BS EN 1993 1 3 2024 Eurocode 3 - Design of Steel Structures Part

BS EN 1993‑1‑3:2024
BSI Standards Publication
Eurocode 3 — Design of steel structures
Part 1-3: Cold-formed members and sheeting

BS EN 1993‑1‑3:2024 BRITISH STANDARD
National foreword
This British Standard is the UK implementation of EN 1993‑1‑3:2024.
It supersedes BS EN 1993‑1‑3:2006, which will be withdrawn on
30 March 2028.
The UK participation in its preparation was entrusted to Technical
Committee CB/203, Design & execution of steel structures.
A list of organizations represented on this committee can be obtained on
request to its committee manager.
National choice is allowed in this standard where explicitly stated
within notes. The National Annex to this standard contains the
national choices to be used for buildings and civil engineering works
constructed in the UK.
The first generation of EN Eurocodes was published between 2002
and 2007, with conflicting British Standards withdrawn in 2010. This
document forms part of the second generation of EN Eurocodes.
The second generation of EN Eurocodes is expected to be published
between 2023 and 2026. These documents are being published as soon
as they are available. This is being done to enable users to prepare
for the transition from the first generation to second generation of
EN Eurocodes.
UK adoptions of the first generation of EN Eurocodes will be withdrawn
by BSI on 30 March 2028. Until that date, the first generation documents
should be considered as the applicable standards for buildings and civil
engineering works constructed in the UK unless otherwise specified by
the relevant authority or in the specification for a particular project.
This standard is intended to be used with its National Annex and other
referenced documents, including other second generation Eurocodes, as
an interdependent suite of documents.
While the use of provisions in this standard in conjunction with first
generation Eurocodes is not precluded, it should be undertaken with
care and should only be done when users are satisfied that it will not
result in a lower level of reliability than the minimum level set in the first
generation Eurocodes and associated UK National Annexes.
Contractual and legal considerations
This publication has been prepared in good faith, however no
representation, warranty, assurance or undertaking (express or
implied) is or will be made, and no responsibility or liability is or will be
accepted by BSI in relation to the adequacy, accuracy, completeness or
reasonableness of this publication. All and any such responsibility and
liability is expressly disclaimed to the full extent permitted by the law.
This publication is provided as is, and is to be used at the
recipient’s own risk.
The recipient is advised to consider seeking professional guidance with
respect to its use of this publication.
This publication is not intended to constitute a contract. Users are
responsible for its correct application.
BRITISH STANDARD BS EN 1993‑1‑3:2024
© The British Standards Institution 2024

Published by BSI Standards Limited 2024
ISBN 978 0 539 05430 9
ICS 91.010.30; 91.080.10; 91.080.13
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from
legal obligations.
This British Standard was published under the authority of the
Standards Policy and Strategy Committee on 31 March 2024.
Amendments/corrigenda issued since publication

Date Text affected
BS EN 1993‑1‑3:2024
EUROPEAN STANDARD EN 1993-1-3

NORME EUROPÉENNE
EUROPÄISCHE NORM March 2024
ICS 91.010.30; 91.080.13 Supersedes EN 1993-1-3:2006
English Version
Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures - Part 1-3: Cold-

formed members and sheeting
Eurocode 3 - Calcul des structures en acier - Partie 1-3: Eurocode 3 - Bemessung und Konstruktion von
Règles générales - Profilés et plaques formés à froid Stahlbauten - Teil 1-3: Kaltgeformte Bauteile und
Profiltafeln
This European Standard was approved by CEN on 1 January 2024.
CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this
European Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration. Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references
concerning such national standards may be obtained on application to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre or to any CEN
member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by
translation under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC Management
Centre has the same status as the official versions.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and
United Kingdom.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION

COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels
© 2024 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. EN 1993-1-3:2024 E
worldwide for CEN national Members.
BS EN 1993‑1‑3:2024
EN 1993-1-3:2024 (E)
Contents Page
European foreword ............................................................................................................................................ 4

0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 6
1 Scope.......................................................................................................................................................... 9
2 Normative references.......................................................................................................................... 9
3 Terms, definitions and symbols ...................................................................................................... 9
3.1 Terms and definitions ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Symbols .................................................................................................................................................. 17
3.3 Symbols for cross-sectional dimensions .................................................................................... 35
3.4 Symbols for member axes ................................................................................................................ 35
4 Basis of design ...................................................................................................................................... 36
4.1 Basic requirements ............................................................................................................................ 36
4.2 Specific rules for cold-formed members and sheeting.......................................................... 36
5 Materials ................................................................................................................................................ 38
5.1 General.................................................................................................................................................... 38
5.2 Structural steel .................................................................................................................................... 40
5.3 Connecting devices ............................................................................................................................. 43
6 Durability ............................................................................................................................................... 43
7 Structural analysis.............................................................................................................................. 44
7.1 Structural modelling for analysis ................................................................................................. 44
7.2 Global analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 44
7.3 Structural modelling of cold-formed steel sections ............................................................... 48
7.4 Cross-sectional analysis — Geometric proportions and application range .................. 52
7.5 Cross-sectional analysis — Flange curling................................................................................. 54
7.6 Cross-sectional analysis — Local and distortional buckling ............................................... 55
7.7 Cross-sectional analysis — Local buckling between fasteners .......................................... 81
8 Ultimate limit states........................................................................................................................... 82
8.1 Resistance of cross-sections ........................................................................................................... 82
8.2 Buckling resistance of members ................................................................................................ 105
9 Serviceability limit states ............................................................................................................. 112
9.1 General................................................................................................................................................. 112
9.2 Plastic deformation ......................................................................................................................... 112
9.3 Deflections.......................................................................................................................................... 113
9.4 Walkability of trapezoidal sheeting .......................................................................................... 113
10 Design of joints ................................................................................................................................. 114
10.1 General................................................................................................................................................. 114
10.2 Splices and end joints of members subject to compression ............................................. 114
10.3 Connections with mechanical fasteners .................................................................................. 114
10.4 Spot welds ........................................................................................................................................... 122
10.5 Lap welds ............................................................................................................................................ 123
11 Special considerations for members, liner trays and sheeting ....................................... 128
11.1 Members restrained by sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels ................................. 128
11.2 Liner trays restrained by sheeting ............................................................................................ 143
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11.3 Special considerations for sheeting .......................................................................................... 150

11.4 Lateral and torsional restraints of members provided by sheeting, liner trays or
sandwich panels ............................................................................................................................... 163
11.5 Stressed skin design ....................................................................................................................... 173
12 Design assisted by testing............................................................................................................. 178
Annex A (normative) Testing procedures ........................................................................................... 180
A.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 180
A.2 Tests on materials ........................................................................................................................... 181
A.3 Tests on single beams and columns .......................................................................................... 181
A.4 Tests on structures and sub-assemblies ................................................................................. 184
A.5 Tests on profiled sheeting and liner trays.............................................................................. 186
A.6 Tests on torsionally restrained members .............................................................................. 195
A.7 Tests on fastenings .......................................................................................................................... 197
A.8 Tests on components of storage equipment .......................................................................... 198
A.9 Evaluation of test results .............................................................................................................. 198
Annex B (informative) Durability of fasteners................................................................................... 203
B.1 Use of this annex .............................................................................................................................. 203
B.2 Scope and field of application ..................................................................................................... 203
Annex C (normative) Mixed effective width/effective thickness method for outstand
elements.............................................................................................................................................. 206
C.1 Use of this annex .............................................................................................................................. 206
C.2 Scope and field of application ..................................................................................................... 206
C.3 Cross-sectional resistance ............................................................................................................ 206
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................... 208
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European foreword
This document (EN 1993-1-3:2024) has been prepared by Technical Committee CEN/TC 250 “Structural
Codes”, the secretariat of which is held by BSI. CEN/TC 250 is responsible for all Structural Eurocodes
and has been assigned responsibility for structural and geotechnical design matters by CEN.
This European Standard shall be given the status of a national standard, either by publication of an
identical text or by endorsement, at the latest by September 2027 and conflicting national standards shall
be withdrawn at the latest by March 2028.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of
patent rights. CEN shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
This document supersedes EN 1993-1-3:2006 and its corrigenda.
The first generation of EN Eurocodes was published between 2002 and 2007. This document forms part
of the second generation of the Eurocodes, which have been prepared under Mandate M/515 issued to
CEN by the European Commission and the European Free Trade Association.
The Eurocodes have been drafted to be used in conjunction with relevant execution, material, product
and test standards, and to identify requirements for execution, materials, products and testing that are
relied upon by the Eurocodes.
The Eurocodes recognize the responsibility of each Member State and have safeguarded their right to
determine values related to regulatory safety matters at national level through the use of National
Annexes.
The main changes compared to the previous edition are listed below:
— Harmonization of wording according to the latest editions of EN 1993-1-1, EN 1993-1-5 and

EN 1993-1-8;
— Nominal values of ultimate tensile strength (Table 5.1) adjusted to EN 1993-1-1 or the relevant
product standards for harmonization (Clause 5);
— Minor specification added for the design of sinusoidal sheeting for clarification (7.6.5);
— Minor specification added for the design of trapezoidal sheeting in axial compression (8.1.3);
— Design of cross-sectional resistance to transverse forces of cross-sections with two or more

unstiffened webs specified depending on the type of support (8.1.6.3);
— Design Formula for cross-sectional resistance of sections in combined axial force, bending moment,
shear force and torsion reviewed for clarification (8.1.10);
— Minor specifications and explanations added for the buckling design of sections in combined
compression and bending (8.2.5);
— Specifications of the design provisions in serviceability limit states (text converted into formulae)
for clarification (Clause 9);
— Specifications for the design of trapezoidal sheeting with overlaps for clarification (11.3.4);
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— Specifications for the bending moment resistance of liner trays for clarification (11.2.2);
— Specifications of the test set-up of single span tests for a clear uniform experimental test procedure
(A.5.2);
— Specifications of the test set-up and assessment criteria of tests on sheeting (for walkability) for a
clear uniform experimental test procedure (A.5.6);
— Special provisions for fasteners made of stainless steel in relation to corrosion environment
deleted; general reference to EN 1993-1-4 included (Annex B).
Any feedback and questions on this document should be directed to the users’ national standards body.
A complete listing of these bodies can be found on the CEN website.
According to the CEN-CENELEC Internal Regulations, the national standards organizations of the
following countries are bound to implement this European Standard: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Republic of North
Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and the United
Kingdom.
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0 Introduction
0.1 Introduction to the Eurocodes
The Structural Eurocodes comprise the following standards generally consisting of a number of Parts:
— EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural and geotechnical design
— EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
— EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
— EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
— EN 1994, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
— EN 1995, Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
— EN 1996, Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
— EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
— EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
— EN 1999, Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures
— New parts are under development, e.g. Eurocode for design of structural glass
The Eurocodes are intended for use by designers, clients, manufacturers, constructors, relevant
authorities (in exercising their duties in accordance with national or international regulations),
educators, soft-ware developers, and committees drafting standards for related product, testing and
execution standards.
NOTE Some aspects of design are most appropriately specified by relevant authorities or, where not specified,
can be agreed on a project-specific basis between relevant parties such as designers and clients. The Eurocodes
identify such aspects making explicit reference to relevant authorities and relevant parties.
0.2 Introduction to EN 1993 (all parts)
EN 1993 (all parts) applies to the design of buildings and civil engineering works in steel. It complies with
the principles and requirements for the safety and serviceability of structures, the basis of their design
and verification that are given in EN 1990 — Basis of structural and geotechnical design.
EN 1993 (all parts) is concerned only with requirements for resistance, serviceability, durability and fire
resistance of steel structures. Other requirements, e.g. concerning thermal or sound insulation, are not
covered.
EN 1993 is subdivided in various parts:
EN 1993-1, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings;
EN 1993-2, Design of Steel Structures — Part 2: Bridges;
EN 1993-3, Design of Steel Structures — Part 3: Towers, masts and chimneys;
EN 1993-4, Design of Steel Structures — Part 4: Silos and tanks;
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EN 1993-5, Design of Steel Structures — Part 5: Piling;
EN 1993-6, Design of Steel Structures — Part 6: Crane supporting structures;
EN 1993-7, Design of steel structures — Part 7: Sandwich panels.
EN 1993-1 in itself does not exist as a physical document, but comprises the following 14 separate parts,
the basic part being EN 1993-1-1:
EN 1993-1-1, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings;
EN 1993-1-2, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-2: Structural fire design;
EN 1993-1-3, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-3: Cold-formed members and sheeting;
NOTE Cold formed hollow sections supplied according to EN 10219 (all parts) are covered in EN 1993-1-1.
EN 1993-1-4, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-4: Stainless steel structures;
EN 1993-1-5, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-5: Plated structural elements;
EN 1993-1-6, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-6: Strength and stability of shell structures;
EN 1993-1-7, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-7: Plate assemblies with elements under transverse loads;
EN 1993-1-8, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-8: Joints;
EN 1993-1-9, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-9: Fatigue;
EN 1993-1-10, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-10: Material toughness and through-thickness
properties;
EN 1993-1-11, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-11: Tension components;
EN 1993-1-12, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-12: Additional rules for steel grades up to S960;
EN 1993-1-13, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-13: Beams with large web openings;
EN 1993-1-14, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-14: Design assisted by finite element analysis.
All subsequent parts EN 1993-1-2 to EN 1993-1-14 treat general topics that are independent from the
structural type like structural fire design, cold-formed members and sheeting, stainless steels, plated
structural elements, etc.
All subsequent parts numbered EN 1993-2 to EN 1993-7 treat topics relevant for a specific structural
type like steel bridges, towers, masts and chimneys, silos and tanks, piling, crane supporting structures,
etc. EN 1993-2 to EN 1993-7 refer to the generic rules in EN 1993-1 and supplement, modify or supersede
them.
0.3 Introduction to EN 1993-1-3
EN 1993-1-3 gives supplementary design rules for cold-formed steel members and sheeting. The focus in
EN 1993-1-3 is on design methods and design rules for individual cold-formed members (beams,
columns and beam-columns), sheeting and liner trays regarding resistance, stability and serviceability.
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0.4 Verbal forms used in the Eurocodes
The verb “shall” expresses a requirement strictly to be followed and from which no deviation is permitted
in order to comply with the Eurocodes.
The verb “should” expresses a highly recommended choice or course of action. Subject to national
regulation and/or any relevant contractual provisions, alternative approaches could be used/adopted
where technically justified.
The verb “may” expresses a course of action permissible within the limits of the Eurocodes.
The verb “can” expresses possibility and capability; it is used for statements of fact and clarification of
concepts.
0.5 National Annex for EN 1993-1-3
National choice is allowed in this standard where explicitly stated within notes. National choice includes
the selection of values for Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs).
The national standard implementing EN 1993-1-3 can have a National Annex containing all national
choices to be used for the design of buildings and civil engineering works to be constructed in the relevant
country.
When no national choice is given, the default choice given in this standard is to be used.
When no national choice is made and no default is given in this standard, the choice can be specified by a
relevant authority or, where not specified, agreed for a specific project by appropriate parties.
National choice is allowed in EN 1993-1-3 through notes to the following clauses:
4.2(3) 4.2(4) 4.2(5) 5.2.1(3)

7.1(2) 7.2.1(6) 8.2.5(2) 10.3(3)
10.3(3) 10.3(3) 10.3(3) 12(1)
A.1(1) A.9.4(3)
National choice is allowed in EN 1993-1-3 on the application of the following informative annexes:
Annex B
The National Annex can contain, directly or by reference, non-contradictory complementary information
for ease of implementation, provided it does not alter any provisions of the Eurocodes.
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1 Scope
1.1 Scope of EN 1993-1-3
(1) This document provides rules for structural design of cold-formed steel members and sheeting.
(2) This document applies to cold-formed steel products made from coated or uncoated hot- or cold-
rolled sheet or strip, which have been cold-formed by processes such as roll-forming or press-braking. It
also covers sheeting and members which are curved during fabrication by continuous bending or roll-
forming. Sheeting which has the curvature created by crushing the inner flanges is not included. This
document is also applicable to the design of profiled steel sheeting for composite steel and concrete slabs
at the construction stage, see EN 1994 (all parts). The execution of steel structures made of cold-formed
steel members and sheeting is covered in EN 1090-4. Provisions for bolted connections are provided in
EN 1090-2.
NOTE The rules in EN 1993-1-3 complement the rules in the other parts of EN 1993-1.
(3) Methods are also given for stressed-skin design, using steel sheeting as a structural diaphragm.
(4) This document does not apply to cold-formed circular and rectangular structural hollow sections
supplied to EN 10219 (all parts), for which reference is made to EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-8.
(5) This document provides methods for design by calculation and for design assisted by testing. The
methods for design by calculation apply only within the stated ranges of material properties and
geometric proportions, for which sufficient experience and test evidence is available. These limitations
do not apply to design assisted by testing.
1.2 Assumptions
(1) Unless specifically stated, EN 1990, EN 1991 (all parts) and EN 1993-1-1 apply.
(2) The design methods given in EN 1993-1-3 are applicable if:
— the execution quality is as specified in EN 1090-4, the execution quality of bolted connections is as
specified in EN 1090-2, and
— the construction materials and products are as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993 (all parts),
or in the relevant material and product specifications.
(3) EN 1993 is intended to be used in conjunction with:
— the parts of EN 1992 to EN 1999 where steel structures or steel components are referred to within
those documents;
— EN standards for construction products relevant to steel structures.
2 Normative references
The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content
constitutes requirements of this document. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For
undated references, the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
NOTE See the Bibliography for a list of other documents cited that are not normative references, including
those referenced as recommendations (i.e. through ‘should’ clauses) and permissions (i.e. through ‘may’ clauses).
EN 1090-2, Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures — Part 2: Technical requirements for
steel structures
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EN 1090-4, Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures — Part 4: Technical requirements for
cold-formed structural steel elements and cold-formed structures for roof, ceiling, floor and wall
applications
EN 1990, Eurocode — Basis of structural and geotechnical design
EN 1991 (all parts), Eurocode 1 — Actions on structures
EN 1993 (all parts), Eurocode 3 — Design of steel structures
EN 1993-1-1:2022, Eurocode 3 — Design of steel structures — Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings
EN 14509, Self-supporting double skin metal faced insulating panels — Factory made products —
Specifications
EN ISO 7438, Metallic materials — Bend test (ISO 7438)
3 Terms, definitions and symbols

3.1 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in EN 1990 and the following apply.
3.1.1 Material
3.1.1.1
basic material
flat steel sheet material used for cold-forming sections and profiled sheeting
3.1.1.2
basic yield strength
tensile yield strength of the basic material
3.1.1.3
nominal thickness
target average thickness after cold-forming specified by the steel supplier, inclusive of zinc and other
metallic coating layers, but not including organic coatings
3.1.1.4
steel core thickness
nominal thickness minus zinc and other metallic coating layers
3.1.1.5
coil
storage system where a continuous plate is wound onto a drum
3.1.1.6
cold-forming
procedure of metal-forming executed near room temperature without the addition of heat
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3.1.1.7
press-braking
method of cold-forming using a brake press, where a metal sheet is bent between a punch and die
3.1.1.8
roll-forming
metal-forming process involving the continuous bending of a steel sheet into a cross-section by forcing it
through successive sets of rolls
3.1.1.9
galvanizing
zinc coating for corrosion protection
3.1.1.10
harmonized product standard
European Standard developed by a recognized European Standards Organization: CEN, CENELEC or ETSI,
in response to a request from the European Commission to one of these organizations
3.1.2 Cold-formed steel members, sheeting and sandwich panels
3.1.2.1
member
structural element with cross-sectional dimensions much smaller than its length
Note 1 to entry: Examples of typical cross-sectional shapes of cold-formed steel members are shown in Figure 3.1.
Cross-sections of cold-formed steel members can either be unstiffened or incorporate longitudinal stiffeners in the
webs, the flanges or both.
Figure 3.1 — Typical cross-sectional shapes of cold-formed members
3.1.2.2
sheeting
structural element with a depth much smaller than its width and length, typically used as cladding or
roofing or decking
Note 1 to entry: Examples of typical cross-sectional shapes of sheeting are shown in Figure 3.2. Cross-sections of
sheeting can either be unstiffened or incorporate longitudinal stiffeners in the webs, the flanges or both.
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Figure 3.2 — Examples of cold-formed profiled sheeting and liner trays
3.1.2.3
liner tray
profiled sheet with large lipped edge stiffeners, suitable for interlocking with adjacent liner trays to form
a plane of ribbed sheeting that is capable of supporting a parallel plane of profiled sheeting spanning
perpendicular to the span of the liner trays
Note 1 to entry: Examples of typical cross-sectional shapes of liner trays are shown in Figure 3.2.
3.1.2.4
sandwich panel
cladding or roofing system consisting of a typically low-density core bonded to two outer skin layers
3.1.2.5
bend
rounded transition zone between flat plate elements
3.1.2.6
unstiffened elements
internal or outstand compression elements without stiffeners
3.1.2.7
stiffened elements
compression elements with intermediate or edge stiffeners
3.1.2.8
stiffener
within the context of EN 1993-1-3 the term ‘stiffener’ without further specification refers to a
longitudinal stiffener, i.e. a single fold or succession of folds in the cross-section aimed at increasing the
resistance against local buckling/distortional buckling
Note 1 to entry: Longitudinal stiffeners can either be edge stiffeners or intermediate stiffeners.
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3.1.2.9
edge stiffener
longitudinal stiffener obtained by folding over the edge of a plate element with the aim of increasing the
resistance against cross-sectional instability
Note 1 to entry: Typical edge stiffeners are shown in Figure 3.3.
a) Single-fold edge stiffeners b) Double-fold edge stiffeners
Figure 3.3 — Typical edge stiffeners

