partial safety factors for materials y,, [Table 5 of IS 800-2007} SL. No. Definitions Partial Safety Factor 1 Resistance, governed by yielding (7,.) 1.10 2 Resistance of member to buckling (7_.) 1.10 i Resistance governed by ultimate stress (7) 1.25. 4 Resistance of connections Shop fabrication _Field fabrication a) Bolts-friction type Yr 1.25 b) Bolts-bearing type Yup 1,25 ©) Rivets-7y,, 12s 4) Welds- Yong 1.50 arrangement. Elastic analysis may be used to find deflection. Design load for this purpose is the same as characteristic load (ie. partial safety factor ¥ = 1.0) except when apart from DL, LL, CL and some more imposed loads are considered (Refer Table 2.1). The deflection limits specified by IS 800:2007 are as shown in Table 2.3 [Refer next page]. 2.6 OTHER SERVICEABILITY LIMITS Apart from deflection requirement, the design should also satisfy the following serviceability limits: (a) Vibration limit (b) Durability consideration (c) Fire resistance. Vibration Limit Though most of the structures are designed for strength and then checked for deflection limits, some of the structures need check for vibration limits. The structures the floors of which support machineries, the flexible structures (with height to effective width ratio exceeding 5:1) etc., should be investigated for vibration under dynamic loads. In such cases there are possibilities of resonance, fatigue failures. IS 800-2007 gives a set of guidelines to take care of vibration limits in its Annex C. Durability Considerations The following factors affect the durability of a steel structure: (a) Environment (b) Degree of exposure (©) Shape of the member and the structural detail (d) Protective measures (e) Ease of maintenance32 Design of Steel Structures Table 2.3 Deflection limits [Table 6 in IS 800} ‘Type of Building Deflection _—_—Design Lond Member Supporting ao @) @) @ Go Live load’ Purlins and { Elastic cladding ee Wind load Girts Brittle cladding Live load Elastic cladding : Simple span } Brittle cladding Fe Live load Cantilever { Elastic cladding span Brittle cladding % Live load/Wind load Rafer Profiled Metal Sheeting a supporting | Plastered Sheeting = 3 | Crane load (Manual operation) Gantry Crane 2 Crane load weg (Electric operation up iz to 50”) Gantry Crane i Crane load (Electric i operation over 50/) Gantry Crane " z Elastic cladding Masonry/Brittle cladding No cranes Column Crane (absolute) Relative displacement } a Gantry between rails supporting i a Crane + wind (lateral) crane \ Gantry (Elastie cladding, pendent operated) Column! Gantry (Brittle cladding; cab i Crane + wind frame operated) | ! Elements not susceptible to wil cracking. } 3 Floorand —} Elements susceptible 2 J Livetoad Roof cracking 2 S Elements not susceptible to g cracking, a] a : Elements susceptible to z Live load Cantilever cracking 6 { Plastic cladding i Wind Building | Brittle cladding { 2 Inter-storey i 4 Wind dnftPrinciples of Limit State Design 33 A designer should refer to the IS code provisions given in section 15 of IS 800-2007 and also to special- ised literature on durability. Fire Resistance i A steel structure should have sufficient fire resistance level (FRL) specified in terms of minutes depend- ., ing upon the purpose for which the structure is used and the time taken to evacuate in case of fire. For detailed specifications a designer may refer section 16 of IS 800-2007 along with IS 1641, IS 1642, IS 1643 and any other specialised literature on fire resistance. 2.7 STABILITY CHECKS After designing a structure for strength and stability, it should be checked for instability due to overtum- ing, uplift or sliding under factored loads. In checking for instability disturbing forces should be taken as design loads and stabilising forces may be taken as design loads (factored loads) with lesser factor of safety (0.9) as specified in Table 2.1. A structure should be adequately stiff against sway and fatigue also. In the chapters to follow now onwards, design principles are made clear from the point of limit states of strength and deflections. In most of the buildings these are the predominant limit states, but in all important and special buildings, a designer has to ensure that other limit states are not exceeded, ) | Questions 1. Explain the principles of (a) Working stress method of design (b) Ultimate load design and (©) Limit state design, R Explain how limit state method differs from working stress method of design. » Explain how limit state design differs from ultimate load design. = Explain the following terms (a) Partial safety factor for loads (b) Partial safety factor for material strength. wo . Distinguish between (@) Factor of safety and partial safety factor (b) Characteristic loads and design (factored) loads.