3.1.2.10
intermediate stiffener
longitudinal stiffener consisting of multiple bends within a plate element with the aim of increasing the
resistance against cross-sectional instability
Note 1 to entry: Typical intermediate stiffeners are shown in Figure 3.4.
a) grooves b) folds
Figure 3.4 — Typical intermediate stiffeners
3.1.3 Stability modes
3.1.3.1
cross-sectional instability
instability where the cross-section as a whole does not undergo any translation or rotation; cross-
sectional instabilities are usually categorized into local buckling and distortional buckling modes
3.1.3.2
local (plate) buckling
cross-sectional instability in which the constituent plates only undergo out-of-plane plate bending
deformations and the corners of the cross-section remain in their original positions, defined as plate
buckling according to EN 1993-1-5
3.1.3.3
distortional buckling
cross-sectional instability where some constituent plates undergo in-plane displacements in addition to
out-of-plane displacements resulting from plate bending; in the particular case of lipped C- or Z-sections,
distortional buckling may be interpreted as torsional-flexural buckling of the flange-lip assembly about
the web-flange junction
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3.1.3.4
global buckling
instability characterized by a translation and/or rotation of the cross-section with minimal change in its
shape (i.e. excluding cross-sectional instability); global buckling modes include flexural, torsional,
torsional-flexural and lateral-torsional modes
3.1.4 Cross-sectional analysis
3.1.4.1
design thickness
steel thickness used in design by calculation, according to 3.3.3(6) and 5.2.4
3.1.4.2
developed length
length measured along the midline of plate element(s) or a cross-section, including the lengths of any
bends or stiffeners
3.1.4.3
gross cross-section
full cross-section without any deductions to account for local/distortional buckling or the presence of
holes
3.1.4.4
effective cross-section
idealized cross-section accounting for the modified stress distribution in the local/distortional post-
buckling range; the effective cross-section consists of portions of the plate elements adjacent to
longitudinally supported edges which are assumed to carry stress, while the remainder of the cross-
section is assumed to carry no stress
3.1.4.5
effective thickness
reduced thickness of a plate-stiffener assembly to account for the effects of distortional buckling
3.1.4.6
effective width
width or combined widths of a plate element, assumed to carry stress in the post-local buckling range,
whilst the remainder of the plate element is assumed to carry no stress (see also: effective cross-section)
3.1.4.7
relative slenderness
normalized non-dimensional slenderness ratio
3.1.5 Cold-formed steel structures
3.1.5.1
support
location at which a member is able to transfer forces or moments to a foundation, or to another member
or structural component
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3.1.5.2
restraint
full restriction of the lateral, rotational or warping deformation of a member or element, which increases
its buckling resistance
3.1.5.3
partial restraint
restriction of the lateral, rotational or warping deformation of a member or element, which increases its
buckling resistance in a similar way to a spring support
3.1.5.4
residual bending moment resistance
bending moment resistance remaining in the cross-section after reaching the maximum cross-sectional
design bending moment resistance (i.e. on the descending branch of the moment-rotation curve)
3.1.5.5
diaphragm action
structural behaviour primarily involving in-plane shear in sheeting
3.1.5.6
stressed-skin design
design method that allows for the contribution made by diaphragm action to the stiffness and strength of
a structure
3.1.5.7
anti-sag bar
member providing lateral restraint to the free flange of a member
3.1.6 Joints
3.1.6.1
joint
zone where two or more members are interconnected
3.1.6.2
connection
set of basic components used to transfer forces and moments between two or more members or sheets
at the location where they meet
3.1.6.3
basic component of a joint
part of a joint that makes a contribution to one or more of its structural properties
3.1.6.4
connected element
any member or sheeting that is joined to another member or sheeting
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3.1.6.5
fastener
connection element: rivets, cartridge-fired pins, self-tapping/self-drilling screws, bolts or welds
3.1.6.6
fastening
local interaction of a fastener (rivets, cartridge-fired pins or self-tapping/self-drilling screws) with the
surrounding material of the connected elements
3.1.6.7
blind rivet
rivet
mechanical fastener which establishes a connection by pulling a mandrel against its tubular body and
plastically deforming it; it requires access to only one side of the connected elements for installation
3.1.6.8
cartridge-fired pins
fasteners similar to nails driven into the connected elements at high speed using a specially designed gun
3.1.6.9
self-drilling self-tapping screw
screw with a drill tip, which drills a hole and forms the female thread in a single operation as the screw
is driven into the material
3.1.6.10
self-tapping screw
screw which produces its female thread in a predrilled hole as the screw is driven into the material
Note 1 to entry: Self-tapping screws are also referred to as screw in this document for simplification.
3.1.6.11
component I
connected element of fastening adjacent to the head of the fastener (or the swage head in the case of blind
rivets)
3.1.6.12
component II
second connected element of a fastening, usually the supporting structure
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3.2 Symbols
For the purposes of this document, the following symbols apply.
3.2.1 Latin upper-case symbols

A area of the gross cross-section
Aeff area of the effective cross-section, accounting for local and distortional buckling
Ai area of the gross cross-section of element i
Anet net cross-sectional area of a connected part
As tensile stress area of a fastener
Ash area of the gross cross-section with sharp corners
Ast area of the effective cross-section of the stiffener
Ast,red reduced area of the effective cross-section of the stiffener due to distortional buckling
Ast,a area of the effective cross-section of a single web stiffener in compression or of the web
stiffener closer to the compression flange in webs with two stiffeners in trapezoidal
sheeting
Ast,a,red reduced area of the effective cross-section of a single web stiffener in compression or of the
web stiffener closer to the compression flange in webs with two stiffeners in trapezoidal
sheeting
Ast,b area of the effective cross-section of the second web stiffener in compression in trapezoidal
sheeting
Ast,b,red reduced area of the effective cross-section of the second web stiffener in compression in
trapezoidal sheeting
Ast1 area of the effective cross-section of the edge stiffener in flange 1
Ast2 area of the effective cross-section of the edge stiffener in flange 2
C rotational spring stiffness
CD rotational spring stiffness which represents the partial torsional restraint provided to
members by sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels
CD,A rotational spring stiffness of the connection between the sheeting, sandwich panels or liner
trays and the member
CD,B rotational spring stiffness resulting from the distortion of the cross-section of the member
CD,C rotational spring stiffness representing the flexural stiffness of the sheeting, liner trays or
sandwich panels
Cθ, Cθi rotational spring stiffness of plane elements with edge or intermediate stiffeners
C100 rotation coefficient representing the value of CD,A if the width of the member flange is equal
to 100 mm
D thickness of a sandwich panel
E modulus of elasticity
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EC modulus of elasticity of the core of a sandwich panel

EC,c compressive modulus of elasticity of the core of a sandwich panel
EC,t tensile modulus of elasticity of the core of a sandwich panel
EC,t,θ modulus of elasticity of the core of a sandwich panel depending on the duration of loading
Fb,Rd design value of the bearing resistance of a connection or fastening
Fbow,max elastic force of a member in compression, determined with an initial bow according to the
product specification
Fbow,test elastic force of a member in compression, determined with an initial bow from test samples
FEd design value of the transverse force
FEd,i design value of the transverse forces resulting from an assumed load distribution of a point
load or line load over the ribs of trapezoidal sheeting
Fe,Rd design value of the end resistance of a spot weld
Fk,ol,Ed design value of the shear force in a screw for fastening trapezoidal sheeting at overlaps
Flat test load in tests on torsionally restrained members
Fn,Rd design value of the net-section resistance, determined for the relevant type of mechanical
fastener or weld
Fo,Rd design value of the pull-out resistance of a fastener
Fp,Rd design value of the pull-through resistance of a fastener
Frib,Ed proportion of the design value of the load carried by a rib of trapezoidal sheeting for the
purpose of verifying the resistance to transverse forces of the web
Fstr total test load in a strength test
Fsupp reaction force at the support of sheeting
Ft,Ed design value of the tensile force in a fastener
Ft,Rd design value of the tensile resistance of a fastener
Ft,Rk characteristic value of the tensile resistance of a fastener
Ftb,Rd design value of the tearing and bearing resistance of a spot weld
Funit unit load, acting at the centroid of the assembly consisting of the effective parts of the
stiffener and the adjacent effective areas of the stiffened plate
Fv,Ed design value of the shear force in a fastener
Fv,Rd design value of the shear resistance of a fastener, determined for the relevant type of
mechanical fastener or weld
Fv,Rk characteristic value of the shear resistance of a fastener, determined for the relevant type
of mechanical fastener or weld
Fw,Rd design value of the resistance of a fillet or arc spot welded connection
FR1, FR2 transverse reaction forces in the plane of the flanges
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G shear modulus
I moment of inertia of the gross cross-section
I´ moment of inertia of the gross cross-section related to the centroidal axes y´-yór z´-z´
Ieff moment of inertia of the effective cross-section
Ific moment of inertia of a fictitious effective cross-section for serviceability limit state design
Ifz moment of inertia of the gross cross-section of the free flange plus the contributing part of
the web for bending about the z-z axis
Ilt,a moment of inertia of the wide flange of a liner tray about its own centroidal axis parallel to
the wide flange
Ish moment of inertia of the gross cross-section with sharp corners
Ist moment of inertia of the cross-section of a stiffener
Ist,a moment of inertia of the effective cross-section of a single web stiffener in compression or
of the web stiffener closer to the compression flange in webs with two stiffeners in
trapezoidal sheeting about its own centroidal axis parallel to the stiffened element
IT torsional constant of the gross cross-section
Iw warping constant of the gross cross-section
Iw,eff warping constant of the effective cross-section
Iw,sh warping constant of the gross cross-section with sharp corners
I(σ)eff moment of inertia of the effective cross-section calculated for a maximum stress σ ≥ σgr,
used in serviceability limit state design
K equivalent linear spring stiffness which represents the partial rotational restraint provided
by sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels in member design
Ka stiffness parameter which accounts for the presence of a steel saddle washer when
determining the rotational stiffness of trapezoidal sheeting
KA stiffness against lateral displacement of a member resulting from the rotational stiffness of
the joint between the sheeting and the member;
KB stiffness against lateral displacement of a member resulting from the distortion of the cross-
section of the member
KC stiffness against lateral displacement of a member resulting from the flexural stiffness of
the sheeting
Kfz spring stiffness of the compressed flanges of liner trays
Kol,f spring stiffness which represents the fasteners in the overlapping flanges of trapezoidal
sheeting
Kol,w spring stiffness which represents the fasteners in the overlapping webs of trapezoidal
sheeting
Kst spring stiffness of a stiffener in a cold-formed steel section
Kst,1 spring stiffness of a stiffener in flange 1
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Κ1 category dependent coefficient for calculating the resistance to transverse forces

L member length
La distance between anti-sag bars or, if none are present, the span length of the member
Ldia overall length of the steel diaphragm in the direction of the span of the sheeting
Le distance between a deflection measurement point and a sheeting support in a test
Llim maximum span length of sheeting which may be walked on by a single person
Llim,test maximum span length of sheeting which may be walked on by a single person, determined
by testing
Lspan span length of profiled sheeting or sandwich panels
LT length of the member between torsional and/or warping restraints
Ltest test span
M bending moment
Mc,Rd design value of the bending moment resistance of a cross-section
Mc,Rk characteristic value of the bending moment resistance of a cross-section
Mc,Rd,com design value of the bending moment resistance of a cross-section using the section modulus
for the compression side
Mc,Rd,ten design value of the bending moment resistance of a cross-section using the section modulus
for the tension side
Md design value of the bending moment resistance obtained from a test
Md,lim design value of the support moment resistance of sheeting obtained from a test and
corresponding to an arbitrary chosen rotation limit θlim
MEd design value of the bending moment
Mf,Rd design value of the bending moment resistance of a cross-section consisting of the effective
areas of the flanges only
Mfz,Ed design value of the lateral bending moment in the free flange of a member
Mlt,c,Rd design value of the bending moment resistance of a liner tray with the wide flange in
compression
Mlt,t,Rd design value of the bending moment resistance of a liner tray with the wide flange in tension
Mmean mean value of the bending moment resistances resulting from tests
Mpl,Rd design value of the plastic bending moment resistance of the cross-section consisting of the
effective areas of the flanges and the gross area of the web
Mspan,Ed maximum design value of the bending moment in the span
Msupp,Ed design value of the support moment
Msupp,Rd design value of the bending moment resistance at the support
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M0 value of the bending moment used to calculate the resistance to combined bending moment
and transverse forces
M0,fz,Ed design value of the initial lateral bending moment in the free flange of a member without
any spring supports
�c,Rd
𝑀𝑀 design value of the bending moment resistance of curved sheeting without accounting for
the arching effect
N axial load
Nb,Rd design value of the buckling resistance for flexural buckling
Nb,Rk,ref characteristic value of the buckling resistance of the narrow flange of a liner tray calculated
with the reference buckling length
Nb,Rk,1 characteristic value of the buckling resistance of the narrow flange of a liner tray calculated
with the relevant buckling length
Ncr elastic critical buckling load of a member
Ncr,i minimum elastic critical buckling load of a member
Ncr,T elastic critical buckling load for torsional buckling
Ncr,TF elastic critical buckling load for torsional-flexural buckling
Nc,Rd design value of the resistance of a cross-section for uniform compression
NEd design value of the axial force
NRd design value of the resistance of a cross-section to axial forces
Nt,Rd design value of the tensile resistance
Ntest number of tests
P midpoint of the corner between adjacent plane elements in a cold-formed steel section
R radius of the corrugations in sinusoidal sheeting
Radj adjusted value of a resistance obtained from test results
Radj,i adjusted value of the resistance obtained from the i-th test specimen
Radj,i,j adjusted value of the resistance of specimen i of test series j
Radj,m,j mean value of the adjusted resistances of test series j
Rd design value of the resistance obtained from testing
Reh value of the yield strength given by the product standard
Rk characteristic value of a resistance obtained from testing
Rk,j characteristic value of the resistance obtained from a test series j
Rm value of the ultimate tensile strength given by the product standard
Robs value of a resistance obtained from testing
Robs,min minimum value of a resistance obtained from testing
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Rp0,2 value of the 0,2 % proof stress given by the product standard
Rw reaction force in the plane of the web
Rw,Rd design value of the resistance of the web to transverse forces
R0 value of the transverse force used to calculate the resistance to combined bending moment
and transverse forces
S contribution to the shear stiffness provided by the sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels
Slt shear stiffness of a steel liner tray diaphragm per unit length
Ui utilization ratio of a splice or joint
Vb,Rd design value of the shear resistance of a cross-section in the plane of the web
VEd design value of the shear force
Vsupp,l,Ed design value of the shear force adjacent to the support in sheeting with single overlaps
Vw,Rd design value of the shear resistance of a cross-section perpendicular to the flanges
Vx coefficient of variation
W section modulus of a cross-section
Weff elastic section modulus of the effective cross-section, accounting for local and distortional
buckling
Wel elastic section modulus of the gross cross-section
Wfz elastic section modulus of the cross-section consisting of the gross cross-section of the free
flange of a member plus the contributing part of the web, for bending about the z-z axis
Wpl plastic section modulus of the gross cross-section
Wpp,eff partially plastic section modulus of the effective cross-section, based on a stress
distribution which is bilinear in the tension zone but linear in the compression zone
X point of intersection of midlines of adjacent plane elements in a cold-formed steel section
3.2.2 Latin lower-case symbols

aend distance from the internal edge of the end support to the end of sheeting (in end support
tests)
af distance from the fasteners in the flanges of sheeting to the web
afp distance from the sheet-to-member fastener to the member web
aol length of the overlap of trapezoidal sheeting
aper spacing between the centres of the perforations in sheeting
apur distance between member
as distance from the load qed to the shear centre (measured in the y-direction)
aw,min minimum distance from the centre of an arc spot weld to the nearest edge of an adjacent
weld
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a-a centroidal axis of the stiffener parallel to the adjacent plane elements to be stiffened
b overall width of the flange
ba width of the member flange
bc width of the compression zone, determined from a bilinear stress distribution
bcleat width of the cleat
bcorr corrugation width of trapezoidal sheeting
bcorr,max maximum allowable corrugation width of trapezoidal sheeting
bcurl half the distance between webs in box and hat sections, or the width of the portion of the
flange projecting from the web, required in flange curling calculations
bdf developed width of a flange, measured along its midline, including any flange stiffeners
be portion of a compression flange with two stiffeners in trapezoidal sheeting
beff effective width of a plane element
be1 portion of the effective width of a plane element
be2 portion of the effective width of a plane element
be0 effective width of an outstand element
bf width of the flange, measured from the midline of the web
bi width of plane element i
bi,e1 portion of the effective width of plane element i
bi,e2 portion of the effective width of a plane element i
bK1 distance from the web-to-flange junction to the centroid of the effective cross-section of the
edge stiffener of flange 1
bK2 distance from the web-to-flange junction to the centroid of the effective cross-section of the
edge stiffener of flange 2
blt overall width of the wide flange of liner trays
blt,eff effective width of the wide flange of liner trays
bm portion of a compression flange with one stiffener in trapezoidal sheeting
bmod modified width of the member flange connected to the sheeting
bp notional flat width of plane elements
bp,c notional flat width of a single-fold edge stiffener (lip)
bp,c1, bpc2 notional flat widths of a double-fold edge stiffener
bp,i notional flat width of plane element i in a cross-section with sharp corners
brib rib width of trapezoidal sheeting
bst width of a flange stiffener in trapezoidal sheeting, measured parallel to the centreline of the
flange
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bst,d developed width of a stiffener in trapezoidal sheeting, measured along the midline of the
stiffener
bst,mult width of a compression flange with multiple stiffeners in trapezoidal sheeting, measured
parallel to the centreline of the compressed flange
bst,d,mult developed width of a compression flange in trapezoidal sheeting with multiple stiffeners,
measured along the midline of the stiffeners
bsupp support width of sheeting in end support tests
bsw width of a sandwich panel
bt width of the tension zone, determined from a bilinear stress distribution
btot,i portions of the flange width of trapezoidal sheeting
bu width of the flange of trapezoidal sheeting which is fastened to the supporting member
bu,max maximum allowable width of the flange of trapezoidal sheeting which is fixed to the
supporting member
𝑏𝑏 relevant width of a plane element for local buckling analysis
b-b centroidal axis of the stiffener perpendicular to the adjacent plane elements to be stiffened
c width of the lip of a single-fold edge stiffener
ceff effective width of the lip of a single-fold edge stiffener
ceq equivalent width of the lip (of a single-fold edge stiffener) which is not perpendicular to the
flange
ck distance between the two fasteners of a pair in sandwich panels
cl width of the lip measured from the midline of the flange
c1 width of the internal plane element within a double-fold edge stiffener
c1,eq equivalent width of a double-fold edge stiffener which is not perpendicular to the flange
c1,eff total effective width of the internal plane element within a double-fold edge stiffener
c1,e1 portion of the effective width of the internal plane element within a double-fold edge
stiffener
c1,e2 portion of the effective width of the internal plane element within a double-fold edge
stiffener
c1,l width of the internal plane element within a double-fold edge stiffener, measured between
the midlines of the adjacent elements
c2 width of the outstand plane element within a double-fold edge stiffener
c2,l width of the outstand plane element within a double-fold edge stiffener, measured from the
midline of the adjacent elements
c2,eff effective width of the outstand plane element within a double-fold edge stiffener
d nominal diameter of a fastener, generally the outside diameter of the threads
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das visible diameter of an arc spot weld

dp effective peripheral diameter of an arc spot weld
dper diameter of the perforations in sheeting
ds interface diameter of a spot weld or arc spot weld
dw diameter of the washer or the head of the fastener
do nominal diameter of a fastener hole
e pitch of the sheeting-to-member fasteners
eN shift of the centroid of the effective cross-section relative to the centroid of the gross cross-
section
ef eccentricity of fasteners in sheeting
elt,0 distance from the centroidal axis of the gross cross-section of liner trays to the centroidal
axis of the narrow flanges
eu distance from the seam fasteners in the webs of liner trays to the wide flange
ew eccentricity of the folds in a web relative to the line connecting the end points of the web
e0 bow imperfection
e0,LT bow imperfection for lateral-torsional buckling
e1 end distance, measured from the centre of the fastener to the adjacent end of the connected
part, in the direction of load transfer
e2 edge distance, measured from the centre of the fastener to the adjacent edge of the
connected part, in the direction perpendicular to the direction of load transfer
fbv shear strength accounting for shear buckling
fCc compressive strength of the core material of sandwich panels
fCt tensile strength of the core material of sandwich panels
fu ultimate tensile strength of the material; for connections with bolts or welds: the ultimate
tensile strength of the material of the supporting member into which a bolt is fixed or onto
which a weld is applied
fub ultimate tensile strength of the fastener material
fuw ultimate tensile strength of the welding electrodes
fu,I for fastenings with rivets, screws or cartridge-fired pins: the ultimate tensile strength of
component I directly underneath the head of the fastener (the swage head in the case of
blind rivets)
fu,II for fastenings with rivets, screws or cartridge-fired pins: the ultimate tensile strength of
component II (usually the supporting structure)
fy yield strength
fya average yield strength, accounting for work hardening due to cold-forming
fyb basic yield strength
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fym average measured basic yield strength of a component in a test

fyb,obs experimentally measured basic yield strength
gr distance from the midpoint P of a corner of a cold-formed steel section to the pont of
intersection X of the midlines
gs distance from the loaded flange of a cold-formed steel section to the shear centre, measured
in the z-direction
h overall depth of the cross-section
ha portion of the depth of a stiffened web of trapezoidal sheeting
hb portion of the depth of a stiffened web of trapezoidal sheeting
hc distance from the neutral axis of the effective cross-section of trapezoidal sheeting to the
centreline of the compression flange
hd developed depth of a web, measured along its midline, including any web stiffeners
hlt,u depth of the corrugations in the wide flange of liner trays
hst,a width of a single web stiffener in compression or of the web stiffener closer to the
compression flange in webs with two stiffeners in trapezoidal sheeting
hst,b width of a second stiffener in webs with two stiffeners in trapezoidal sheeting
ht distance from the neutral axis of the effective cross-section of trapezoidal sheeting to the
centreline of the tension flange
hw depth of the web between the midlines of the flanges
ifz radius of gyration of the free flange of a member
i radius of gyration of the gross cross-section
imin minimum radius of gyration of the gross cross-section
i0 polar radius of gyration of the gross cross-section relative to the shear centre
kA coefficient for calculating the rotational stiffness of the connection between sheeting and
members in the case of gravity loading
kba coefficient which accounts for the width of the member when calculating the rotational
stiffness of the connection between sheeting and members
kb,corr coefficient which accounts for the corrugation width of trapezoidal sheeting when
calculating the rotational stiffness of the connection between sheeting and members
kbu coefficient for calculating the rotational stiffness of the connection between sheeting and
members in the case of uplift loading
kce coefficient which accounts for the curved elements of the gross cross-section
kc1 coefficient which depends on the core material of sandwich panels
kc2 coefficient which depends on the core material of sandwich panels
kfp coefficient which depends on the forming process
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kh coefficient for the conversion of torsion and lateral bending of members into an equivalent
lateral load
kh0 coefficient to determine the equivalent lateral load on the free flange of a member
ki,sb coefficients for calculating the resistance of a web to transverse forces
kld,i coefficients which account for the dispersal of transverse forces in trapezoidal sheeting
klf coefficient which accounts for the type of loading in the flanges of a cross-section
kls coefficient which accounts for the loading on trapezoidal sheeting
kn coefficient used in the statistical evaluation of test results
knum coefficient which accounts for the number of bolts in the connection
kol coefficient for calculating the spring stiffness of connections at overlaps of sheeting
kpur coefficient for calculating the rotational stiffness of a member
kss coefficient which accounts for a member spring support
kst,w coefficient for calculating the resistance of a stiffened web to transverse forces
kt coefficient which accounts for the thickness of sheeting or members when calculating the
bearing resistance of bolts
kv shear stiffness of a fastener of sandwich panels
kα stiffness coefficient for steel liner tray diaphragms
kθf coefficient which accounts for the partial rotational restraint of webs by the flanges in
trapezoidal sheeting
kθw, kθw0 coefficients which account for the partial rotational restraint of the compression flange by
the webs or other adjacent elements in trapezoidal sheeting
kσ buckling factor for plane elements subject to longitudinal stresses
kτ buckling factor for plane elements subject to shear
k1 factor for sandwich panels
lA width of the sheeting in a test on torsionally restrained members
lB length of the beams in a test on torsionally restrained members
lbl effective bearing length
lcr buckling half-wavelength corresponding to the minimum buckling stress
lcr,f buckling half-wavelength of the stiffened compression flange in trapezoidal sheeting
lcr,T buckling length for torsional or flexural-torsional buckling of members
lcr,LT buckling length for lateral-torsional buckling of members
lcr,y, lcr,z buckling lengths for flexural buckling of members
lend distance from the free end of a member to the position where the transverse force is applied
lF length over which transverse forces are introduced
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lfz buckling length of the free flange of a member

lsb nominal length of stiff bearing
lspac spacing between transverse forces applied on opposite sides of the web
lT buckling length for torsional or flexural-torsional buckling, determined taking into account
the degree of torsional and/or warping restraint present at each end of the length LT
lw overall length of a fillet weld
lw,e effective length of an end fillet weld
lw,s effective length of a side fillet weld
lw,as length of an elongated arc spot weld
m applied bending moment per unit width of sheeting or sandwich panel
n number
nc number of corrugations between the longitudinal edge of a sheet and the corresponding
edge of the next sheet
nf number of mechanical fasteners in one connection
nce number of curved elements in a cold-formed steel cross-section
nk number of pairs of fasteners per sandwich panel and support
nj number of individual tests in test series j
np number of whole corrugations with overlapping sheeting within the width nc
npe number of plane elements in a cold-formed steel cross-section
nr number of 90° bends with internal radius r ≤ 5t in the cross-section
ns number of sheets that are fixed to the supporting member by the same screw or pin;
nw number of spot welds in one connection
p width of corrugations in sinusoidal sheeting
pol spacing of fasteners in overlaps of trapezoidal sheeting
p1 centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners in the direction of load transfer
p1,lt centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners in liner trays in the longitudinal direction
p2 centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners in the direction perpendicular to the direction of load
transfer
q self-weight of the roof, including the self-weight of the profiled sheeting
qEd uniformly distributed load acting on a member
qh,Ed equivalent lateral loading acting on the free flange of a member resulting from torsion and
lateral bending
qpur load introduced by the sheeting into a member
qs shear force in a sheet-to-member fastener
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qt tensile force in a sheet-to-member fastener

q0 self-weight of the roof, including the self-weight of the profiled sheeting times the
amplification factor aper
r internal bend radius
rbeam radius of curvature of an arched beam
rce,j internal bend radius of a curved element j
rm bend radius measured along the midlines of the cold-formed steel section
s thread pitch of fasteners
sa portion of the slant height of a web of trapezoidal sheeting
sb portion of the slant height of a web of trapezoidal sheeting
sc portion of the slant height of a web of trapezoidal sheeting
sd total developed height of the web, measured along its midline, including any web stiffeners
seff,0 basic effective width of the web of trapezoidal sheeting
seff,i portions of the effective width of the web of trapezoidal sheeting
seff,n portion of the effective width of the web of trapezoidal sheeting next to the centroidal axis
sn portion of the slant height of a web of trapezoidal sheeting
sp slant height of the widest plane element in the web
sper slant height of the perforated part of a web of trapezoidal sheeting
spF slant height of the plane web element nearest to the flange which is loaded by transverse
forces
sst,a portion of a web stiffener of trapezoidal sheeting
sst,b portion of a web stiffener of trapezoidal sheeting
stot,i sum of portions of the web heights of trapezoidal sheeting
sw slant height of the web, measured between the midlines of the flanges parallel to the web
sx standard deviation of test results
t design thickness of the steel material
ta,eq equivalent thickness of perforated sheeting for the purpose of calculating the section
properties of the gross cross-section
tb,eq equivalent thickness of perforated sheeting for the purpose of calculating the section
properties of the effective cross-section
tc,eq equivalent thickness of perforated sheeting for the purpose of calculating the resistance of
the web to transverse forces
tcleat thickness of the cleat
tcor nominal thickness minus the thickness of the zinc and other metallic coatings
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tcor,obs experimentally measured core thickness

teff effective thickness of a portion of an outstand element to account for local buckling
teq equivalent thickness of the steel material
tF2 nominal thickness of the inner face sheet of sandwich panels
tlt,eq equivalent thickness of the wide flange of a liner tray
tmc thickness of zinc and other metallic coatings
tnom nominal sheet thickness after cold-forming, inclusive of zinc and other metallic coatings, but
not including any organic coatings
tobs experimentally measured thickness of the material
tred reduced design thickness of a stiffener to account for distortional buckling
tsheet thickness of steel sheeting
tsupp design thickness of the flange of the supporting member
tw thickness of a steel washer
tI for fastenings with rivets, screws or cartridge-fired pins: the thickness of component I
directly underneath the head of the fastener (the swage head in the case of blind rivets)
tII for fastenings with rivets, screws or cartridge-fired pins: the thickness of component II
(usually the supporting structure)
t1 for spot welds: the thickness of the thicker connected part
vcurl maximum displacement of the flange towards the neutral axis as a result of curling
vlt,Ed design value of the shear flow in a steel liner tray diaphragm
vlt,Rd design value of the shear resistance of a steel liner tray diaphragm
vlt,Ed,ser shear flow in a steel liner tray diaphragm in the serviceability limit state
vlt,Rd,ser design value of the shear resistance of a steel liner tray diaphragm in the serviceability limit
state
vst deflection of a stiffener due to a unit load Funit
w cover width of sinusoidal sheeting
x distance in the x-direction along the member
xA distance in the x-direction from the cross-section under consideration to a simple support
or a point of contraflexure
xB distance in the x-direction from the cross-section under consideration to a simple support
xi,j normalized values of adjusted resistances obtained from tests
xs distance in the x-direction from the cross-section under consideration to a simple support
x-x axis along the member
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y distance in the y-direction measured from the neutral axis of the cross-section
y-y principal axis of a cross-section
y′-y′ centroidal axis of a cross-section parallel to the flanges, or centroidal axis of sheeting
parallel to the plane of the sheeting
yo y-coordinate of the shear centre relative to the centroid of the gross cross-section
z distance in the z-direction measured from the neutral axis of the cross-section
zc distance in the z-direction from the compressive flange to the neutral axis of the cross-
section
zt distance in the z-direction from the tension flange to the neutral axis of the cross-section
zo y-coordinate of the shear centre relative to the centroid of the gross cross-section
z-z principal axis of a cross-section
z′-z′ centroidal axis of a cross-section parallel to the web, or centroidal axis of sheeting
perpendicular to the plane of the sheeting
3.2.3 Greek upper-case symbols

Δtol minus tolerance of the thickness in %, as specified by the product standard or the production
specification document
ΔMEd additional bending moment resulting from the shift of the centroid of the effective cross-
section relative to the centroid of the gross cross-section
3.2.4 Greek lower-case symbols

α exponent used in the adjustment of test results
αb coefficient for calculating the bearing resistance of bolts
αI exponent for calculating the bow imperfection
αper load amplification factor accounting for openings in sheeting
αr coefficient for calculating the bearing resistance of rivets
αsc coefficient for calculating the bearing resistance of self-tapping screws
αT coefficient of linear thermal expansion
αy, αz exponents used in the member check for combined bending and compression
β exponent used in the adjustment of test results
βA ratio of the area of the effective cross-sections to the area of the gross cross-section
βLf reduction factor for long joints
βi exponent for calculating the bow imperfection
βlt correlation factor for calculating the buckling resistance of liner trays in bending
βV interaction factor for calculating the resistance to transverse forces
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βz exponent used in the member check for combined bending and compression
γM0 partial factor for the resistance of cross-sections
γM1 partial factor for the resistance of members to global instability
γM2 partial factor for the resistance to fracture in tension
γM,ser partial factor for serviceability limit state calculations
δ deflection
δe average deflection in an end support test on sheeting, measured at a given distance from the
supports
δel net deflection corresponding to a given load on the rising part of the test curve in an internal
support test on sheeting
δlat lateral displacement of the top flange of a member in a test on torsionally restrained
members
δlin fictitious net deflection, obtained assuming linear load-deflection behaviour in an internal
δpl net deflection corresponding to a given load on the falling part of the test curve in an internal
δy, δz exponents used in the member check for combined bending and compression
ε material factor depending on the yield strength
εa material factor depending on the average yield strength fya
εb material factor depending on the basic yield strength fyb
εmp,cf maximum acceptable plastic strain for cold-formed structures
ζ factor for calculating the reaction forces of simply supported members
ηi coefficient for calculating the buckling length of the free flange of a member, depending on
the loading and the number of anti-sag bars
ηk adjustment coefficient accounting for a small number of test results
ηsys conversion factor accounting for the differences in behaviour between test conditions and
actual service conditions
θ rotation
θEd plastic hinge rotation in the member over the support
θlim rotation limit
κR correction factor for the location and boundary conditions of a member
𝜆𝜆̅ relative slenderness for calculating a bow imperfection of a member
𝜆𝜆̅d relative slenderness for distortional buckling

𝜆𝜆̅d,red reduced relative slenderness for distortional buckling
𝜆𝜆̅e relative slenderness of a plane element for local or distortional buckling
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𝜆𝜆̅e,0 limit value of the relative slenderness of a plane element for local or distortional buckling
𝜆𝜆̅fz relative slenderness for flexural buckling of the free flange of a member
𝜆𝜆̅p relative slenderness for local buckling of plane elements subject to longitudinal stresses
𝜆𝜆̅p,red reduced relative slenderness for local buckling of plane elements subject to longitudinal
stresses
𝜆𝜆̅w relative web slenderness for local buckling of plane elements subject to shear
λ1 reference slenderness to determine the relative slenderness
μ factor which accounts for the utilization of the bending moment capacity
μF load adjustment coefficient in strength tests
μR resistance adjustment coefficient for test results
μso factor which accounts for the increase in the bending moment resistance of sheeting with
overlaps
ν Poisson’s ratio
ξ factor for calculating the forces in member-to-sheeting fasteners
ρ reduction factor for local buckling used to calculate the effective width of a plane element
σ longitudinal stress
σa mean stress in the flanges calculated on the basis of the gross cross-section
σcom,Ed maximum compressive stress in a plane element or stiffener
σcom,Ed,n,red reduced compressive stress in a plane element or stiffener calculated after a number of
iterative cycles
σcom,Ed,ser compressive stress in a plane element under the serviceability limit state loading
σcr elastic critical buckling stress of a cross-section, plane element or plate assembly
σcr,mod modified elastic critical buckling stress of sheeting with both flange and web stiffeners
σcr,st elastic critical buckling stress of the stiffener(s)
σcr,st,a elastic critical buckling stress of a single web stiffener or the stiffener closer to the
compression flange in webs with two stiffeners in trapezoidal sheeting
σeff,ser maximum compressive bending stress in the serviceability limit state, based on the effective
cross-section properties
σgr,ser maximum compressive bending stress in the serviceability limit state, based on the gross
cross-section properties
σmax,Ed design value of the maximum longitudinal stress
σM,Ed design value of the longitudinal stress due to a bending moment
σN,Ed design value of the longitudinal stress due to an axial force
σtot,Ed design value of the total longitudinal stress resulting from all actions
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σw,Ed design value of the longitudinal stress due to warping torsion

σ1, σ2 values of a linear longitudinal stress profile at the longitudinal edges of a plane element
τcr elastic critical shear buckling stress of a cross-section or plane element
τt,Ed design value of the shear stress due to uniform (St.-Venant) torsion
τtot,Ed design value of the total shear stress resulting from the design values of all actions, calculated
on the basis of the gross cross-section
τ V,Ed design value of the shear stress due to a transverse shear force
τ w,Ed design value of the shear stress due to warping torsion

φθ,t parameter accounting for the duration of loading when determining the modulus of elasticity
of the core of sandwich panels
ϕ angle between two plane elements, typically the angle between the web and the flange of
cold-formed sections or trapezoidal sheeting
ϕfic angle between the stiffened web and the flange of the cold-formed section or sheeting relative
to the line connecting the end points of the stiffened web;
ϕfz parameter to determine the reduction factor for global buckling
ϕ0 sway imperfection
χ reduction factor to determine the buckling resistance according to the relevant buckling
curve
χd reduction factor to determine the distortional buckling resistance
χd,n reduction factor to determine the distortional buckling resistance, obtained after a number
of iterative cycles
χfz reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling of members, equated to flexural buckling of the
free flange
χy, χz reduction factors for flexural buckling
χTF reduction factor for torsional-flexural buckling
χLT reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling
ψ ratio of the longitudinal stresses at the extremities of a plane element
ωx,y, ωx,z, interpolation factors in the design stability check of members in combined bending and
ωx,LT compression
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3.3 Symbols for cross-sectional dimensions
(1) The overall dimensions of cold-formed steel members and sheeting, including the overall width b, the
overall depth h, the internal bend radius r and other dimensions denoted by symbols without subscripts,
are measured to the face of the material, as illustrated in Figure 3.5, unless stated otherwise.
Figure 3.5 — Dimensions of typical cross-section
(2) The other cross-sectional dimensions of cold-formed steel members and sheeting, denoted by
symbols with subscripts, such as bf, hw or sw, are measured between the midlines of the plates or between
the midpoints of the corners, unless stated otherwise.
(3) In the case of sloping elements, such as webs of trapezoidal sheets, the slant height sw is measured
parallel to the sloping line connecting the intersection points of the flanges and the web.
(4) The developed depth of a web hd is measured along its midline, including any web stiffeners. An
example is provided in Figure 11.5.
(5) The developed width of a flange bdf is measured along its midline, including any intermediate flange
stiffeners. An example is provided in Figure 8.10.
(6) The thickness t is a design thickness of the steel as specified in 5.2.4(4), if not stated otherwise.
3.4 Symbols for member axes
(1) In general, the convention for the coordinate axes of member cross-sections is as laid out in
EN 1993-1-1. In addition, Figure 3.6 specifies the axes conventions for cold-formed steel cross-sections
which are not doubly symmetric.
Figure 3.6 — Axes convention of typical cold-formed steel sections
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(2) For cold-formed steel sections, profiled sheeting and liner trays the following axis convention is used:
— y-y major principal axis;
— z-z minor principal axis;
— y′-y′ centroidal axis parallel to the flanges or parallel to the plane of the sheeting;
— z′-z′ centroidal axis parallel to the web or perpendicular to the plane of the sheeting.
NOTE The design rules of this document generally relate to the section properties about the principal axes y-y
and z-z. However, in some cases the bending axis is imposed by connected structural elements and does not coincide
with one of the principal axes (see e.g. Clause 11).
4 Basis of design
4.1 Basic requirements
(1) The design of cold-formed steel members and sheeting shall be in accordance with the general rules
given in EN 1990 and EN 1991 (all parts) and the specific design provisions for steel structures given in
EN 1993-1-1.
(2) Steel structures designed according to this document shall be executed according to EN 1090-4,
bolted connections shall be executed according to EN 1090-2, with construction materials and products
used as specified in the relevant parts of EN 1993, or in the relevant material and product specifications.
4.2 Specific rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
(1) This document specifies design rules for cold-formed members and sheeting. For a general design
approach based on Finite Element methods, see EN 1993-1-14.
(2) Appropriate partial factors shall be adopted for ultimate limit states and serviceability limit states.
(3) In ultimate limit state calculations, the partial factor γM shall be taken as follows:
— when calculating the resistance of cross-sections against yielding and cross-sectional instability,
including local and distortional buckling: γM0
— when calculating the resistance of members and sheeting against global buckling: γM1
— when calculating the resistance of net sections at fastener holes and connections: γM2.
NOTE The partial factors γMi for buildings are given below, unless the National Annex specifies different values:
— γM0 = 1,00;
— γM1 = 1,00;
— γM2 = 1,25.
(4) In serviceability limit state calculations the partial factor γM,ser shall be used.
NOTE The partial factor γM,ser for buildings is given below, unless the National Annex specifies a different value:
γM,ser = 1,00.
(5) In the design of structures, a distinction shall be made between various ‘structural classes’, based on
the level of contribution of cold-formed steel members, sheeting or sandwich panels to the strength and
stability of the overall structure or that of individual structural elements. These structural classes are
associated with different requirements in the applicable product and execution standards for cold-
formed steel members, sheeting and sandwich panels, and shall be determined as follows:
— Applications in which cold-formed steel members, sheeting or sandwich panels are designed to
contribute to the overall strength and stability of a structure shall be classified as Structural Class I;
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— Applications in which cold-formed steel members, sheeting or sandwich panels are designed to
contribute to the strength and stability of individual structural elements shall be classified as
Structural Class II;
— Sheeting or sandwich panels providing stabilizing support to purlins or side rails which are designed
as part of the bracing system of the main structure (e.g. as compression members, struts, or tie beams)
may be classified as Structural Class II.
— Applications in which cold-formed steel members, sheeting or sandwich panels are used as elements
which only transfer loads to the structure shall be classified as Structural Class III. Sheeting and
sandwich panels in Structural Class III can be further differentiated into ‘structural’ or ‘non-
structural’ applications.
NOTE Permitted applications of non-structural cold-formed steel sheeting or non-structural sandwich panels
in Structural Class III can be set by the National Annex.
EN 1090-4 and EN 1090-2 cover the requirements for execution of structural sheeting and cold-formed
steel members. EN 14782 covers non-structural cold-formed sheeting in Structural Class III. EN 14509-1 1
covers non-structural sandwich panels in Structural Class III and EN 14509-2 2 covers structural
sandwich panels in Structural Class II.
(6) The classification into structural classes is particularly relevant for sheeting and sandwich panels to
establish their relation with the overall structure, as well as with their supporting members.
NOTE
Structural Class I: The designer of the structure assumes bracing of the structure by the sheeting.
Structural Class II: The designer of the members directly supporting the sheeting or sandwich panels assumes that
the latter provide restraint with regard to global buckling or bending parallel to the plane of the
sheeting or sandwich panel.
Structural Class III: The designer of the members directly supporting the sheeting or sandwich panels assumes that
the latter do not provide restraint with regard to global buckling or bending parallel to the plane
of the sheeting or sandwich panel.
Adequate communication is required between the designer of the members supporting sheeting or
sandwich panels and the designer of the sheeting or sandwich panels, with respect to the assumed
structural class and the corresponding implications according to the product standard.
(7) Additional requirements for structural applications are given in EN 1090-4, e.g. with respect to:
— communicating the structural class on layout drawings, as well as clearly posting it on the actual
structure;
— providing a minimum number of fasteners between the sheeting or sandwich panels and the
supporting member, as well as between the different sheets or sandwich panels;
— specifying the structural class in the design brief, as well as in the operations and maintenance
manual.
(8) EN 1090-4 lists the factors affecting execution that shall be specified during design.
1 Under preparation. Stage at the time of publication: prEN 14509-1.

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5 Materials
5.1 General
(1) All steels used for cold-formed steel members and profiled sheeting shall be suitable for cold-forming
and, if relevant, for welding. Steels used for galvanized members and sheets should also be suitable for
galvanizing.
Steels specified in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 with properties and chemical composition in compliance with the
relevant standards shall be considered to fulfil these requirements. For other steels the suitability for
cold-forming shall be demonstrated by a bend test in accordance with EN ISO 7438 or by an equivalent
test. If steel materials other than those mentioned in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 are used, their properties
(mechanical properties and weldability) shall be known and their mechanical properties shall conform
to the conditions given in EN 1993-1-1:2022, 5.1(2).
Table 5.1 — Nominal values of basic yield strength fyb and ultimate tensile strength fu
fyb fu
Type of steel Standard Grade
[N/mm2] [N/mm2]
Hot-rolled products of non-alloy EN 10025-2 S 235 235 360
structural steels — Part 2: Technical S 275 275 390
delivery conditions for non-alloy
structural steels S 355 355 490
S 460 460 540
Hot-rolled products of structural EN 10025-3 S 275 N 275 370
steels — Part 3: Technical delivery S 355 N 355 470
conditions for normalized/
normalized rolled weldable fine grain S 420 N 420 520
structural steels S 460 N 460 540
S 275 NL 275 370
S 355 NL 355 470
S 420 NL 420 520
S 460 NL 460 540
Hot-rolled products of structural EN 10025-4 S 275 M 275 360
steels — Part 4: Technical delivery S 355 M 355 450
conditions for thermomechanical
rolled weldable fine grain structural S 420 M 420 500
steels S 460 M 460 530
S 275 ML 275 360
S 355 ML 355 450
S 420 ML 420 500
S 460 ML 460 530
(2) The nominal values of material properties given in 5.1 and 5.2 should be adopted as characteristic
values in design calculations.
(3) This document covers the design of cold-formed steel members and profiled sheets fabricated from
steel conforming to the requirements given in 5.2.1.
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(4) The design values of the following material properties of steel should be taken as indicated in
EN 1993-1-1:
— Modulus of elasticity: 𝐸𝐸 = 210 000 [N/mm2] (5.1)
𝐸𝐸
— Elastic shear modulus: 𝐺𝐺 = [N/mm2] (5.2)
2 (1 + 𝜈𝜈)
— Poisson’s ratio in the elastic range: ν = 0,3 (5.3)
[per Kelvin, valid for
— coefficient of linear thermal expansion: 𝛼𝛼T = 12 ∙ 10−6 (5.4)
temperatures ≤ 100 °C]
Table 5.2 — Nominal values of basic yield strength fyb and ultimate tensile strength fu
fyb fu
[N/mm2] [N/mm2]
Cold-reduced carbon steel ISO 4997 CR 220 220 300
sheet of structural quality CR 250 250 330
CR 320 320 400
Hot-rolled flat products made EN 10149-2 S 315 MC 315 390
of high yield strength steels S 355 MC 355 430
for cold-forming — Part 2:
Technical delivery conditions S 420 MC 420 480
for thermomechanically rolled S 460 MC 460 520
steels S 500 MC 500 550
S 550 MC 550 600
S 600 MC 600 650
S 650 MC 650 b 700
S 700 MC 700 b 750
Hot-rolled flat products made EN 10149-3 S 260 NC 240 a 350 a
of high yield strength steels S 315 NC 295 a 410 a
for cold-forming — Part 3:
S 355 NC 355 a 450 a
Technical delivery conditions
for normalized or normalized S 420 NC 400 a 510 a
rolled steels
Cold-rolled flat products made EN 10268 HC260LA 240 340
of high yield strength micro- HC300LA 280 370
alloyed steels for cold-forming
HC340LA 320 400
HC380LA 350 430
HC420LA 390 460
Continuously hot-dip coated EN 10346 S220GD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ 220 300
steel flat products for cold- S250GD+ Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 250 330
forming
S280GD+ Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 280 360
S320GD+ Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 320 390
S350GD+ Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 350 420
S390GD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ 390 460
S420GD+ Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ 420 480
S450GD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ 450 510
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fyb fu
[N/mm2] [N/mm2]
Continuously hot-dip coated EN 10346 HX260LAD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 240 a 330 a
steel flat products of steel HX300LAD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 280 a 360 a
with high proof stress for
cold-forming HX340LAD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 320 a 390 a
HX380LAD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 360 a 420 a
HX500LAD+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 470 a 500 a,c
Continuously hot-dip coated EN 10346 DX51D+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 120 a,c 250 a,c
steel flat products of low DX52D+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 120 a,c 250 a,c
carbon steels for cold-forming
DX53D+Z, +ZF, +ZA, +ZM, +AZ, +AS 120 ac 250 a,c
a The nominal values given in the respective product standard correspond to the transverse direction of the
strip or sheet. The values given in the Table above correspond to properties in the longitudinal (rolling)
direction.
b For thicknesses > 8 mm the given yield strength shall be reduced by 20 N/mm2.
c The product standard does not specify minimum values of the yield strength or the ultimate tensile strength.
For all steel grades a minimum yield strength of 120 N/mm2 and a minimum ultimate tensile strength of
250 N/mm2 may be assumed.
NOTE The materials in Table 5.1 conform to harmonized product standards, while the materials in Table 5.2
conform to EN or ISO product standards. This document is applicable to the materials listed in both Tables.
5.2 Structural steel
5.2.1 Properties of base material
(1) The nominal values of the basic yield strength fyb or the ultimate tensile strength fu should be obtained
in one of the following ways:
a) by adopting the values fyb = Reh or fyb = Rp0,2 and fu = Rm directly from product standards if they apply
to the longitudinal direction;
b) by using the values given in Table 5.1 and 5.2;
c) from appropriate tests.
(2) If the characteristic values are determined from tests, such tests should be carried out in accordance
with A.2.1.
(3) It may be assumed that the properties of steel in compression are the same as those in tension.
NOTE Information about whether the materials given in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2 can be used in a global plastic
analysis can be provided by the National Annex.
(4) The material properties at elevated temperatures for fire design are given in EN 1993-1-2.
5.2.2 Material properties of cold-formed steel members and sheeting
(1) Where the yield strength is specified using the symbol fy or fya, the average yield strength fya according
to (2) or (3) may be used, if (4) to (5) apply.
In other cases, the basic yield strength fyb should be used, see 5.2.1 (1).
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(2) The average yield strength fya of a cross-section resulting from cold-forming may be determined from
the results of full-scale tests.
(3) Alternatively, the average yield strength fya may be determined from Formula (5.5):
𝑘𝑘fp 𝑛𝑛r 𝑡𝑡 2 �𝑓𝑓u + 𝑓𝑓yb �

𝑓𝑓ya = 𝑓𝑓yb + �𝑓𝑓u − 𝑓𝑓yb � but 𝑓𝑓ya ≤ (5.5)
𝐴𝐴 2
where
A is the area of the gross cross-section;
kfp is a coefficient which depends on the forming process as follows:
— kfp = 7 for roll-forming;
— kfp = 5 for other forming methods;
nr is the total number of 90° bends with an internal radius r ≤ 5t (fractions of a 90° bend should
be counted as fractions of 1);
t is the design thickness of the steel material, as specified in 5.2.4(4).
(4) The average yield strength fya resulting from cold-forming may be used when determining:
— the resistance of a cross-section in uniform tension according to 8.1.2;
— the resistance of a cross-section in uniform compression, when Aeff = A, according to 8.1.3;
— the resistance of a cross-section with fully effective flanges in bending according to 8.1.4;
— the global buckling resistance of an axially loaded compression member with Aeff = A, according to
8.2.2 and 8.2.3.
(5) To determine the bending moment resistance of a cross-section with fully effective flanges, the cross-
section may be subdivided into m nominal plane elements, such as webs or flanges. Formula (5.5) may
then be used to obtain values of the increased yield strength fy,i separately for each plane element i
(i = 1…m), provided that the condition in Formula (5.6) is satisfied:
∑𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖=1 𝐴𝐴i 𝑓𝑓y,i
≤ 𝑓𝑓ya (5.6)
∑𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖=1 𝐴𝐴i
where
Ai is the area of the gross cross-section of element i (i = 1…m). When calculating the increased
yield strength fy,i using Formula (5.5), half of the bends adjacent to element i may be considered
to be part of the area Ai.
(6) The average yield strength fya due to cold-forming should not be used for members which have been
subjected to a heat treatment after forming and have been exposed to temperatures above 580°C for more
than one hour.
NOTE For further information, see EN 1090-2.
(7) Special attention should be paid to the fact that some heat treatments (particularly annealing) might
reduce the basic yield strength fyb.
(8) For welding in cold-formed areas, see EN 1993-1-10.
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5.2.3 Fracture toughness
(1) See EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-10.
5.2.4 Thickness and thickness tolerances
(1) The provisions for design by calculation given in this document are applicable to members and
sheeting with tcor ≥ 0,35 mm.
(2) Thinner material may also be used, provided that the load carrying resistance is determined by design
assisted by testing.
(3) EN 1090-4 specifies the minimum nominal steel thicknesses for various applications.
(4) A design thickness t based on the steel core thickness tcor shall be used (rather than the nominal
thickness tnom), which should be determined using Formula (5.7) or (5.8):
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡cor if Δtol ≤ 5 % (5.7)
100 − Δtol
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡cor if Δtol > 5 % (5.8)
95
where
tcor = tnom − tmc (5.9)
Δtol is the negative tolerance of the thickness in %, as specified by the product standard or the
production specification document;
tnom is the nominal sheet thickness, inclusive of zinc and other metallic coatings, but not including
any organic coatings, see (6);
tcor is the nominal thickness minus the thickness of the zinc and other metallic coatings;
tmc is the thickness of the metallic coatings.
For Z 275 galvanizing, the combined thickness of the coatings on both sides of the plate may be taken as
tmc = 0,04 mm.
(5) For continuously hot-dip metal coated members and sheeting supplied with negative tolerances less
than or equal to the “special tolerances (S)” given in EN 10143, the design thickness according to
Formula (5.7) may be used. If the negative tolerance is larger than the "special tolerance (S)" given in
EN 10143, then the design thickness according to Formula (5.8) may be used.
(6) tnom is the nominal sheet thickness after cold-forming. It may be taken as the value tnom of the original
sheet, if
— the cross-sectional area A before cold-forming (equal to the nominal sheet width times the nominal
thickness) and the cross-sectional area Acalc after cold-forming (as calculated from the specified cross-
sectional shape) do not differ by more than 2 %, or
— the design of the members is based on the basic yield strength fyb.
Otherwise, the specified nominal thickness tnom of the original sheet material should be reduced
correspondingly.
NOTE 1 Alternatively, in the design calculations the thickness can be reduced locally at the bends until
compliance with Acalc ≤ 1,02 A (where A is the nominal manufacturer sheet width times the nominal thickness).
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NOTE 2 In the case of a design assisted by testing according to Clause 12, the effects addressed by these
provisions are already implicitly taken into account, as the actual dimensions of the test specimens and the effects
of the manufacturing process are indirectly included in the test results.
5.3 Connecting devices
5.3.1 Mechanical fasteners
5.3.1.1 Bolt assemblies
(1) Bolts, nuts and washers should conform to the requirements given in EN 1993-1-8.
5.3.1.2 Other types of mechanical fasteners
(1) Other types of mechanical fasteners, such as

— self-tapping screws, including thread-forming self-tapping screws, thread-cutting self-tapping screws
or self-drilling self-tapping screws,
— cartridge-fired pins,
— blind rivets,
— clinching
may be used if they comply with the relevant European Product Standard or ETA, see also EN 1090-4.
(2) The characteristic value of the shear resistance Fv,Rk and the characteristic value of the minimum
tensile resistance Ft,Rk of the mechanical fasteners may be taken from the EN Product Standard or ETA.
5.3.2 Welding consumables
(1) Welding consumables should conform to the requirements given in EN 1993-1-8.
6 Durability
(1) For basic durability requirements, see EN 1993-1-1.
(2) Special attention should be given to galvanic corrosion in cases where different metals are in contact
with each other, see EN 1090-4.
(3) For the corrosion resistance of cold-formed steel products, see EN 1090-4. For the corrosion
resistance of fasteners and the environmental class following EN ISO 12944-2, see Annex B. For hot-dip
galvanized fasteners, see EN ISO 10684.
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7 Structural analysis
7.1 Structural modelling for analysis
(1) Analysis shall be based upon calculation models of the structure that are appropriate for cold-formed
steel structures and the limit state under consideration. The method used for the analysis shall be
consistent with the design assumptions.
(2) Finite Element analyses to determine elastic critical buckling loads, to verify ultimate limit states or
serviceability limit states, or to conduct numerical simulations should be carried out according to
EN 1993-1-14.
NOTE For the purpose of Finite Element analysis, the maximum acceptable plastic strain for cold-formed
structures is εmp,cf = 5 %, unless the National Annex specifies a different value.
(3) Where the effects of the behaviour of joints on the distribution of internal forces and moments within
a structure and on the overall deformations of the structure are significant (such as in the case of semi-
continuous joints), they should be taken into account, see EN 1993-1-8.
NOTE For the analysis of member systems with semi-continuity provided by overlaps or sleeves, see 11.1.3.3.
For the analysis of sheeting with overlaps, see 11.3.4. For the analysis of adjustable pallet racking systems, see
EN 15512.
7.2 Global analysis
7.2.1 Methods of global analysis for ultimate limit state design checks
(1) The method of global analysis (first- or second-order analysis with consideration of imperfections)
should be compatible with the cross-section and member verification requirements in 8.1 and 8.2.
(2) The effects of local and distortional buckling on the stiffness of cold-formed members and structures
shall be taken into account in the global analysis. These effects may be ignored in the global analysis when
the effective cross-sectional area of each individual plane element, with or without stiffeners, is larger
than 50 % of its gross sectional area.
(3) Second-order effects should be considered in the global elastic analysis of cold-formed steel
structures in accordance with the provisions of EN 1993-1-1:2022, 7.2.1.
(4) Depending on the type of structure and the numerical modelling, imperfections and second-order
effects should be considered using one of the following approaches:
a) entirely in the global analysis;
b) partially in the global analysis and partially by verification of the buckling resistance of individual
members according to 8.2;
c) by verification of the buckling resistance of “Equivalent Members” according to 8.2, using appropriate
buckling lengths in accordance with the global buckling modes of the structure.
NOTE Appropriate methods of Finite Element based global analysis corresponding to the different methods
given in a) to c) are provided in EN 1993-1-14.
(5) Ultimate limit state design checks may be carried out using the general methods of global analysis M0,
M1, M2, M3, M4, M5 and EM, as specified in EN 1993-1-1:2022, 7.2.2 (4) to (9), considering also torsional
and flexural-torsional buckling modes.
(6) The applicability of analysis methods to cold-formed structures and the corresponding ultimate limit
state design checks required for cold-formed steel structures according to this document are indicated in
Table 7.1. Methods M0-M4 are recommended for the design of cold-formed steel structures.
NOTE Limitations on the use of Method EM can be set by the National Annex.
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(7) The cases where second-order effects due to lateral-torsional buckling may be neglected in the global
analysis and the subsequent verifications to be carried out are defined in EN 1993-1-1:2022, 7.2.1 (6).
(8) Second-order effects due to torsional buckling or torsional-flexural buckling of members subject to
compression should be taken into account. They may be neglected in the global analysis and the
subsequent verifications where torsional buckling and torsional-flexural buckling are prevented or do
not occur.
7.2.2 Imperfections
7.2.2.1 General
(1) The structural analysis should appropriately incorporate the effects of imperfections, including the
residual stresses and geometric imperfections of cold-formed steel structures (such as a lack of
verticality, lack of straightness, lack of flatness, lack of fit and load eccentricities) which are larger than
the essential tolerances of cold-formed steel structures according to EN 1090-4.
(2) Equivalent geometric imperfections should be used with values which reflect the combined effects of
all types of imperfections, unless these effects are included in the cross-sectional or buckling resistance
checks for members, see Table 7.1.
(3) General information about imperfections is provided in EN 1993-1-1:2022, 7.3.1 (3)(4).
7.2.2.2 Sway imperfections
(1) Sway imperfections for the global analysis of frames should be taken from EN 1993-1-1:2022: 7.3.2,
but using ϕ0 = 1/200 in all cases.
(2) The sway imperfection should apply in all relevant horizontal directions, but need only be considered
in one direction at a time.
Table 7.1 — Methods of structural analysis applicable to ultimate limit state design checks of
cold-formed steel structures and members
Method acc. 1st/2nd order

Additional Imperfections to
To effects for Design check according to
requirements for cold- be considered in
EN 1993-1-1: global Clause 8.1 or 8.2
formed steel sections the global analysis
2022, 7.2.2 analysis
M0 In-plane and out-of- 1st order None 8.1: Cross-sectional resistance
7.2.2(4) plane buckling may be effects
neglected
M1 In-plane buckling may 1st order None 8.1: Cross-sectional resistance
7.2.2(5) be neglected, Out-of- effects and
plane buckling (Flexural,
8.2: Out-of-plane member
torsional, torsional-
buckling check
flexural or lateral-
torsional buckling) shall
not be neglected
EM None 1st order None 8.1: Cross-sectional resistance
7.2.2(9) effects and
8.2: In-plane and out-of-plane
member buckling check acc. to
8.2 based on an appropriate
buckling length of “Equivalent
Members”
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Method acc. 1st/2nd order

Additional Imperfections to
To effects for Design check according to
requirements for cold- be considered in
EN 1993-1-1: global Clause 8.1 or 8.2
formed steel sections the global analysis
2022, 7.2.2 analysis
M2 None 1st order Sway imperfections 8.1: Cross-sectional resistance
7.2.2(6) effects and
member buckling check
M3 None 2nd order Sway imperfections 8.1: Cross-sectional resistance
7.2.2(7)a effects using γM1
and
member buckling check
M4 None 2nd order Sway imperfections 8.1: Cross-sectional resistance
7.2.2(7)b effects and using γM1
in-plane member and
bow imperfections 8.2: Out-of-plane member
buckling check
M5 None 2nd order Sway imperfections 8.1: Verification of the cross-
7.2.2(8) effects and sectional resistance using γM1
in-plane and out-of- or
plane member bow Stress verification e.g. based
imperfections on FE-analysis acc. to EN
and 1993-1-14 using γM1
torsional effects
(torsional,
torsional-flexural or
lateral-torsional
buckling modes)
NOTE When applying the member buckling check according to 8.2.5(2) to (5) the verification of the cross-
sectional resistance is included.
7.2.2.3 Equivalent bow imperfections of members
(1) For the purpose of carrying out a second-order analysis including member imperfections, the
equivalent bow imperfections related to flexural buckling and torsional-flexural buckling e0 may be
determined from Formula (7.1):
𝑀𝑀c,Rd 1 𝜆𝜆̅2 1
𝑒𝑒0 = � − � (1 − 𝜒𝜒 𝛼𝛼i )𝛽𝛽i (7.1)
𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝜒𝜒 𝛾𝛾M1
where
χ is the reduction factor according to the relevant buckling curve, see 8.2.2;
Mc,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section about the relevant
axis according to 8.1.4;
Nc,Rd is the design value of the resistance to axial forces according to 8.1.3;
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αi, βi are exponents according to Table 7.2, depending on the N-M interaction formulae used for the
verification of the cross-sectional resistance: according to 8.1.8(1) or, alternatively, according
to 8.1.8(4) with reference to 8.2.5. The N-M interaction selected in Table 7.2 shall be the same
as that used in the subsequent verification of the cross-sectional resistance. When selecting the
N-M interaction according to 8.1.8(4), the exponents αi, and βI (used in Formula (7.1), based on
Table 7.2, and used in the N-M interaction for cross-sectional verification, calculated according
to 8.1.8(4) with respect to 8.2.5, Table 8.9) shall be the same.
𝜆𝜆̅ is the relative slenderness of the member:
𝑁𝑁c,Rk
𝜆𝜆̅ = � (7.2)
𝑁𝑁cr
with:
Ncr is the elastic critical buckling load of the member.
For asymmetric sections and for members with bending moments that change sign along the member
length, two calculations are required for each buckling check, corresponding to the two opposite
directions of imperfections.
Table 7.2 — Exponents for calculating the equivalent bow imperfection e0 according to
Formula (7.1)
Exponents αI, βi
Buckling
about Application of linear Application of linear N-M Application of N-M interaction acc.
axis N-M interaction interaction acc. to 8.1.8(4) in to 8.1.8(4) in accordance with NDP
acc. to 8.1.8(1) accordance with 8.2.5, Table 8.9 to 8.2.5, Table 8.9
αi = αy but αI ≥ 1,0
Major βi = βy but βI ≥ 1,0
principal where αy and βy should be calculated
axis according to NDP to Table 8.9 with:
αi = 1 αi = 1 𝜒𝜒𝑦𝑦 = 1,0 and 𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 = 1,0
βi = 1 βi = 1 αi = αz but αI ≥ 1,0
Minor βi = δz but βI ≥ 1,0
principal where αz and δz should be calculated
axis according to NDP to Table 8.9 with:
𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 = 1,0 and 𝜔𝜔𝑥𝑥,𝑧𝑧 = 1,0
(2) As an alternative to (1) the equivalent bow imperfections for flexural bucking according to
EN 1993-1-1:2022, 7.3.3.1 may be used.
(3) For imperfections related to lateral-torsional buckling an equivalent bow imperfection e0,LT about the
weak axis of the profile according to Formula (7.1) may be assumed, without the need to simultaneously
account for an initial twist.
(4) The equivalent bow imperfections should apply in all relevant horizontal directions, but need only be
considered in one direction at a time.
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7.2.2.4 Imperfections based on elastic critical buckling modes of the structure
(1) As an alternative to 7.2.2.2 and 7.2.2.3, a combined equivalent bow and sway imperfection may be
calculated according to Formula (7.1), based on the elastic critical buckling mode of the structure in
accordance with EN 1993-1-1:2022, 7.3.6, and with 𝜆𝜆̅ determined from EN 1993-1-1:2022, 7.3.6(1).
7.3 Structural modelling of cold-formed steel sections
7.3.1 Influence of rounded corners
(1) For cold-formed steel sections, the notional flat widths bp of plane elements should be measured from
the midpoints of the adjacent corners, as indicated in Table 7.3.
(2) The calculation of cross-sectional properties of cold-formed steel sections should be based on the
nominal geometry of the cross-section.
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Table 7.3 — Notional widths bp of plane elements, accounting for corner radii
(a) midpoint of corner or bend where

— X is the point of intersection of the midlines
— P is the midpoint of the corner
— 𝑟𝑟m = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑡𝑡/2
𝜙𝜙 𝜙𝜙
— 𝑔𝑔r = 𝑟𝑟m �tan − sin �
2 2
(b) notional flat width bp of plane flange (c) notional flat width bp of a web
elements
(bp = slant height sw)

(d) notional flat width bp of plane elements
adjacent to a fold
(e) notional flat width bp of plane elements

adjacent to a groove stiffener
with c1, c2: overall dimensions
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(3) Unless more accurate methods are used to determine the cross-sectional properties, the following
approximate procedure may be used. The influence of the rounded corners on the cross-sectional
resistance may be neglected if the internal radius r ≤ 5 t and r ≤ 0,10 bp. The cross-section may then be
assumed to consist of plane elements with sharp corners, in accordance with Figure 7.1, which indicates
how bp is determined. For cross-sectional stiffness properties, e.g. Iy, Iz, Iw, the influence of rounded
corners should always be taken into account.
a) actual cross-section b) idealized cross-section
Figure 7.1 — Approximate allowance for rounded corners
(4) The influence of the rounded corners on the cross-sectional properties may be taken into account by
reducing the properties calculated for an equivalent cross-section with sharp corners, as indicated in
Figure 7.1, using the following approximations according to Formulae (7.3) to (7.5):
𝐴𝐴 ~ 𝐴𝐴sh (1 − 𝑘𝑘ce ) (7.3)
𝐼𝐼 ~ 𝐼𝐼sh (1 − 2𝑘𝑘ce ) (7.4)
𝐼𝐼w ~ 𝐼𝐼w,sh (1 − 4𝑘𝑘ce ) (7.5)
with
𝜙𝜙j
∑𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗=1
ce
𝑟𝑟ce,j
𝑘𝑘ce = 0,43 90° (7.6)
𝑛𝑛
pe
∑𝑖𝑖=1 𝑏𝑏p,i
where
Ash is the area of an equivalent cross-section with sharp corners;
bp,i is the notional flat width of plane element i in an equivalent cross-section with sharp corners,
measured to the points of intersection with the midlines of adjacent plane elements, see point
X in Table 7.3.a;
I is the moment of inertia of the gross cross-section;
Ish is the value of I for an equivalent cross-section with sharp corners;
Iw is the warping constant of the gross cross-section;
Iw,sh is the value of Iw for an equivalent cross-section with sharp corners;
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ϕj is the angle between two plane elements, connected by curved element j, in degrees;
npe is the number of plane elements;
nce is the number of curved elements;
rce,j is the internal radius of curved element j.
(5) The reductions given in (4) may also be applied when calculating the cross-sectional properties Aeff,
Iy,eff, Iz,eff and Iw,eff of the effective cross-section, provided that the notional flat widths bp of the plane
elements are measured to the points of intersection of their midlines.
(6) If the internal radius r > 0,04 t E/fy, then the resistance of the cross-section should be determined by
tests, unless more appropriate analysis are used according to EN 1993-1-14.
7.3.2 Modelling for cross-sectional analysis
(1) Unless more accurate models are used according to EN 1993-1-14, the elements of a cross-section
may be modelled for analysis as indicated in Table 7.4.
(2) The mutual influence of multiple stiffeners should be taken into account.
Table 7.4 — Modelling of elements of a cross-section
Type of element Model Type of element Model
(3) Unless otherwise justified, the edges designed for lateral overlapping of sheeting should not be
considered in the determination of the resistance and the stiffness of the sheeting. These edges are shown
as dotted lines in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 — Model of sheeting for the determination of resistance and stiffness
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(4) Where the lip is not perpendicular to the flange, as illustrated for a double-fold lip in Figure 7.3, the
equivalent size ceq of the lip should be determined from Formula (7.7) or (7.8):
𝑐𝑐
𝑐𝑐eq = if c2 = 0 (single-fold lip) (7.7)
(cos 𝜙𝜙)1/3
where
c is the width of the lip of the single-fold edge stiffener, measured perpendicular to the flange
(see also Figure 7.3 for inclined double-fold lips).
1/3
𝑐𝑐1 + 4 𝑐𝑐2 cos 𝜙𝜙
𝑐𝑐1,eq = 𝑐𝑐1 � � if c2 > 0 (double-fold lip) (7.8)
cos 𝜙𝜙 (𝑐𝑐1 + 𝑐𝑐2 cos 𝜙𝜙)
where
c1, c2 are the overall widths of the components of a double-fold lip, as indicated in Figure 7.3.
NOTE c1, c2: overall dimensions
Figure 7.3 — Inclined double-fold lip
7.4 Cross-sectional analysis — Geometric proportions and application range
(1) The provisions for design by calculation in this document should not be applied to cross-sections
outside the ranges of the width-to-thickness ratios b/t, h/t, c/t, c1/t and c2/t given in Table 7.5. These
limits define the ranges for which sufficient experience and verification by testing is currently available.
Cross-sections with larger width-to-thickness ratios may also be used, provided that their resistances at
the ultimate limit states and their behaviour at the serviceability limit states are verified by testing and/or
by calculations, where the calculated results are confirmed by an appropriate number of tests.
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Table 7.5 — Maximum width-to-thickness ratios
Element of cross-section Maximum value
b/t ≤ 50
b/t ≤ 60
c/t ≤ 50
b/t ≤ 90
c1/t ≤ 60
c2/t ≤ 50
with c1, c2:
overall dimensions
b/t ≤ 500
45° ≤ ϕ ≤ 90°
h/t ≤ 500 sinϕ
(2) In order to provide sufficient stiffness while avoiding primary buckling of the stiffener itself, the sizes
of edge stiffeners should be within the ranges indicated by Formulae (7.9) to (7.11):
0,2 ≤ c/b ≤ 0,6 (7.9)
0,2 ≤ c1/b ≤ 0,6 (7.10)
0,1 ≤ c2/b ≤ 0,3 (7.11)
where the dimensions b, c, c1 and c2 are as indicated in Table 7.5.
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If c/b < 0,2 or c1/b < 0,2 or c2/b < 0,1 the lip should be ignored in the design calculations (c = 0 or
c1 = c2 = 0).
(3) If the cross-sectional properties of the effective cross-section are determined by testing or by testing
and subsequent simulations using Finite Element analysis, the limits in (1) and (2) do not apply.
NOTE For the application of Finite Element methods, see EN 1993-1-14.
7.5 Cross-sectional analysis — Flange curling
(1) The effects of flange curling on the load-bearing resistance may be ignored if the maximum curling
displacement is less than 5 % of the depth of the cross-section. If curling is more significant, its effect on
the load-bearing resistance, for instance caused by a decrease in the length of the lever arm of effective
parts of the flanges, or by possible transverse bending of the web, should be accounted for.
For both members and profiled sheeting, the effect of flange curling on the resistance may be ignored,
provided that b/t ≤ 250 h/b (see Figure 7.4).
NOTE 1 Flange curling is characterized by an inward curvature towards the neutral plane and can occur, for
instance, in wide flanges in a member subject to flexure, or in the flanges of an arched beam with the concave side
in compression.
NOTE 2 For liner trays the effect of flange curling is taken into account in 11.2.2.2.
(2) The calculation of the maximum curling displacement may be carried out according to Formulae
(7.12) and (7.13). The Formulae apply to both compressive and tensile flanges, either with or without
longitudinal stiffeners, but without closely spaced transverse stiffeners.
For a member which is straight prior to the application of the loading (see Figure 7.4):
4
𝜎𝜎a2 𝑏𝑏curl
𝑣𝑣curl =2 2 2 (7.12)
𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡 𝑧𝑧
For an arched beam:

4
𝜎𝜎a 𝑏𝑏curl
𝑣𝑣curl = 2 (7.13)
𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑟𝑟beam
where
vcurl is the maximum displacement of the flange towards the neutral axis as a result of curling, see
Figure 7.4;
bcurl is half the distance between webs in box and hat sections, or the width of the portion of the
flange projecting from the web, see Figure 7.4;
t is the flange thickness;
z is the distance from the flange to the neutral axis of the gross cross-section, see Figure 7.4;
rbeam is the radius of curvature of the arched beam;
σa is the mean stress in the flanges calculated on the basis of the gross cross-section. If the stress
has previously been calculated using the effective cross-section, the mean stress may be
obtained by multiplying the stress in the effective cross-section by the ratio of the area of the
effective parts of the flange to the total area of the flange.
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Figure 7.4 — Flange curling
7.6 Cross-sectional analysis — Local and distortional buckling
7.6.1 General
(1) The effects of local and distortional buckling should be taken into account when determining the
resistance and stiffness of cold-formed steel members and sheeting.
(2) Local buckling effects should be considered according to (6)(7) and 7.6.2 by using the cross-sectional
properties of the effective cross-section, calculated on the basis of the effective widths, see also
EN 1993-1-5.
(3) In determining the resistance to local buckling, the yield strength fy should be taken as fyb when
calculating effective widths of compressed elements according to EN 1993-1-5.
NOTE The cross-sectional resistance to local buckling is considered in 8.1.
(4) For serviceability verifications the effective width of a compression element should be based on the
compressive stress σcom,Ed,ser in the element under the serviceability limit state loading.
(5) The effects of distortional buckling should be accounted for in cases such as those indicated in
Figures 7.5 (a) to (e). Distortional buckling of elements with edge or intermediate stiffeners should be
considered according to (6), (7) and 7.6.3.
Figure 7.5 — Examples of distortional buckling modes
(6) The effects of local and distortional buckling should be determined by performing a linear (see
7.6.1(7)) or non-linear buckling analysis (see EN 1993-1-14) using numerical methods, from stub column
tests (see Annex A), or by using simplified procedures provided in 7.6.2 and EN 1993-1-5 for local
buckling as well as in 7.6.3.1 for distortional buckling.
(7) Provided the elastic buckling load is obtained from a linear buckling analysis, the following procedure
may be applied:
a) For half-wavelengths up to the nominal member length, calculate the critical elastic buckling load and
identify the corresponding buckling modes, as illustrated in Figure 7.6.
b) Calculate the effective width(s) according to 7.6.2 of cross-sectional elements undergoing local
buckling, based on the minimum elastic local buckling load, see Figure 7.7.
c) Calculate the reduced thickness according to 7.6.3.3 or 7.6.3.4 of all edge and intermediate stiffeners
or other cross-sectional elements possibly undergoing distortional buckling, based on the minimum
distortional buckling load, see Figure 7.7.
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d) Calculate the overall buckling resistance according to 8.2 (pertaining to a flexural, torsional, torsional-
flexural or lateral-torsional buckling mode) for the relevant buckling length, based on the effective
cross-section obtained from b) and c).
(8) The following design procedure should be used to determine the cross-sectional properties of the
effective cross-sections resulting from both local and distortional buckling:
a) Effective area Aeff:
The effective area Aeff should be determined assuming that the cross-section is only subject to uniform
stresses due to axial compression, accounting for local buckling according to 7.6.2 and distortional
buckling of elements with stiffeners according to 7.6.3. For mono-symmetric or asymmetric cross-
sections the possible shifts eNy and eNz of the centroid of the effective cross-section relative to the
centroid of the gross cross-section can result in additional bending moments, which should be taken
into account in determining the cross-sectional resistance (see 8.1 and Figure 8.1) and the buckling
resistance of the member (see 8.2).
b) Effective section modulus Weff:
The effective section modulus Weff should be determined assuming that the cross-section is only
subject to bending. The following procedure applies:
1) The effective area of cross-sectional elements in compression (e.g. the flange of a C- or Z-section
in major axis bending) may be determined accounting for local buckling according to 7.6.2 and
distortional buckling of elements with stiffeners according to 7.6.3, using a stress ratio based on
the gross cross-section.
2) The effective area of cross-sectional elements subject to a stress gradient (e.g. the web of a C- or
Z-section in major axis bending) may be determined accounting for local buckling according to
7.6.2 and distortional buckling of elements with stiffeners according to 7.6.3, using a stress ratio
ψ based on a cross-section which is composed of the effective areas of the elements in uniform
compression (e.g. the flange) obtained from the previous step a) and the gross cross-section area
of the elements subject to a stress gradient (e.g. the web).
3) If the effective section modulus Weff of the cross-section has been calculated based on a maximum
stress in the cross-section equal to the basic yield strength fyb, the effective cross-section may be
refined by recalculating the stress distribution based on the effective cross-section obtained in
the previous step. A minimum number of two iterations should be used when applying this option.
If the effective cross-sectional properties have been calculated based on a maximum stress σcom,Ed in the
cross-section which is less than fyb (see 7.6.2 (5) and 7.6.3.2 (2)) the effective cross-section should be
refined by recalculating the stress distribution based on the effective cross-section obtained in the
previous steps. The minimum number of iterations is two.
(9) As an alternative to 7.6.1(8), when verifying the cross-sectional resistance according to 8.1, a single
effective cross-section may be determined, assuming that the cross-section is subject to combined
uniform compression or tension resulting from an axial force NEd and bending stresses due to a bending
moment MEd, acting simultaneously. The possible shifts eNy and eNz of the centroid of the effective cross-
section relative to the centroid of the gross cross-section can result in additional bending moments, which
should be taken into account. This requires an iterative procedure.
In the verification of the member buckling resistance according to 8.2, this alternative procedure shall
not be used.
(10) Numerical methods, e.g. Finite Element Methods (FEM), Finite Strip Methods (FSM) or Generalized
Beam Theory (GBT), based on a linear elastic bifurcation analysis (LBA), may be used to determine the
elastic buckling loads referred to in 7.6.1(7).
NOTE For Finite Element analysis of steel structures, see EN 1993-1-14.
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Key
lcr half-wavelength
Ncr buckling load
1 local buckling
2 distortional buckling
3 global buckling
Figure 7.6 — Examples of elastic critical load for various buckling modes as a function of half-
wavelength
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Key
L member length
N load
1–2 elastic distortional buckling, represented by Garland curves with an increasing number of longitudinal half-
waves
3 elastic overall buckling
4-5 elastic local buckling, represented by Garland curves with an increasing number of longitudinal half-waves
6 distortional buckling resistance
7 local buckling resistance
8 global buckling resistance
9 possible local-global interactive buckling
Figure 7.7 — Examples of elastic buckling load and buckling resistance as a function of
member length
7.6.2 Plane elements without stiffeners
(1) The effective widths of unstiffened elements should be obtained from EN 1993-1-5, using the notional
flat width bp for 𝑏𝑏 and determining the reduction factors for local plate buckling based on the plate
slenderness 𝜆𝜆̄𝑝𝑝 and the basic yield strength fyb.
(2) The notional flat width bp of a plane element should be determined as specified in Table 7.3. In the
case of plane elements in sloping webs, the appropriate slant height should be used.
(3) For outstand elements the mixed effective width/effective thickness method may be used which
should be carried out as specified in Annex C.
(4) When applying the method prescribed in EN 1993-1-5 the following procedure may be used:
— The effective area of plane elements in uniform compression in a cross-section subject to a stress
gradient (e.g. the flange of a C-section in major axis bending) may be determined from Tables 6.1 and
6.2 of EN 1993-1-5:2024, using a stress ratio ψ based on the properties of the gross cross-section.
— The effective area of plane elements subject to a stress gradient (e.g. the web of a C-section subject to
major axis bending) may be determined from Tables 6.1 and 6.2 of EN 1993-1-5:2024, using a stress
ratio ψ based on a cross-section which is composed of the effective area of the plane elements in
uniform compression and the gross cross-section of the plane elements subject to a stress gradient.
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NOTE For an iterative calculation of the effective cross-section, see 7.6.1(8).

— The simplified method given in 7.6.4 may be used in the case of webs of trapezoidal sheeting subject
to a stress gradient.
(5) In accordance with EN 1993-1-5:2024, 6.4.1(6), the plate slenderness 𝜆𝜆̄p may be replaced by 𝜆𝜆̄p,red ,
based on a compressive stress σcom,Ed (below the basic yield strength fyb/γM0), using Formula (7.14):
𝜎𝜎com,Ed
𝜆𝜆̅p,red = 𝜆𝜆̅p � (7.14)
𝑓𝑓yb⁄𝛾𝛾M0
where
σcom,Ed is the design value of the compressive stress in the relevant plane element calculated by
superimposing all simultaneous stresses, whereby each stress is calculated based on the
effective cross-section for that particular type of loading.
NOTE In this document, σcom,Ed can be used in both the cross-sectional resistance check, accounting for both
local and distortional buckling, and the member stability check, which results in a more specific definition for σcom,Ed
compared to EN 1993-1-5.
This requires an iterative calculation of the effective cross-section according to 7.6.1(8).
(6) If a design is based on σcom,Ed, the following procedure should be carried out:
— The effective area of each relevant element of the cross-section should be calculated based on the
compressive stress σcom,Ed for that particular element, defined in 7.6.2, 7.6.3.2, 7.6.3.3 and 7.6.3.4.
— The cross-sectional resistance and the buckling resistance of members should be determined using
8.1 and 8.2, whereby
— all relevant cross-sectional resistances should be calculated based on the same value of the
maximum compressive stress σcom,Ed,max in the effective cross-section and
— the maximum compressive stress σcom,Ed,max replaces fyb and fya in 8.1 and 8.2, where relevant. The
buckling resistances should be based on the buckling curves provided for fyb.
7.6.3 Plane elements with edge or intermediate stiffeners
7.6.3.1 Structural modelling for distortional buckling analysis
(1) The design of a compressed plane element with edge or intermediate stiffeners should be based on
the assumption that the stiffened element with its stiffener behaves as a compressed member with
continuous partial restraint, with a spring stiffness which depends on the boundary conditions and the
flexural stiffness of the adjacent plane elements.
(2) The spring stiffness of a stiffener should be determined by applying a unit load Funit (per unit length)
as illustrated in Table 7.6. The spring stiffness Kst per unit length may be determined from Formula (7.15):
𝐾𝐾st = 𝐹𝐹unit /𝑣𝑣st (7.15)
where
Funit is the unit load (per unit length) acting at the centroid of the assembly consisting of the effective
parts of the stiffener and the adjacent effective areas of the stiffened plate, see Table 7.6;
vst is the deflection of the stiffener under the unit load Funit.
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(3) In determining the values of the rotational spring stiffnesses Cθ, Cθ,1 and Cθ,2 from the geometry of the
cross-section (see Table 7.6 (a)) account should be taken of the possible effects of other stiffeners which
are present in the same element or in any other element of the cross-section which is subject to
compression.
(4) For an edge stiffener the deflection vst should be determined from Formula (7.16):
3
𝐹𝐹unit 𝑏𝑏K1 12(1 − 𝜈𝜈 2 )
𝑣𝑣st = 𝜃𝜃𝑏𝑏p + ∙ (7.16)
3 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 3
with
𝜃𝜃 = 𝐹𝐹unit 𝑏𝑏K1 /𝐶𝐶θ
(5) In the case of edge stiffeners of lipped C-sections and lipped Z-sections, Cθ should be determined with
the unit loads Funit applied as shown in Table 7.6 (c). This results in Formula (7.17) for calculating the
spring stiffness Kst,1 of the stiffener in flange 1:
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 3 1
𝐾𝐾st,1 = 2
∙ 2 3 (7.17)
4(1 − 𝜈𝜈 ) 𝑏𝑏K1 ℎw + 𝑏𝑏K1 + 0,5 𝑏𝑏K1 𝑏𝑏K2 ℎw 𝑘𝑘lf
where
bK1 is the distance from the web-to-flange junction to the centroid of the effective cross-
section of the edge stiffener (including the effective part be2 of the flange) of flange 1, see
Table 7.6 (a);
bK2 is the distance from the web-to-flange junction to the centroid of the effective cross-
section of the edge stiffener (including the effective part of the flange) of flange 2;
hw is the depth of the web, measured between the midlines of the flanges;
klf is a coefficient which accounts for the type of loading in the flanges, with:
klf = 0 if flange 2 is in tension (e.g. for a member bent about the y-y axis);
𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝐴𝐴st2 /𝐴𝐴st1 if flange 2 is in compression (e.g. for a column in axial compression);
klf = 1 for a symmetric section in compression.
Ast1, Ast2 are the effective areas of the edge stiffeners (including the effective part be2 of the flange,
see Table 7.6 (b) of flange 1 and flange 2, respectively).
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Table 7.6 — Determination of spring stiffness
(a) Actual system
(b) Equivalent system
(c) Examplarily calculation of vst for C- and Z-sections

Axial compression or Major axis bending Axial compression Major or minor axis
minor axis bending bending
(6) As a conservative alternative, the values of the rotational spring stiffnesses of an intermediate
stiffener, Cθ,1 and Cθ,2, may be taken as equal to zero, and the deflection vst may be obtained from Formula
(7.18):
2 2
𝐹𝐹unit 𝑏𝑏K1 𝑏𝑏K2 12(1 − 𝜈𝜈 2 )
𝑣𝑣st = ∙ (7.18)
3(𝑏𝑏K1 + 𝑏𝑏K2 ) 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 3
where
Funit is the unit load (per unit length) as specified in (2);
bK1, bK2 are the distances as specified in (5), see Table 7.6.
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7.6.3.2 Distortional buckling resistance
(1) The reduction factor χd to determine the distortional buckling resistance should be obtained from the
relative slenderness 𝜆𝜆d as given by Formulae (7.19) to (7.21):
𝜒𝜒d = 1,0 if 𝜆𝜆̅d ≤ 0,65 (7.19)
𝜒𝜒d = 1,47 − 0,723 𝜆𝜆̅d if 0,65 ≤ 𝜆𝜆̅d < 1,38 (7.20)
0,66
𝜒𝜒d = if 𝜆𝜆̅d ≥ 1,38 (7.21)
𝜆𝜆̅d
with
𝑓𝑓yb
𝜆𝜆̅d = � (7.22)
𝜎𝜎cr,st
where
σcr,st is the elastic critical buckling stress of the stiffener(s), determined from 7.6.3.3, 7.6.3.4 or
7.6.4.2.
(2) The relative slenderness 𝜆𝜆̄d according to Formula (7.22) may be replaced by 𝜆𝜆̄d,red , based on the
compressive stress σcom,Ed using Formula (7.23):
𝜎𝜎com,Ed
𝜆𝜆̅d,red = 𝜆𝜆̅d � (7.23)
𝑓𝑓yb ⁄𝛾𝛾M0
where
σcom,Ed is the maximum design value of the compressive stress at the centroid of the stiffener,
calculated based on the relevant effective cross-section in accordance with 7.6.2(5).
This requires an iterative calculation of the effective cross-section according to 7.6.1(8).
(3) If a design based on σcom,Ed is carried out, the procedure provided in 7.6.2 (6) should be followed.
(4) Alternatively, the elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st may be obtained from an elastic first-order
buckling analysis using numerical methods (see 7.6.1(7) and (10)).
(5) In the case of a plane element with both edge and intermediate stiffeners, and in the absence of a more
accurate method, the effect of the intermediate stiffener(s) may be neglected.
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7.6.3.3 Plane elements with edge stiffeners — local-distortional buckling interaction
(1) The following procedure may be applied to an edge stiffener if the requirements in 7.4 are met and
the angle between the stiffener and the plane element is between 45° and 135°.
a) single-fold edge stiffener b) double-fold edge stiffener
Figure 7.8 — Edge stiffeners
(2) The cross-section of an edge stiffener should be taken as comprising the effective portions of the
stiffener (i.e. the effective portions of element c, or elements c1 and c2, as shown in Figure 7.8) and the
adjacent effective portion of the plane element bp.
(3) The procedure, which is illustrated in Table 7.7, should be carried out in steps as follows:
Step 1: Local buckling of plane elements
Obtain an initial effective cross-section of the stiffener, determining the effective widths under
the assumption that the stiffener provides full restraint, see (4) and (5);
Step 2: Distortional buckling
Use the initial effective cross-section of the stiffener to determine the reduction factor for
distortional buckling, accounting for the effects of the continuous spring restraint, see (6), (7),
(8) and (9);
Step 3: Refine the effective cross-section of the edge stiffener (optional)
This step is optional and may be omitted. Iterate to refine the value of the reduction factor for
distortional buckling, see (10);
Step 4: Adopt an effective cross-section of the edge stiffener, see (11)
(4) The initial values of the effective widths be1 and be2 of the plane element, shown in Figure 7.8, should
be determined from 7.6.2, assuming that the plane element bp is doubly supported, see Table 6.1 in
EN 1993-1-5:2024.
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(5) The initial values of the effective widths of the edge stiffener shown in Figure 7.8 should be obtained
as follows:
a) for a single-fold edge stiffener (see Figure 7.8 a):
𝑐𝑐eff = 𝜌𝜌 𝑏𝑏p,c (7.24)
where
ρ is the reduction factor for local buckling obtained from 7.6.2, except that the value of the
buckling factor kσ should be determined as follows:
𝑘𝑘σ = 0,5 if bp,c/bp ≤ 0,35 (7.25)
3 2
𝑘𝑘σ = 0,5 + 0,83 ��𝑏𝑏p,c /𝑏𝑏p − 0,35� if 0,35 < bp,c/bp ≤ 0,6 (7.26)
b) for a double-fold edge stiffener (see Figure 7.8 b):

𝑐𝑐1,eff = ρ 𝑏𝑏p,c1 (7.27)
where
ρ is the reduction factor for local buckling obtained from 7.6.2, using the buckling factor kσ for a
doubly supported element obtained from Table 6.1 in EN 1993-1-5:2024;
and:
𝑐𝑐2,eff = 𝜌𝜌 𝑏𝑏p,c2 (7.28)
where
ρ is the reduction factor for local buckling obtained from 7.6.2, using the buckling factor kσ for
an outstand element obtained from Table 6.2 in EN 1993-1-5:2024.
(6) In the calculation of the area Ast and the moment of inertia Ist of the effective cross-section of the edge
stiffener, the rounded corners shall be accounted for using the same principles as used for the calculation
of the effective cross-section according to 7.3.1, see Figure 7.8.
(7) The elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st of an edge stiffener should be determined from Formula (7.29):
2 �𝐾𝐾st 𝐸𝐸 𝐼𝐼st
𝜎𝜎cr,st = (7.29)
𝐴𝐴st
where
Kst is the spring stiffness of the edge stiffener per unit length, see 7.6.3.1(2);
Ist is the moment of inertia of the effective cross-section of the edge stiffener about its centroidal
axis a-a, see Figure 7.8.
buckling analysis using numerical methods, see 7.6.1(7)(10).
(9) The reduction factor χd for the distortional buckling resistance of an edge stiffener should be obtained
from 7.6.3.2, based on σcr,st.
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(10) Optionally, provided that χd < 1, the effective cross-section of the edge stiffener may be refined
iteratively, repeating the procedure from Step 1 of Table 7.7 with modified values of ρ based on a reduced
stress given by Formula (7.30):
σcom,Ed,n,red = χd,(n-1) fyb/γM0 (7.30)
where
n is the number of the iterative cycle.
This results in a reduced plate slenderness for all plane elements comprising the stiffener given by
Formula (7.31):
𝜆𝜆̅p,n,red = 𝜆𝜆̅p �𝜒𝜒d (n−1) (7.31)
If the local-distortional buckling design according to 7.6.2 and 7.6.3.2 is based on the compressive stress
σcom,Ed, fyb in Formula (7.30) should be replaced by σcom,Ed.
(11) The reduced thickness tred of all parts of the edge stiffener (i.e. for a single-fold edge stiffener: be2,n,
ceff,n; for a double-fold edge stiffener: be2,n, c1,e1,n, c1,e2,n, c2,eff,n) should be taken from Formula (7.32):
𝑡𝑡red = 𝜒𝜒d ∙ 𝑡𝑡 (7.32)
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Table 7.7 — Compressive resistance of a flange with an edge stiffener according to (3)
Gross cross-section and boundary conditions

according to (1) and (2)

Calculate the effective cross-section (be1, be2, ceff)
according to (4) and (5) for Kst = ∞

a) Calculate the elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st
according to (6),(7) or (8), using the area of the
effective cross-section of the edge stiffener Ast
determined in step 1
b) Calculate the reduction factor χd for distortional
buckling according to (9), based on σcr,st
Iteration 1
Step 3: Refine the effective cross-section of the
edge stiffener (optional)
Optionally, provided that χd < 1, repeat step 1 by
recalculating the effective width of the edge
stiffener (be2, ceff) with a reduced compressive
stress σcom,Ed,n,red according to (10), using χd from the
Iteration n previous iteration and continuing until χd,n ≈ χd,(n−1),
but χd,n ≤ χd,(n−1).
Step 4: Adopt an effective cross-section of the
edge stiffener
Calculate a reduced thickness tred of the edge
stiffener (be2, ceff) based on χd,n according to (11)
a If the local-distortional buckling design according to 7.6.2 and 7.6.3.2 is based on the compressive stress
σcom,Ed, fyb should be replaced by σcom,Ed.
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7.6.3.4 Plane elements with intermediate stiffeners — local-distortional buckling interaction
(1) The following procedure may be applied to one or two identical intermediate stiffeners formed by
grooves or folds, provided that the effective widths of all plane elements are calculated according to 7.6.2.
(2) The cross-section of an intermediate stiffener should be taken as comprising the stiffener itself plus
the adjacent effective portions b1e,1 and b2,e1 of the stiffened plane elements, as shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9 — Intermediate stiffeners
(3) The procedure, which is illustrated in Table 7.8, should be carried out in steps as follows:
Obtain an initial effective cross-section of the stiffener, determining the effective widths under
the assumption that the stiffener provides full restraint, see (4)
Use the initial effective cross-section of the stiffener to determine the reduction factor for
distortional buckling, accounting for the effects of the continuous spring restraint, see (5), (6),
(7), (8);
Step 3: Refine the effective cross-section of the intermediate stiffener (optional)
This step is optional and may be omitted. Iterate to refine the value of the reduction factor for
distortional buckling, see (9);
Step 4: Adopt an effective cross-section of the intermediate stiffener, see (10).
(4) The initial values of the effective widths b1,e2 and b2,e1, shown in Figure 7.9, should be determined from
7.6.2, assuming that the plane elements bp,1 and bp,2 are doubly supported, see Table 6.1 in
EN 1993-1-5:2024.
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(5) In the calculation of the area Ast and the moment of inertia Ist of the effective cross-section of the
intermediate stiffener, the rounded corners shall be accounted for using the same principles as used for
the calculation of the effective cross-section according to 7.3.1, see Figure 7.9.
(6) The elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st of an intermediate stiffener should be determined from
Formula (7.33):
2 �𝐾𝐾st 𝐸𝐸 𝐼𝐼st
𝜎𝜎cr,st = (7.33)
𝐴𝐴st
where
Kst is the spring stiffness of the intermediate stiffener per unit length, see 7.6.3.1(2);
Ist is the moment of inertia of the effective cross-section of the intermediate stiffener about its
centroidal axis a-a, see Figure 7.9.
buckling analysis using numerical methods, see 7.6.1(7)(10).
(8) The reduction factor χd for the distortional buckling resistance of an intermediate stiffener should be
obtained from 7.6.3.2, based on σcr,st.
(9) Optionally, provided that χd < 1, the effective cross-section of the intermediate stiffener may be
refined iteratively, repeating the procedure from Step 1 of Table 7.8 with modified values of ρ based on a
reduced stress taken from Formula (7.34):
σcom,Ed,n,red = χd,(n-1) fyb/γM0 (7.34)
where
n is the number of the iterative cycle.
This results in a reduced plate slenderness for all plane elements comprising the stiffener given by
Formula (7.35):
𝜆𝜆̅p,n,red = 𝜆𝜆̅p �𝜒𝜒d (n−1) (7.35)
If the local-distortional buckling design according to 7.6.2 and 7.6.3.2 is based on the compressive stress
σcom,Ed, fyb in Formula (7.34) should be replaced by σcom,Ed.
(10) The reduced thickness tred of all parts of the intermediate stiffener (b1,e2,n, b2,e1,n, bst) should be taken
from Formula (7.36):
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Table 7.8 — Compressive resistance of a plane element with an intermediate stiffener according
to (3)
Gross cross-section and boundary conditions

according to (1) and (2)

Calculate the effective cross-section (b1e1, b1e2, b2e1,
b2e2) according to (4) for Kst = ∞

a) Calculate the elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st
according to (5), (6) or (7), using the area Ast of the
effective cross-section of the intermediate stiffener
determined in step 1
b) Calculate the reduction factor χd for distortional
buckling according to (8), based on σcr,st
Iteration 1
Step 3: Refine the effective cross-section of the
intermediate stiffener (optional)
Optionally, provided that χd < 1, repeat step 1 by
recalculating the effective width of the intermediate
stiffener (b1,e2, b2,e1) with a reduced compressive stress
σcom,Ed,n,red according to (9), using χd from the previous
iteration and continuing until χd,n ≈ χd,(n–1), but
Iteration n χd,n ≤ χd,(n–1).
Step 4: Adopt an effective cross-section of the

intermediate stiffener
Calculate a reduced thickness tred of the intermediate
stiffener (b1e2, b2e1) based on χd,n according to (10)
a If the local-distortional buckling design according to 7.6.2 and 7.6.3.2 is based on the compressive stress
σcom,Ed, fyb should be replaced by σcom,Ed.
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7.6.4 Special provisions for trapezoidal sheeting
7.6.4.1 General
(1) The provisions in 7.6.4 should be used for trapezoidal sheeting, in combination with the general
procedure in 7.6.3.4 for flanges with intermediate stiffeners.
(2) Interaction between buckling of intermediate flange stiffeners and intermediate web stiffeners
should also be taken into account, using the method given in 7.6.4.4.
7.6.4.2 Flanges with intermediate stiffeners
(1) For a flange with an intermediate stiffener subject to uniform compression, the effective cross-section
should be assumed to consist of two strips of width 0,5beff (for calculating Ast) or 20t (for calculating Ist)
adjacent to the stiffener; see Table 7.9.
If the constituent plane elements of a large U-shaped stiffener are not fully effective, the stiffener should
be considered as a single stiffener with reduced widths according to Table 7.9.
NOTE The stiffener width used to calculate the moment of inertia Ist according to Table 7.9 can be larger than
the flange width.
(2) For one central flange stiffener the elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st should be obtained from
Formula (7.37):
4,2 𝑘𝑘θw𝐸𝐸 𝐼𝐼st 𝑡𝑡 3

𝜎𝜎cr,st = � 2 (7.37)
𝐴𝐴st 4𝑏𝑏p �2𝑏𝑏p + 3𝑏𝑏st,d �
where
bp is the notional flat width of the plane element, as shown in Table 7.9;
bst,d is the developed width of the stiffener, measured along the midline of the stiffener, see
Table 7.9;
Ast, Ist are the cross-sectional area and the moment of inertia of the effective cross-section of the
stiffener according to Table 7.9;
kθw is a coefficient which accounts for the partial rotational restraint of the stiffened flange by
the webs or other adjacent elements, see (5) and (6). When calculating the effective cross-
section in axial compression: kθw = 1,0.
Formula (7.37) may be used for a wide groove, provided that the flat part of the stiffener is reduced for
plate buckling and bp in Formula (7.37) is replaced by the larger of bp and 0,25 (3bp+bst), see Table 7.9. A
similar method may be used for flanges with two or more wide grooves.
(3) For two symmetrically placed flange stiffeners, the elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st should be
obtained from Formula (7.38):
4,2 𝑘𝑘θw𝐸𝐸 𝐼𝐼st 𝑡𝑡 3

𝜎𝜎cr,st = � 2 (7.38)
𝐴𝐴st 8𝑏𝑏tot,2 �3𝑏𝑏tot,1 − 4𝑏𝑏tot,2 �
with
btot,1 = 2bp,1 + bp,2 + 2bst,d (7.39)
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btot,2 = bp,1 + 0,5 bst (7.40)
where
bp,1 is the notional flat width of an outer plane element, as shown in Table 7.9;
bp,2 is the notional flat width of the central plane element, as shown in Table 7.9;
bst is the overall width of the stiffener, measured parallel to the midline of the compression
flange, see Table 7.9;
bst,d is the developed width of the stiffener, measured along the midline of the stiffener, see
Table 7.9;
Ast, Ist are the cross-sectional area and the moment of inertia of the effective cross-section of the
stiffener according to Table 7.9.
Table 7.9 — Compression flange with one, two or multiple stiffeners
Compression flange with one or two stiffeners

one stiffener
(a) geometry
(b) stiffener width

bst
(c) cross-section for

calculating the
effective area Ast
(d) cross-section for

calculating the
effective moment of
inertia Ist
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two stiffeners
(a) geometry
(b) stiffener width

bst

calculating the
effective area Ast
(d) cross-section for
calculating the
effective moment of
inertia Ist
Compression flange with multiple stiffeners
(a) geometry and
centroidal axis a-a
(b) developed flange

width bst,d,mult
(4) For a flange with three or more similar stiffeners the effective area of the entire flange should be
𝐴𝐴eff = 𝜌𝜌 𝑏𝑏st,d,mult 𝑡𝑡 (7.41)
where
ρ is the reduction factor for local buckling according to EN 1993-1-5:2024, 6.4.1 (1)-(5), using a
relative slenderness 𝜆𝜆p based on the elastic buckling stress σcr,st.
with
𝐼𝐼st 𝑡𝑡 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 2
𝜎𝜎cr,st = 1,8 𝐸𝐸 � 2 3 + 3,6 2 (7.42)
𝑏𝑏st,mult 𝑏𝑏st,d,mult 𝑏𝑏st,mult
where
Ist is the sum of the moments of inertia of the stiffeners about the centroidal axis a-a of the
effective cross-section of the stiffeners, neglecting the contributions of the plate elements
parallel to axis a-a about their own centroidal axis, see Table 7.9;
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bst,mult is the width of a compression flange containing multiple stiffeners, measured parallel to the
midline of the compression flange, see Table 7.9;
bst,d,mult is the developed width of a compression flange containing multiple stiffeners, measured
along the midline of the stiffeners, see Table 7.9.
(5) The value of kθw may be calculated from the buckling half-wavelength lcr,f of the compression flange
as given by Formulae (7.43) and (7.44):
𝑘𝑘θw = 𝑘𝑘θwo if lcr,f/sw ≥ 2 (7.43)
2 𝑙𝑙cr,f 𝑙𝑙cr,f 2
𝑘𝑘θw = 𝑘𝑘θwo − (𝑘𝑘θwo − 1) � −� � � if lcr,f/sw < 2 (7.44)
𝑠𝑠w 𝑠𝑠w
where
sw is the slant height of the web, see Table 7.3(c);
lcr,f is the buckling half-wavelength of the compression flange according to (7);
kθw, kθw0 are coefficients accounting for local buckling of the webs in trapezoidal sheeting, see (7).
(6) Alternatively, the coefficient of rotational restraint kθw may conservatively be taken as 1,0, which
corresponds to a pin-jointed condition.
(7) The values of lcr,f and kθw0 may be determined as follows:
a) for a compression flange with one intermediate stiffener, see Table 7.9:
4 𝐼𝐼st 𝑏𝑏p2 �2𝑏𝑏p + 3𝑏𝑏st,d �

𝑙𝑙cr,f = 3,07 � (7.45)
𝑡𝑡 3
𝑠𝑠w + 2𝑏𝑏tot,3
𝑘𝑘θwo = � (7.46)
𝑠𝑠w + 0,5𝑏𝑏tot,3
with
btot,3 = 2bp + bst,d (7.47)
b) for a compression flange with two intermediate stiffeners, see Table 7.9:
2
4 𝐼𝐼st 𝑏𝑏tot,2 �3𝑏𝑏tot,1 − 4𝑏𝑏tot,2 �
𝑙𝑙cr,f = 3,65 � (7.48)
𝑡𝑡 3
�2𝑏𝑏tot,1 + 𝑠𝑠w ��3𝑏𝑏tot,1 − 4𝑏𝑏tot,2 �

𝑘𝑘θwo = � (7.49)
𝑏𝑏tot,2 �4𝑏𝑏tot,1 − 6𝑏𝑏tot,2 � + 𝑠𝑠w �3𝑏𝑏tot,1 − 4𝑏𝑏tot,2 �
where
btot,1, btot,2 are the portions of the width according to (3).
(8) If the webs are unstiffened, the reduction factor χd should be obtained directly from σcr,st using the
method given in 7.6.3.2.
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(9) If the webs are stiffened by intermediate stiffeners, the reduction factor χd should be obtained using
the method given in 7.6.3.2, but while using the modified elastic critical buckling stress σcr,mod given in
7.6.4.4.
(10) In accordance with the general design provisions in 7.6.3.4 for local-distortional buckling interaction
of plane elements with intermediate stiffeners, the design of flanges with one or two intermediate
stiffeners results in a reduced thickness tred of all parts of the intermediate stiffeners (see Table 7.9 c) as
given by Formula (7.50):
(11) The cross-sectional properties of the stiffeners at the serviceability limit states should be based on
the design thickness t.
7.6.4.3 Webs with up to two intermediate stiffeners
(1) The effective cross-section of the compression zone of a web (or another element of a cross-section
which is subject to a stress gradient) with up to two intermediate stiffeners should be assumed to consist
of the reduced effective areas Ast,red of the intermediate stiffeners, a strip adjacent to the compression
flange and a strip adjacent to the centroidal axis of the effective cross-section, as illustrated in Figure 7.10.
(2) The effective cross-section of a web, as shown in Figure 7.10, should include:
a) a strip of width seff,1 adjacent to the compression flange;
b) the reduced effective area Ast,red of each web stiffener, with a maximum of two;
c) a strip of width seff,n adjacent to the effective centroidal axis;
d) the part of the web in tension.
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(a) without stiffener (b) one stiffener
(c) two stiffeners
Figure 7.10 — Effective cross-sections of webs of trapezoidal sheeting
(3) The effective areas of the web stiffeners should be obtained from Formulae (7.51) and (7.52):
a) for a single stiffener, or for the stiffener closer to the compression flange:
𝐴𝐴st,a = 𝑡𝑡 �𝑠𝑠eff,2 + 𝑠𝑠eff,3 + 𝑠𝑠st,a � (7.51)
b) for a second stiffener:
𝐴𝐴st,b = 𝑡𝑡 �𝑠𝑠eff,4 + 𝑠𝑠eff,5 + 𝑠𝑠st,b � (7.52)
where
seff,1 to seff,n, sst,a and sst,b are the dimensions shown in Figure 7.10.
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(4) The initial location of the effective centroidal axis should be based on the effective cross-sections of
the flanges and the gross cross-sections of the webs. The basic effective width seff,0 should be obtained
𝐸𝐸
𝑠𝑠eff,0 = 0,76 𝑡𝑡 � (7.53)
𝑓𝑓yb /𝛾𝛾M0
where
fyb, E are the material properties of the steel, see 5.1.
(5) If the web is not fully effective, the dimensions seff,1 to seff,n should be determined from Formulae (7.54)
to (7.59) as follows:
𝑠𝑠eff,1 = 𝑠𝑠eff,0 (7.54)
ℎa
𝑠𝑠eff,2 = 𝑠𝑠eff,0 �1 + 0,5 � (7.55)
ℎc
�ℎa + ℎst,a �
𝑠𝑠eff,3 = 𝑠𝑠eff,0 �1 + 0,5 � (7.56)
ℎc
ℎb
𝑠𝑠eff,4 = 𝑠𝑠eff,0 �1 + 0,5 � (7.57)
ℎc
�ℎb + ℎst,b �
𝑠𝑠eff,5 = 𝑠𝑠eff,0 �1 + 0,5 � (7.58)
ℎc
𝑠𝑠eff,n = 1,5 𝑠𝑠eff,0 (7.59)
where
hc is the distance from the neutral axis of the effective cross-section of the
trapezoidal sheeting to the midline of the compression flange, see Figure 7.10;
ha, hb, hst,a and hst,b are dimensions defined in Figure 7.10.
(6) The dimensions seff,1 to seff,n should initially be determined from (5) and then revised if the relevant
plane element is found to be fully effective, using Formulae (7.60) to (7.69):
a) in an unstiffened web, if seff,1 + seff,n ≥ sn the entire web is effective, so revise as follows:
𝑠𝑠eff,1 = 0,4 𝑠𝑠n (7.60)
𝑠𝑠eff,n = 0,6 𝑠𝑠n (7.61)
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b) in a stiffened web, if seff,1 + seff,2 ≥ sa the whole width sa is effective, so revise as follows:
1
𝑠𝑠eff,1 = 𝑠𝑠a
ℎa (7.62)
�2 + 0,5 �
ℎc
ℎa
�1 + 0,5 �
ℎc
𝑠𝑠eff,2 = 𝑠𝑠a (7.63)
ℎ
�2 + 0,5 a �
ℎc
c) in a web with one stiffener, if seff,3 + seff,n ≥ sn the whole width sn is effective, so revise as follows:
�1 + 0,5 �
hc
𝑠𝑠eff,3 = 𝑠𝑠n (7.64)
�2,5 + 0,5 �
ℎc
1,5
𝑠𝑠eff,n = 𝑠𝑠n
�ℎa + ℎst,a � (7.65)
�2,5 + 0,5 �
ℎc
d) in a web with two stiffeners:

• if seff,3 + seff,4 ≥ sb the whole width sb is effective, so revise as follows:
�1 + 0,5 �
ℎc
𝑠𝑠eff,3 = 𝑠𝑠b (7.66)
�ℎa + ℎst,a + ℎb �
�2 + 0,5 �
ℎc
ℎb
�1 + 0,5�
ℎc
𝑠𝑠eff,4 = 𝑠𝑠b
�ℎ + ℎst,a + ℎb � (7.67)
�2 + 0,5 a �
ℎc
• if seff,5 + seff,n ≥ sn the whole width sn is effective, so revise as follows:
�1 + 0,5 �
ℎc
𝑠𝑠eff,5 = 𝑠𝑠n (7.68)
�2,5 + 0,5 �
ℎc
1,5
𝑠𝑠eff,n = 𝑠𝑠n
0,5 �ℎb + ℎst,b � (7.69)
�2,5 + �
ℎc
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(7) For a single stiffener, or for the stiffener closer to the compression flange in webs with two stiffeners,
the elastic critical buckling stress σcr,st,a should be determined from Formula (7.70) using:
1,05 𝑘𝑘θf 𝐸𝐸
𝜎𝜎cr,st,a = �𝐼𝐼st,a 𝑡𝑡 3 𝑠𝑠tot,1 (7.70)
𝐴𝐴st,a 𝑠𝑠tot,2 �𝑠𝑠tot,1 − 𝑠𝑠tot,2 �
where
stot,1 is given as follows:
— for a single stiffener:
𝐬𝐬tot,1 = 0,9 �𝑠𝑠a + 𝑠𝑠st,a + 𝑠𝑠c � (7.71)
— for the stiffener closer to the compression flange in webs with two stiffeners:
𝑠𝑠tot,1 = 𝑠𝑠a + 𝑠𝑠st,a + 𝑠𝑠b + 0,5 �𝑠𝑠st,b + 𝑠𝑠c � (7.72)
𝑠𝑠tot,2 = 𝑠𝑠tot,1 − 𝑠𝑠a − 0,5 𝑠𝑠st,a (7.73)
and where
kθf is a coefficient which accounts for the partial rotational restraint of the stiffened webs by the
flanges, see (8);
Ist,a is the moment of inertia of the effective cross-section comprising the fold width sst,a and two
adjacent strips, each of width 20t, about its own centroidal axis parallel to the plane web
elements, see Table 7.10. In calculating Ist,a the possible difference in slope between the plane
web elements on both sides of the stiffener may be neglected;
sc as defined in Figure 7.10;
Ast,a as defined in (3).
NOTE The width of the stiffener used to calculate the moment of inertia Ist,a according to Table 7.10 can be
larger than the depth of the web.
(8) In the absence of a more detailed investigation, the coefficient of rotational restraint kθf may
conservatively be taken as 1,0, which corresponds to a pin-jointed condition.
Table 7.10 — Web stiffeners in trapezoidal sheeting
(a) geometry
(b) cross-section for

calculating the effective
area Ast,a

calculating the effective
moment of inertia Ist,a
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(9) If the flanges are unstiffened, the reduction factor χ d should be obtained directly from σcr,st,a using the
method given in 7.6.3.2.
(10) If the flanges are also stiffened, the reduction factor χ d should be obtained using the method given
in 7.6.3.2, but while using the modified elastic critical buckling stress σcr,mod given in 7.6.4.4.
(11) For a single web stiffener in compression, or for the web stiffener closer to the compression flange
in webs with two stiffeners, the reduced effective area Ast,a,red should be determined from Formula (7.74):
𝜒𝜒d 𝐴𝐴st,a
𝐴𝐴st,a,red = but Ast,a,red ≤ Ast,a (7.74)
1 − �ℎa + 0,5 ℎst,a �/ℎc
(12) For a single stiffener in tension, the reduced effective area Ast,a,red should be taken equal to Ast,a.
(13) For webs with two stiffeners, the reduced effective area Ast,b,red of the second stiffener should be
taken equal to Ast,b.
(14) In determining the effective section properties, the reduced effective area Ast,a,red should be
represented by a reduced thickness tred = χ d t for all elements included in Ast,a.
(15) The effective section properties of the stiffeners at the serviceability limit states should be based on
the design thickness t.
(16) Optionally, the effective section properties of the web of trapezoidal sheeting at the serviceability
limit states may be refined iteratively by basing the location of the effective centroidal axis on the effective
cross-sections of the webs determined in the previous iteration and the effective cross-sections of the
flanges determined using the reduced thickness tred for all the elements included in the flange stiffener
areas Ast. This iteration should be based on an increased basic effective width seff,0 obtained from Formula
(7.75):
𝐸𝐸
𝑠𝑠eff,0 = 0,95 𝑡𝑡 � (7.75)
𝜎𝜎com,Ed,ser ∙ 𝛾𝛾M0
where
σcom,Ed,ser is the compressive stress at the centroid of the stiffener, calculated on the basis of the
effective cross-section under the serviceability limit state loading. As a simplifying
assumption σcom,Ed,ser = fyb/1,5 may be used.
7.6.4.4 Sheeting with both flange stiffeners and web stiffeners
(1) In the case of sheeting with intermediate stiffeners in both the flanges and the webs (see Figure 7.11)
interaction between distortional buckling of the flange stiffeners and the web stiffeners should be
accounted for by using a modified elastic critical buckling stress 𝜎𝜎cr,mod for both types of stiffeners,
𝜎𝜎cr,st
𝜎𝜎cr,mod =
4 𝜎𝜎 4
�1 + �𝑘𝑘ls cr,st � (7.76)
𝜎𝜎 cr,st,a
where
σcr,st is the elastic critical buckling stress of an intermediate flange stiffener, as specified in
7.6.4.2(2) for a flange with a single stiffener or in 7.6.4.2(3) for a flange with two stiffeners;
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σcr,st,a is the elastic critical buckling stress of a single web stiffener, or the stiffener closer to the
compression flange in webs with two stiffeners, see 7.6.4.3(7);
Ast is the area of the effective cross-section of an intermediate flange stiffener;
Ast,a is the area of the effective cross-section of an intermediate web stiffener, see 7.6.4.3(3);
kls is a coefficient which accounts for the type of loading on trapezoidal sheeting as follows:
kls = 1 − (ha + 0,5 hst,a)/hc for sheeting in bending; (7.77)
kls = 1 for sheeting in axial compression;
where:
ha, hst,a and hc are the dimensions indicated in
Figure 7.10.
(2) The section properties of the effective cross-section of the stiffeners at the serviceability limit state
should be based on the design thickness t.
Figure 7.11 — Trapezoidal sheeting with flange stiffeners and web stiffeners
7.6.5 Special provisions for sinusoidal and similar sheeting
(1) In the case of sinusoidal and similar sheeting, shell buckling shall be taken into account according to
EN 1993-1-6. The verification may be performed for the equivalent cross-section of a circular cylinder in
bending, inscribed in the corrugation. The tolerance quality class should be taken as class C.
(2) Under distributed loads shell buckling needs not be considered and the bending moment resistance
of the gross cross-section may be utilized if the condition in Formula (7.78) or (7.80) is met:
— for the elastic bending moment resistance with first yielding at the extreme compression fibre:
2 ⋅ 𝑅𝑅
≤ 90 ⋅ 𝜀𝜀b2 (7.78)
𝑡𝑡
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with
235
𝜀𝜀b = � (7.79)
𝑓𝑓yb
— for the plastic bending moment resistance:

2 ⋅ 𝑅𝑅
≤ 70 ⋅ 𝜀𝜀a2 (7.80)
𝑡𝑡
with
235
𝜀𝜀a = � (7.81)
𝑓𝑓ya
where
R and t are the dimensions indicated in Figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12 — Sinusoidal and similar sheeting
(3) For sheeting under distributed loading with cross-sections in which the stress at the extreme
compression fibre, assuming an elastic stress distribution, can reach the yield strength, the simplified
Formulae (7.82) and (7.83) may be adopted for calculating the moment of inertia and the section
modulus:
𝐼𝐼y = 0,13 𝑡𝑡 ℎ2 (7.82)
𝑊𝑊y = 0,26 𝑡𝑡 ℎ (7.83)
provided the cross-section satisfies the following criteria:

t ≥ 0,55 mm
18 mm ≤ h ≤ 46 mm
76 mm ≤ p ≤ 150 mm
7.7 Cross-sectional analysis — Local buckling between fasteners
(1) Local buckling between fasteners should be checked in members composed of plates and mechanical
fasteners, see Table 5.3 of EN 1993-1-8:2024.
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8 Ultimate limit states

8.1 Resistance of cross-sections
8.1.1 General
(1) Cross-sectional resistances should be determined according to 8.1. The effects of local and
distortional buckling should be taken into account by using the section properties of the effective cross-
section, determined in accordance with 7.6.
(2) The global buckling resistance of members should be verified as specified in 8.2.
(3) In members with cross-sections that are susceptible to distortion, lateral bending of the flanges and
the stability of the free compressed flanges should be considered, see 11.1.
(4) Design assisted by testing may be used instead of design by calculation to determine the cross-
sectional or buckling resistance for a given type of loading.
NOTE Design assisted by testing is particularly likely to be beneficial for cross-sections incorporating plate
elements with relatively high slenderness, for instance when aiming to determine the effects of inelastic behaviour,
web crippling or shear lag.
8.1.2 Axial tension
(1) The design value of the tensile force NEd at each cross-section shall satisfy the criterion in Formula
(8.1):
𝑁𝑁Ed
≤1 (8.1)
𝑁𝑁t,Rd
where
Nt,Rd is the design value of the tensile resistance according to (2).
(2) The design value of the resistance of a cross-section for uniform tension Nt,Rd should be calculated
from Formula (8.2):
𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓ya
𝑁𝑁t,Rd = but Nt,Rd ≤ Fn,Rd (8.2)
𝛾𝛾M0
where
Fn,Rd is the net cross-section resistance, determined according to 10.3 for the relevant type of
mechanical fastener;
fya is the average yield strength, see 5.2.2.
(3) The design value of the resistance of an angle in uniform tension connected through one leg, or other
types of sections connected through outstands, should be determined as specified in EN 1993-1-8:2024,
5.11.
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8.1.3 Axial compression
(1) The design value of the compressive force NEd at each cross-section shall satisfy the criterion in
Formula (8.3):
𝑁𝑁Ed
≤1 (8.3)
𝑁𝑁c,Rd
where
Nc,Rd is the design value of the resistance of the cross-section for uniform compression according
to (2).
(2) The design value of the resistance of a cross-section for uniform compression Nc,Rd should be
determined as follows:
— if Aeff < A:
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (8.4)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
— if Aeff = A:
𝐴𝐴 �𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 4 �𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 − 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 � �1 − �𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒 /𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒0 �𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �� 𝐴𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ≤ (8.5)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
where
Aeff is the area of the effective cross-section, accounting for local and distortional buckling
in accordance with 7.6, while assuming a uniform compressive stress equal to fyb , and
in the case of trapezoidal sheeting, the area of the effective cross-section using the
basic effective width seff,0 for all effective parts of the web between the stiffeners;
fya is the average yield strength, see 5.2.2;
fyb is the basic yield strength, see 5.2.2;
(𝜆𝜆̄e /𝜆𝜆̄e0 )max is the largest value of the slenderness ratio 𝜆𝜆̄e /𝜆𝜆̄e0 over all plane elements comprising
the cross-section. The slenderness values 𝜆𝜆e and 𝜆𝜆e0 should be determined as follows,
depending on the type of plane element:
— for internal compression elements:
𝜆𝜆̄e = 𝜆𝜆̄p and 𝜆𝜆̄e0 = 0,673, see 7.6.2; (8.6)
— for outstand compression elements:
𝜆𝜆̄e = 𝜆𝜆̄p and 𝜆𝜆̄e0 = 0,748, see 7.6.2; (8.7)
— for elements with edge or intermediate stiffeners:
𝜆𝜆̄e = 𝜆𝜆̄d and 𝜆𝜆̄e0 = 0,65, see 7.6.3. (8.8)
(3) The axial force in a member may be assumed to act at the centroid of its gross cross-section.
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NOTE Further analysis can give a more accurate distribution of the internal forces.
(4) The design value of the compressive resistance of a cross-section, as calculated using 8.1.3(2),
constitutes the resistance against an axial load acting at the centroid of the effective cross-section. If the
centroid of the effective cross-section does not coincide with the centroid of the gross cross-section, the
additional bending moments caused by the shifts eNy and eNz of the centroid (see Figure 8.1) should be
taken into account, using the interaction formulae given in 8.1.8. When a shift of the neutral axis has a
favourable effect on the cross-sectional resistance, this shift should be neglected, but only if the shift has
been calculated at the yield stress and not with the actual compressive stresses under the acting loads.
Figure 8.1 — Effective cross-section in compression
8.1.4 Bending
8.1.4.1 Elastic and elastic-plastic resistance with first yielding at the compression flange
(1) The design value of the bending moment MEd at each cross-section shall satisfy the criterion in
Formula (8.9):
𝑀𝑀Ed
≤1 (8.9)
𝑀𝑀c,Rd
where
Mc,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section in bending according
to (2).
(2) The design value of the bending moment resistance Mc,Rd of a cross-section in bending about one
principal axis should be determined as follows (see Figure 8.2):
— if Weff < Wel
𝑊𝑊eff 𝑓𝑓yb
𝑀𝑀c,Rd = (8.10)
𝛾𝛾M0
— if Weff = Wel and the conditions listed in (3) are satisfied:
�𝑊𝑊el 𝑓𝑓yb + 3 �𝑊𝑊pl 𝑓𝑓ya − 𝑊𝑊el 𝑓𝑓yb � �1 − �𝜆𝜆̅e /𝜆𝜆̅e0 �max �� 𝑊𝑊pl 𝑓𝑓ya
𝑀𝑀c,Rd = ≤ (8.11)
𝛾𝛾M0 𝛾𝛾M0
where
Weff is the elastic section modulus of the effective cross-section, accounting for local and
distortional buckling in accordance with 7.6, see also (5);
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Wel is the elastic section modulus of the gross cross-section;

Wpl is the plastic section modulus of the gross cross-section;
fya is the average yield strength, see 5.2.2;
fyb is the basic yield strength, see 5.2.2;
(𝜆𝜆̄e /𝜆𝜆̄e0 )max is the largest value of the slenderness ratio 𝜆𝜆̄e /𝜆𝜆̄e0 over all plane elements comprising
the cross-section. The relative slenderness values 𝜆𝜆e and 𝜆𝜆e0 should be determined as
follows, depending on the type of plane element:
a) For plane elements with or without stiffeners, with the exception of webs of
trapezoidal sheeting:
• for internal compression elements:
𝜆𝜆̅e = 𝜆𝜆̅p and 𝜆𝜆̅e0 = 0,5 + �0,25 − 0,055 (3 + 𝜓𝜓) (8.12)
where
ψ is the stress ratio, see 7.6.2;
• for outstand compression elements:
𝜆𝜆̅e = 𝜆𝜆̅p and 𝜆𝜆̅e0 = 0,748, see 7.6.2; (8.13)
• for elements with edge or intermediate stiffeners:

𝜆𝜆̅e = 𝜆𝜆̅d and 𝜆𝜆̅e0 = 0,65, see 7.6.3; (8.14)
b) For webs of trapezoidal sheeting according to 7.6.4.3:

• for webs of trapezoidal sheeting without any stiffeners in the compression
zone:
𝜆𝜆̅e 𝑠𝑠n
= (8.15)
𝜆𝜆̅e0 𝑠𝑠eff,1 + 𝑠𝑠eff,n
• for webs of trapezoidal sheeting with one or two intermediate stiffeners in the
compression zone:
𝜆𝜆̅e = 𝜆𝜆̅d and 𝜆𝜆̅e0 = 0,65, see 7.6.2; (8.16)
with:
𝜆𝜆̅e 𝑠𝑠n for the portion of the web between the

= (8.17)
̅
𝜆𝜆e0 𝑠𝑠eff,1 + 𝑠𝑠eff,2 compression flange and the first stiffener
𝜆𝜆̅e 𝑠𝑠n for the portion of the web between the

= neutral axis and the stiffener in a web with (8.18)
̅
𝜆𝜆e0 𝑠𝑠eff,3 + 𝑠𝑠eff,n one stiffener in the compression zone
𝜆𝜆̅e 𝑠𝑠n for the portion of the web between two

= (8.19)
̅
𝜆𝜆e0 𝑠𝑠eff,3 + 𝑠𝑠eff,4 stiffeners
𝜆𝜆̅e 𝑠𝑠n for the portion of the web nearest to the

= neutral axis in a web with two stiffeners in (8.20)
𝜆𝜆̅e0 𝑠𝑠eff,5 + 𝑠𝑠eff,n the compression zone
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where
sn is the length indicated in Figure 7.10;
seff,1 to seff,n are given by Formulae (7.54) to (7.59) and illustrated in
Figure 7.10.
NOTE The bending moment resistance resulting from Formula (8.11) is plotted as a function of the relative
slenderness in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2 — Bending moment resistance as a function of slenderness
(3) Formula (8.11) may be applied provided that the following conditions are simultaneously satisfied:
a) The bending moment is applied about only one principal axis of the cross-section;
b) The member is not subject to torsion or to global buckling;
c) The angle ϕ between the web and the flange (see Figure 8.5) is larger than 60°.
(4) If Weff = Wel and the conditions in (3)b or (3)c are not fulfilled, the design value of the bending moment
resistance of a cross-section in bending about one principal axis may be determined from Formula (8.21):
𝑊𝑊el 𝑓𝑓ya
𝑀𝑀c,Rd = (8.21)
𝛾𝛾M0
(5) The section modulus Weff should be based on an effective cross-section that is subject only to a
bending moment about the relevant principal axis, with a maximum stress σmax,Ed equal to fyb/γM0,
allowing for the effects of local and distortional buckling as specified in 7.6. Where shear lag is relevant,
allowance should also be made for its effects.
(6) The stress ratio ψ = σ2/σ1 used to determine the effective portions of the web may be obtained by
considering the effective area of the compression flange, but the area of the gross cross-section of the
web, as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
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Figure 8.3 — Example of an effective cross-section for resistance to bending moments
(7) If yielding occurs first at the compressive edge of the cross-section, the value of Weff should be based
on a linear stress distribution across the cross-section.
(8) For biaxial bending the criterion in Formula (8.22) may be satisfied:
𝑀𝑀y,Ed 𝑀𝑀z,Ed
+ ≤1 (8.22)
𝑀𝑀cy,Rd 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd
where
My,Ed is the design value of the bending moment about the major principal axis;
Mz,Ed is the design value of the bending moment about the minor principal axis;
Mcy,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section if subject only to a
bending moment about the y-y axis;
Mcz,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section if subject only to a
bending moment about the z-z axis.
(9) Redistribution of the bending moments within the member due to plastification at internal supports
may be accounted for in the global analysis, provided the following conditions are met:
— Any residual bending moment resistance at internal supports greater than zero shall be justified by
the results from tests according to 12.
— The serviceability limit state provisions given in 9.2 shall be satisfied.
8.1.4.2 Elastic and elastic-plastic resistance with first yielding at the tension flange
(1) The elastic design value of the bending moment resistance Mc,Rd may be determined according to
Formula (8.10), while the effective cross-section is determined based on the maximum design value of
the compressive stress σcom,Ed on the compression side, see 7.6.
(2) Provided that the bending moment is applied about only one principal axis of the cross-section, and
provided that yielding occurs first at the tension edge, the plastic reserve capacity in the tension zone
may be utilized without any strain limit until the maximum compressive stress σcom,Ed reaches fyb/γM0. The
provisions in 8.1.4.2, (2) to (4), only apply to the case of pure bending. For combined axial load and
bending, 8.1.7 or 8.1.8 should be used.
(3) The partially plastic section modulus of the effective cross-section Wpp,eff should be based on a stress
distribution which is bilinear in the tension zone but linear in the compression zone.
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(4) In the absence of a more detailed analysis, the effective width beff of an element subject to a stress
gradient may be obtained according to 7.6.2, with bc determined from the bilinear stress distribution as
indicated in Figure 8.4 and while assuming ψ = −1.
(5) 8.1.4.1(9) applies.
Figure 8.4 — Depth of the compression zone for the determination of the effective widths
8.1.4.3 Effects of shear lag
(1) The effects of shear lag should be taken into account according to EN 1993-1-5.
(2) The effects of shear lag may be neglected for sheeting and members satisfying the dimensional limits
indicated in 7.4.
NOTE The effects of shear lag in liner trays have been taken into account in 11.2.2.2.
8.1.4.4 Special provisions for curved sheeting and sections
(1) Curved sheeting or members may be designed while accounting for the arching effect.
(2) Curved sheeting designed without accounting for the arching effect shall only be used within the
limits of the design thicknesses and the radii of curvature given in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 — Range of validity of curved sheeting design without accounting for the arching effect
Type of profile Design thickness Radius of curvature

R
(mm) (m)
0,59 5,6 ≤ R ≤ 32,9
Trapezoidal profile
0,96 6,4 ≤ R ≤ 25,8
0,59 4,3 ≤ R ≤ 11,5
Sinusoidal or similar sheeting
0,96 3,8 ≤ R ≤ 17,2
For intermediate values of the design thickness, the limits of the radius of curvature R may be
interpolated.
(3) The design value of the bending moment resistance of curved sheeting without accounting for the
arching effect may be determined on the basis of the design value of the bending moment resistance of
the corresponding flat (i.e. not-curved) sheeting from Formula (8.23):
�c,Rd = 0,9 ⋅ 𝑀𝑀c,Rd
𝑀𝑀 (8.23)
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where
�c,Rd
𝑀𝑀 is the design value of the bending moment resistance of curved sheeting without accounting
for the arching effect;
Mc,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of corresponding flat sheeting.
8.1.5 Shear
(1) The design value of the shear force VEd at each cross-section shall satisfy the criterion in Formula
(8.24):
𝑉𝑉Ed
≤1 (8.24)
𝑉𝑉b,Rd
where
Vb,Rd is the design value of the shear resistance of the cross-section in the plane of the web
according to (2).
(2) The design value of the shear resistance Vb,Rd in the plane of the web should be determined from
Formula (8.25):
ℎw
𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓
sin 𝜙𝜙 bv (8.25)
𝑉𝑉b,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M0
where
fbv is the shear strength, accounting for shear buckling, according to Table 8.2;
hw is the depth of the web between the midlines of the flanges, see Table 7.3(c);
ϕ is the angle of the web relative to the flanges, see Figure 8.5.
The design value of the shear resistance perpendicular to the flanges should be determined from Formula
(8.26):
𝑉𝑉w,Rd = 𝑉𝑉b,Rd sin 𝜙𝜙 (8.26)
Table 8.2 — Shear buckling strength fbv
Relative web Web without stiffening at the Web with stiffening at the
slenderness support support a
𝜆𝜆̅w ≤ 0,83 0,58 𝑓𝑓yb 0,58 𝑓𝑓yb
0,48 𝑓𝑓yb 0,48 𝑓𝑓yb
0,83 < 𝜆𝜆̅w < 1,4
𝜆𝜆̅w 𝜆𝜆̅w
0,67 𝑓𝑓yb 0,48 𝑓𝑓yb
𝜆𝜆̅w ≥ 1,4
𝜆𝜆2̅w 𝜆𝜆̅w
a Stiffening at the support, such as cleats, arranged to prevent distortion of the web and designed to resist the
support reaction.
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(3) The relative web slenderness 𝜆𝜆w should be determined as follows:

— for webs without longitudinal stiffeners:
𝑠𝑠w 𝑓𝑓yb
𝜆𝜆̅w = 0,346 � (8.27)
𝑡𝑡 𝐸𝐸
— for webs with longitudinal stiffeners, see Figure 8.5:
𝑠𝑠d 5,34 𝑓𝑓yb 𝑠𝑠p 𝑓𝑓yb

𝜆𝜆̅w = 0,346 � but 𝜆𝜆̅w ≥ 0,346 � (8.28)
𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘τ 𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡 𝐸𝐸
with
1/3
2,10 ∑ 𝐼𝐼st
𝑘𝑘τ = 5,34 + � � (8.29)
𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠d
where
Ist is the moment of inertia of an individual longitudinal stiffener, as defined in 7.6.4.3(7), about
the axis a-a, as indicated in Figure 8.5;
sd is the total developed slant height of the web, as indicated in Figure 8.5;
sp is the slant height of the widest plane element in the web, as indicated in Figure 8.5;
sw is the slant height of the web, as shown in Figure 8.5, defined by the distance between the
midpoints of the corners, see Table 7.3(c).
(a) geometry (b) web with one stiffener (c) web with two stiffeners
Figure 8.5 — Longitudinally stiffened web
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8.1.6 Resistance to transverse forces
8.1.6.1 General
(1) To avoid crushing or crippling of a web subject to a support reaction or other transverse force applied
through the flange, the design value of the transverse force FEd shall satisfy the criterion in Formula
(8.30):
𝐹𝐹Ed
≤1 (8.30)
𝑅𝑅w,Rd
where
Rw,Rd is the design value of the resistance to transverse forces of the web.
(2) The design value of the resistance to transverse forces of a web Rw,Rd should be obtained as follows:
a) for an unstiffened web:
• for a cross-section with a single web: see 8.1.6.2;
• for any other case, including sheeting: see 8.1.6.3;
b) for a stiffened web: see 8.1.6.4.
(3) Where the total load or support reaction is applied only through a cleat fastened to the web, the
resistance of the web to the transverse force does not need to be considered.
8.1.6.2 Cross-sections with a single unstiffened web
(1) For a cross-section with a single unstiffened web, as shown in the examples provided in Figure 8.6,
the design value of the resistance of the web to transverse forces may be determined as specified in (6),
provided that the cross-section satisfies the criteria given in Table 8.3.
Key
1 unstiffened C-section
2 stiffened C-section
3 stiffened Z-section
4 built-up I-sections
5 nested Z-sections (fastening between the two webs at the end of overlaps assumed)
Figure 8.6 — Cross-sections with a single web — application range of 8.1.6.2
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Table 8.3 — Design of cross-sections with a single web — application range
(1) Unstiffened C-sections (see Figure 8.6)

Fastening to support t [mm] fy [N/mm²] r/t lsb/t h/t
fastened 0,6–6,0 250–600 ≤4 ≤ 100 ≤ 200
unfastened 1,0–6,0 250–600 ≤4 ≤ 100 ≤ 200
(2) Stiffened C-sections (see Figure 8.6)
fastened 0,6–3,1 160–600 ≤ 10 ≤ 170 ≤ 270
unfastened 0,6–3,1 160–600 ≤5 ≤ 170 ≤ 270
(3) Stiffened Z-sections (see Figure 8.6)
fastened 1,0–3,0 320–500 ≤ 10 ≤ 100 ≤ 200
unfastened 1,5–3,0 320–500 ≤5 ≤ 100 ≤ 200
(4) Built-up I-sections (see Figure 8.6)
fastened 1,0–4,0 200–450 ≤5 ≤ 100 ≤ 270
unfastened 1,0–4,0 200–450 ≤5 ≤ 100 ≤ 270
(5) Nested Z-sections (see Figure 8.6)
fastened 1,0–3,0 320–500 ≤ 10 ≤ 100 ≤ 200
unfastened 1,0–3,0 320–500 ≤ 10 ≤ 100 ≤ 200
(2) The nominal length of stiff bearing should meet the general limitation of lsb ≤ 200 mm. For larger
lengths of stiff bearing, the approach may be applied, but lsb should be reduced to 200 mm.
If the support consists of a single cold-formed steel member with a cross-section with one web, in absence
of a detailed analysis, the effective bearing length of the support may be determined according to 8.1.6.3
(5).
(3) For larger values of t or fyb, the approach may be applied, but the values should be reduced to the
maximum values given in Table 8.3.
(4) In members with an I-shaped cross-section built up from two channels, or with a similar cross-section
in which two components are connected through their webs, the connections should be located as close
to the flanges of the member as practical.
(5) If a cleat of sufficient stiffness is provided, the coefficients klsb given for built-up I-sections may be
used for either C-sections or Z-sections with (additionally) fastened or unfastened flanges, provided that
the nominal length of stiff bearing lsb is taken as the minimum value of the length of stiff bearing and the
width of the cleat from Formula (8.31), see Figure 8.7:
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lsb = min {bf; bcleat} ≤ 200 mm (8.31)
where
bf is the actual length of stiff bearing, typically the width of the flange, see Figure 8.7;
bcleat is the width of the cleat.
Sufficient stiffness of the cleat may be assumed if the criterion in Formula (8.32) is satisfied:
3 2ℎ
𝑡𝑡cleat ≥ 𝑡𝑡 � (8.32)
𝑙𝑙sb
Figure 8.7 — Nominal length of stiff bearing lsb for fastening to cleats
(6) For cross-sections which satisfy the criteria specified in Table 8.3, the design value of the resistance
to transverse forces of a web Rw,Rd should be determined from Formula (8.33):
𝑡𝑡 2 �𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑓yb 𝑟𝑟 𝑙𝑙sb ℎ

𝑅𝑅w,Rd = 𝑘𝑘0,sb ∙ �1 − 𝑘𝑘r,sb � � �1 + 𝑘𝑘l,sb � � �1 − 𝑘𝑘h,sb � � (8.33)
𝛾𝛾M1 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
where
k0,sb, kr,sb, kl,sb, kh,sb are coefficients specified in Table 8.4 depending on the loading conditions listed
in Table 8.5;
t is the design thickness;
E is the elastic modulus;
fyb is the basic yield strength;
h is the overall depth of the cross-section, see Figure 8.7;
r is the internal radius of the corners;
lsb is the nominal length of stiff bearing. If two transverse forces equal in magnitude
act on opposite sides of the web, but are distributed over unequal bearing
lengths, the smaller value of lsb should be used.
NOTE For details of the fastenings of sections to support, see Figure 8.8.
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Table 8.4 — Coefficients ki,sb for calculating the resistance to transverse forces
(1) Unstiffened C-sections (see Figure 8.6)
No Loading condition Fastening to support k0,sb kr,sb kl,sb kh,sb
1 EOF fastened 0,157 0,074 0,231 0,024
unfastened 0,085 0,188 0,640 0,044
2 IOF fastened 0,193 0,045 0,219 0,000
unfastened 0,222 0,002 0,120 0,000
3 ETF fastened 0,075 0,092 0,278 0,026
unfastened 0,075 0,092 0,278 0,026
4 ITF fastened 0,263 0,076 0,126 0,037
unfastened 0,263 0,076 0,126 0,037
(2) Stiffened C-sections (see Figure 8.6)
1 EOF fastened 0,266 0,165 0,155 0,032
unfastened 0,251 0,211 0,148 0,039
2 IOF fastened 0,627 0,151 0,098 0,036
unfastened 0,594 0,143 0,049 0,033
3 ETF fastened 0,200 0,109 0,142 0,046
unfastened 0,291 0,383 0,095 0,041
4 ITF fastened 0,558 0,102 0,053 0,028
unfastened 1,202 0,232 0,000 0,051
(3) Stiffened Z-sections (see Figure 8.6)
1 EOF fastened 0,162 0,094 0,239 0,029
unfastened 0,120 0,000 0,024 0,008
2 IOF fastened 0,324 0,094 0,239 0,029
unfastened 0,240 0,000 0,024 0,008
3 ETF fastened 0,308 0,000 0,075 0,049
unfastened – – – –
4 ITF fastened 0,606 0,061 0,082 0,035
unfastened – – – –
(4) Built-up I-sections (see Figure 8.6)
1 EOF fastened or unfastened 0,179 0 0,225 0
2 IOF fastened or unfastened 0,580 0,163 0,066 0
3 ETF fastened or unfastened 0,439 0,292 0,0528 0,0344
4 ITF fastened or unfastened 0,768 0,179 0,0699 0,0335
(5) Nested Z-sections (see Figure 8.6)
1 IOF fastened or unfastened 0,235 0,200 0,187 0
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Table 8.5 — Loading conditions
No Loading condition
EOF – end one-flange

1 lend ≤ 1,5 h
loading
IOF – internal one-

2 lend > 1,5 h
flange loading
ETF – end two-flange lend ≤ 1,5 h

3
loading lspac ≤ 1,5 h
ITF – internal two lend > 1,5 h

4
flange loading lspac ≤ 1,5 h
Figure 8.8 — Fastening of sections to support
8.1.6.3 Cross-sections with two or more unstiffened webs
(1) For cross-sections containing two or more webs, including sheeting (see Figure 8.9), the design value
of resistance to transverse forces of an unstiffened web should be determined as specified in (2), provided
that both of the following conditions are satisfied:
— the sum of the bearing length lsb and the clear distance lend from the end of the bearing length to a
free end should be at least 40mm, i.e. lsb + lend ≥ 40mm;
— clear distance lend from the end of the bearing length to a free end is at least 40 mm, see Table 8.6;
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— the cross-section satisfies the following criteria:

r/t ≤ 10 (8.34)
h/t ≤ 200 sin ϕ (8.35)
45° ≤ ϕ ≤ 90° (8.36)
where
h is the depth of the web;
r is the internal radius of the corners;
ϕ is the angle of the web relative to the flanges [degrees].
Figure 8.9 — Examples of cross-sections with two or more webs
(2) If the conditions in (1) are satisfied, then the design value of the resistance to transverse forces Rw,Rd
of each web of the cross-section should be determined from Formula (8.37):
𝑡𝑡 2 �𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑓yb 𝑟𝑟 0,02 𝑙𝑙bl 𝛷𝛷 2

𝑅𝑅w,Rd = 𝐾𝐾1 �1 − 0,1� � �0,5 + � � �2,4 + � � � (8.37)
𝛾𝛾M1 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 90
where
lbl is the effective bearing length, dependent on the relevant loading category, as specified in (3),
and the nominal length of stiff bearing, as specified in (4);
K1 is a coefficient dependent on the relevant loading category, as specified in (3).
(3) The values of lbl and K1 should be obtained from (5) and (6), respectively. A distinction should be made
between two loading categories (1 and 2) based on the clear distance lspac between the local load and the
nearest support, or the clear distance lend from the support reaction or local load to a free end, see
Table 8.6. Category 1 covers cases where the load acts in close proximity to a support or free edge, while
Category 2 covers the complementary cases.
(4) The nominal length of stiff bearing lsb is the actual length over which the transverse forces are applied,
e.g. the width of the top flange of the supporting member. The following exceptions apply:
— When the support consists of a round tube, a value of 10 mm should be used for the nominal length
of stiff bearing lsb.
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— When the supporting member consists of two cold-formed steel sections with one web each (in a
back-to-back configuration) lsb may be taken as two times the value of the single section.
(5) The value of the effective bearing length lbl should be taken as follows:
a) for Category 1:
• If the support consists of cold-formed steel members:
𝑙𝑙bl = 10 mm (8.38)
• If the support consists of other types of members:

𝑙𝑙bl = 10 mm if 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑙𝑙sb < ℎ (8.39)
(𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑙𝑙sb − ℎ)(𝑙𝑙sb − 10)

𝑙𝑙bl = 10+ [𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚] if 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑙𝑙sb ≥ ℎ, but 𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 1,5ℎ (8.40)
ℎ⁄2 + 𝑙𝑙sb
where
lend is the clear distance from the end of the bearing length to a free end [in mm];
lsb is the nominal length of stiff bearing [in mm];
h is the depth of the web [in mm].
b) for Category 2:
• If the support consists of a single cold-formed steel member with a cross-section with one web:
𝑙𝑙bl = min �17,5 𝑡𝑡supp − 6 mm; 50 mm; 𝑙𝑙sb � (8.41)
where
tsupp is the design thickness of the flange of the supporting member;
lsb is the nominal length of stiff bearing.
• If the support consists of a single cold-formed steel member with a cross-section with one web
subject to torsion:
𝑙𝑙bl = 10 mm (8.42)
NOTE The section can be considered subject to torsion when its shear centre is outside either the area
under the top flange (e.g. in a channel or C-section) or the area above the support (for the cases where the
loads act at the top or bottom of the member, respectively) and torsion is not restrained by other structural
elements.
• If the support consists of other types of members:
𝑙𝑙bl = 𝑙𝑙sb (8.43)
where
lsb is the nominal length of stiff bearing.
The maximum design value of the effective bearing length is lbl = 200 mm.
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Table 8.6 — Loads and support reactions — Loading categories for cross-sections with two or
more webs
Category 1:
— load applied with a clear distance lspac ≤ 1,5 h to the nearest
support;
Category 1:
— load applied with a clear distance lend ≤ 1,5 h to a free end;
Category 1:
— end support reaction with a clear distance lend ≤ 1,5 h to a
free end.
Category 2:
— load applied with a clear distance lspac > 1,5 h to the nearest
support;
Category 2:
— load applied with a clear distance lend > 1,5 h to a free end;
Category 2:
— end support reaction with a clear distance lend > 1,5 h to a
free end;
Category 2:
— internal support reaction with no localized loading applied
within a distance of 1,5 h.
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(6) The value of the coefficient K1 should be determined as follows:

a) for Category 1:
• For sheeting with opposite loading:
K1 = 0,075 (8.44)
• for sheeting near a clear end:
𝑙𝑙end + 𝑙𝑙sb
𝐾𝐾1 = 0,18 � ≤ 0,15 (8.45)
1,5 ℎ
• for liner trays and hat sections:

K1 = 0,057 (8.46)
b) for Category 2:
• for sheeting:
K1 = 0,15 (8.47)
• for liner trays and hat sections:
K1 = 0,115 (8.48)
8.1.6.4 Stiffened webs
(1) The design value of resistance to transverse forces of a stiffened web may be determined as specified
in (2) for cross-sections with longitudinal web stiffeners which are folded in such a way that the two web
folds are on opposite sides of the line connecting the end points of the web. These end points should be
determined as the points of intersection of the midline of the web with the midlines of the flanges, as
shown in Figure 8.10. In addition, for (2) to be valid the condition in Formula (8.49) should be satisfied:
𝑒𝑒w,max
2≤ < 12 (8.49)
𝑡𝑡
where
ew,max is the larger eccentricity of the folds relative to the line connecting the end points of the web.
(2) For cross-sections satisfying the conditions specified in (1), the design value of resistance to
transverse forces of a stiffened web may be determined by multiplying the design value of resistance of
a corresponding unstiffened web, obtained from 8.1.6.2 or 8.1.6.3 as appropriate, by the factor kst,w taken
𝑒𝑒w,max 𝑒𝑒w,min
𝑘𝑘st,w = 1,45 − 0,05 but 𝑘𝑘st,w ≤ 0,95 + 35000 t 2 2 (8.50)
t �𝑏𝑏df 𝑠𝑠pF �
where
bdf is the developed width of the flange, see Figure 8.10;
ew,min is the smaller eccentricity of the folds relative to the line connecting the end points of the web;
spF is the slant height of the plane web element nearest to the flange where the transverse forces
are applied, see Figure 8.10.
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Figure 8.10 — Stiffened webs
8.1.6.5 Line load or point load on trapezoidal sheeting
(1) To verify the resistance to transverse forces in the case of point loads or line loads on trapezoidal
sheeting, the nature of the load distribution (here to be understood as the distribution of load
perpendicular to the span) should be taken into account, a distinction being made between the direct
loading of one or two adjacent ribs (direct load distribution) and indirect load distribution (i.e. loading
via load-bearing intermediate systems).
(2) In the case of direct load distribution without intermediate systems the proportion of load carried by
each rib in the design check should be determined according to 11.3.1.
(3) If the load is distributed by hot-rolled steel, cold-formed steel, timber or concrete members, the
distribution system should be designed to distribute the loading effectively.
8.1.7 Combined tension and bending
(1) Cross-sections subject to combined axial tension NEd and bending moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed should
satisfy the criterion in Formula (8.51):
𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀y,Ed 𝑀𝑀z,Ed
+ + ≤1 (8.51)
𝑁𝑁t,Rd 𝑀𝑀cy,Rd,ten 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd,ten
where
Nt,Rd is the design value of the resistance of the cross-section in uniform tension, see 8.1.2;
Mcy,Rd,ten is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section using the section
modulus for the tension side, if subject only to bending moment about the y-y axis, see 8.1.4;
Mcz,Rd,ten is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section using the section
modulus for the tension side, if subject only to a bending moment about the z-z axis, see
8.1.4.
(2) If Mcy,Rd,com ≤ Mcy,Rd,ten or Mcz,Rd,com ≤ Mcz,Rd,ten, the criterion in Formula (8.52) should also be satisfied:
𝑀𝑀y,Ed 𝑀𝑀z,Ed 𝑁𝑁Ed
+ − ≤1 (8.52)
𝑀𝑀cy,Rd,com 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd,com 𝑁𝑁t,Rd
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where
Mcy,Rd,com is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section using the section
modulus for the compression side, if subject only to a bending moment about the y-y axis,
see 8.1.4;
Mcz,Rd,com is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section using the section
modulus for the compression side, if subject only to a bending moment about the z-z axis,
see 8.1.4.
8.1.8 Combined compression and bending
(1) Cross-sections subject to combined axial compression NEd and bending moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed
should satisfy the criterion in Formula (8.53):
𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀y,Ed + ∆𝑀𝑀y,Ed 𝑀𝑀z,Ed + ∆𝑀𝑀z,Ed
+ + ≤1 (8.53)
𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝑀𝑀cy,Rd,com 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd,com
where
Nc,Rd is the design value of the resistance of the cross-section in uniform compression, see 8.1.3;
Mcy,Rd,com is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section using the section
modulus for the compression side, if subject only to a bending moment about the y-y axis,
see 8.1.7(2);
Mcz,Rd,com is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section using the section
modulus for the compression side, if subject only to a bending moment about the z-z axis,
see 8.1.7(2).
(2) The additional bending moments ΔMy,Ed and ΔMz,Ed due to shifts of the centroidal axes of the effective
cross-section should be taken as:
∆𝑀𝑀y,Ed = 𝑁𝑁Ed ∙ 𝑒𝑒Ny (8.54)
∆𝑀𝑀z,Ed = 𝑁𝑁Ed ∙ 𝑒𝑒Nz (8.55)
where
eNy and eNz are the shifts of the y-y and z-z centroidal axes of the effective cross-section in uniform
compression, see 8.1.3(4).
(3) If Mcy,Rd,ten ≤ Mcy,Rd,com or Mcz,Rd,ten ≤ Mcz,Rd,com, the criterion in Formula (8.56) should also be satisfied:
𝑀𝑀y,Ed + ∆𝑀𝑀y,Ed 𝑀𝑀z,Ed + ∆𝑀𝑀z,Ed 𝑁𝑁Ed
+ − ≤1 (8.56)
𝑀𝑀cy,Rd,ten 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd,ten 𝑁𝑁c,Rd
where
Mcy,Rd,ten, Mcz,Rd,ten are the design values of the bending moment resistances defined in 8.1.7(1).
(4) Alternatively, the provisions in 8.2.5 and Formulae (8.73) to (8.75) may be used, as relevant, with
χy = χz = χLT = 1,0 and ωx,y = ωx,z = ωx,LT = 1,0.
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8.1.9 Combined axial force, bending moment and shear force
(1) For I-shaped and similar cross-sections subject to the combined actions of an axial force NEd, a major
axis bending moment My,Ed and a shear force VEd the design value of resistance need not be reduced to
account for the presence of the shear force if VEd ≤ 0,5 Vw,Rd.
If VEd > 0,5 Vw,Rd the criterion in Formula (8.57) should be satisfied:
2
𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀y,Ed + ∆𝑀𝑀y,Ed 𝑀𝑀f,Rd 2 𝑉𝑉Ed
+ + �1 − �� − 1� ≤ 1 (8.57)
𝑁𝑁Rd 𝑀𝑀cy,Rd 𝑀𝑀pl,Rd 𝑉𝑉w,Rd
where
ΔMy,Ed is the additional bending moment resulting from the shift of the centroid of the effective
cross-section relative to the centroid of the gross cross-section, see 8.1.8;
NRd is the design value of the resistance of the cross-section in uniform tension or compression,
as applicable, see 8.1.2 or 8.1.3;
Mcy,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section for bending about
the major principal axis, see 8.1.4;
Vw,Rd is the design value of the shear resistance of the web, see 8.1.5(2);
Mpl,Rd is the plastic design bending moment resistance of the cross-section consisting of the
effective areas of the flanges and the gross area of the web;
Mf,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section consisting of the
effective areas of the flanges only.
For members and sheeting with more than one web Vw,Rd is the sum of the design value of resistances of
the webs.
8.1.10 Combined axial force, bending moment, shear force and torsion
(1) The longitudinal stresses due to the axial force NEd and the bending moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed should
be based on the respective effective cross-sections, calculated as specified in 8.1.2 to 8.1.4. If the centroid
of the effective cross-section does not coincide with the centroid of the gross cross-section, the additional
bending moments caused by the axial force and the shifts eNy and eNz of the centroidal axes should be
taken into account, see Figure 8.1 and 8.1.8).
(2) Where loads are applied eccentrically to the shear centre of the cross-section, the shear centre to be
used in determining the effects of the torsional moment should be taken as that of the gross cross-section.
(3) The shear stresses due to transverse shear forces, the shear stresses due to uniform (St.-Venant)
torsion and the longitudinal stresses and shear stresses due to warping torsion should all be based on the
properties of the gross cross-section.
(4) In cross-sections subject to torsion the criteria in Formulae (8.58) to (8.60) (which are based on the
yield strength fy, according to 5.2.2) should be satisfied:
𝜎𝜎tot,Ed
≤ 1
𝑓𝑓y (8.58)
𝛾𝛾M0
𝜏𝜏tot,Ed
≤ 1
𝑓𝑓bv (8.59)
𝛾𝛾M0
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𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦 2
�𝜎𝜎tot,Ed
2 2
+ 𝜏𝜏tot,Ed � �
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
≤ 1,1 (8.60)
𝑓𝑓y
𝛾𝛾M0
where
σtot,Ed is the design value of the total longitudinal stress resulting from all simultaneous stress
resultants, see (3)(5);
τtot,Ed is the design value of the total shear stress resulting from all simultaneous stress resultants,
calculated based on the gross cross-section, see (5);
fbv is the shear buckling strength accounting for shear buckling acc. to 8.1.5.
(5) The design values of total longitudinal stress σtot,Ed and the total shear stress τtot,Ed should be
determined as follows:
𝜎𝜎tot,Ed = 𝜎𝜎N,Ed + 𝜎𝜎My,Ed + 𝜎𝜎Mz,Ed + 𝜎𝜎w,Ed (8.61)
𝜏𝜏tot,Ed = 𝜏𝜏Vy,Ed + 𝜏𝜏Vz,Ed + 𝜏𝜏t,Ed + 𝜏𝜏w,Ed (8.62)
where
σMy,Ed is the design value of the longitudinal stress due to the bending moment My,Ed and the
additional bending moment ΔMy,Ed caused by the axial force and the shift of the centroid of
the effective cross-section, see 8.1.8 (based on the effective cross-section);
σMz,Ed is the design value of the longitudinal stress due to the bending moment Mz,Ed and the
additional bending moment ΔMz,Ed caused by the axial forces and the shift of the centroid of
the effective cross-section, see 8.1.8 (based on the effective cross-section);
σN,Ed is the design value of the longitudinal stress due to the axial force NEd (based on the effective
cross-section);
σw,Ed is the design value of the longitudinal stress due to warping torsion (based on the gross
cross-section);
τVy,Ed is the design value of the shear stress due to the transverse shear force Vy,Ed (based on the
gross cross-section);
τVz,Ed is the design value of the shear stress due to the transverse shear force Vz,Ed (based on the
τt,Ed is the design value of the shear stress due to uniform (St.-Venant) torsion (based on the
τw,Ed is the design value of the shear stress due to warping torsion (based on the gross cross-
section).
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8.1.11 Combined bending moment and localized transverse load or support reaction
(1) Cross-sections subject to the combined actions of a bending moment MEd and a localized transverse
force or support reaction FEd should satisfy the criteria in Formulae (8.63) to (8.65):
𝑀𝑀Ed
≤1 (8.63)
𝑀𝑀c,Rd
𝐹𝐹Ed
≤1 (8.64)
𝑅𝑅w,Rd
𝑀𝑀Ed 𝐹𝐹Ed
+ ≤1 (8.65)
𝑀𝑀0 𝑅𝑅0
with
M0 = 1,25 Mc,Rd (8.66)
R0 = 1,25 Rw,Rd (8.67)
where
Mc,Rd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section, see 8.1.4.1(1);
Rw,Rd is the design value of the resistance of the web to transverse forces, see 8.1.6.
NOTE Formulae (8.63) to (8.67) are graphically presented in Figure 8.11.

(2) For members and sheeting with more than one web Rw,Rd is the sum of the design values of the
resistances to transverse forces of the individual webs.
Figure 8.11 — Resistance to combined bending moment and localized transverse load or
support reaction
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8.2 Buckling resistance of members
8.2.1 General
(1) In members with cross-sections that are susceptible to cross-sectional distortion, account should be
taken of possible lateral buckling of compression flanges and lateral bending of flanges generally.
(2) The effects of local and distortional buckling should be taken into account as specified in 7.6.
8.2.2 Flexural buckling of members and sheeting subject to compression
(1) The design value of the buckling resistance Nb,Rd for flexural buckling should be obtained from
EN 1993-1-1 using the appropriate buckling curve from Table 8.7 according to the type of cross-section,
axis of buckling and yield strength, see (3).
(2) The buckling curve for a cross-section not included in Table 8.7 may be obtained by analogy.
(3) The design value of the buckling resistance of a cold-formed cross-section should be determined
based on either:
— the relative slenderness for flexural buckling according to EN 1993-1-1 in combination with the
average yield strength fya after cold-forming, determined as specified in 5.2.2, provided that Aeff = A,
see 5.2.2(4);
— the relative slenderness for flexural buckling according to EN 1993-1-1 in combination with the basic
yield strength fyb in all other cases, see 5.2.2(1).
8.2.3 Torsional buckling and torsional-flexural buckling of members subject to compression
(1) For members with doubly symmetric or point-symmetric cross-sections (e.g. Z-sections with equal
flanges), account should be taken of the possibility that the resistance of the member to torsional buckling
might be less than its resistance to flexural buckling.
(2) For members with mono-symmetric cross-sections (see Figure 8.12) account should be taken of the
possibility that the resistance of the member to torsional-flexural buckling might be less than its
resistance to flexural buckling.
Figure 8.12 — Mono-symmetric cross-sections susceptible to torsional-flexural buckling
(3) Members with an asymmetric cross-section should be designed for torsional-flexural buckling.
(4) The design value of the buckling resistance Nb,Rd for torsional or torsional-flexural buckling may be
obtained from EN 1993-1-1:2022, 8.3.1.1, using the relevant buckling curve for buckling about the z-z
axis obtained from Table 8.7.
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Table 8.7 — Appropriate buckling curve for various types of cross-sections
Buckling Buckling
Type of cross-section
about axis curve
b
any
if fyb is used
c
any
if fya is used
y-y a
z-z b
any b
any c
or other cross-section
(5) The elastic critical buckling load Ncr,T for torsional buckling of a member subject to compression may
be determined from Formula (8.68):
1 π2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼w
𝑁𝑁cr,T = �𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼T + � (8.68)
𝑖𝑖02 2
𝑙𝑙cr,T
with
𝑖𝑖02 = 𝑖𝑖y2 + 𝑖𝑖z2 + 𝑦𝑦02 + 𝑧𝑧02 (8.69)
where
G is the shear modulus;
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IT is the torsional constant of the gross cross-section;

Iw is the warping constant of the gross cross-section;
iy is the radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the y-y axis;
iz is the radius of gyration of the gross cross-section about the z-z axis;
lcr,T is the buckling length of the member for torsional buckling;
y0, z0 are the shear centre co-ordinates with respect to the centroid of the gross cross-section.
(6) For doubly or point-symmetric cross-sections (y0 = z0 = 0), the elastic critical buckling load Ncr may
be determined from Formula (8.70):
Ncr = Ncr,i (8.70)
where
Ncr,i is the minimum of Ncr,y, Ncr,z and Ncr,T.
(7) For cross-sections that are symmetric about the y-y axis (z0 = 0), the elastic critical buckling load Ncr,TF
for torsional-flexural buckling may be determined from Formula (8.71):
2
𝑁𝑁cr,y 𝑁𝑁cr,T 𝑁𝑁cr,T 𝑦𝑦0 2 𝑁𝑁cr,T
𝑁𝑁cr,TF = �1 + − ��1 − � + 4� � � (8.71)
2𝛽𝛽 𝑁𝑁cr,y 𝑁𝑁cr,y 𝑖𝑖0 𝑁𝑁cr,y
with
𝑦𝑦0 2
𝛽𝛽 = 1 − � � (8.72)
𝑖𝑖0
where
Ncr,y is the elastic critical buckling load for flexural buckling about the y-y axis;
Ncr,T is the elastic critical buckling load for torsional buckling, see (5);
y0, i0 are defined in (5).
NOTE Elastic critical buckling laods for steel cross-sections can also be determined using CEN/TR 1993-1-103.
(8) The critical buckling length lcr,T for torsional or flexural-torsional buckling should be determined
taking into account the degree of torsional and warping restraint present at each end of the length LT.
(9) The value of lcr,T/LT may be taken as follows:
— 1,0 for connections which provide partial restraint against torsion and warping, see Table 8.8;
— 0,7 for connections which provide significant restraint against torsion and warping, see Table 8.8.
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Table 8.8 — Torsional and warping restraint provided by connections
(a) Connections which provide partial restraint against torsion and warping
(b) Connections which provide significant restraint against torsion and warping
Hollow sections or sections with bolts passing through two webs per member:
Key
1 column to be considered
2 web of connected member
8.2.4 Lateral-torsional buckling of members subject to bending
(1) The design value of the buckling resistance of a member in bending which is susceptible to lateral-
torsional buckling should be determined according to EN 1993-1-1:2022, 8.3.2, using buckling curve b.
(2) This method should not be used for sections in which the principal axes of the effective cross-section
have significantly rotated compared to those of the gross cross-section.
8.2.5 Bending and axial compression
(1) The design value of resistance against combined axial force and bending moment may be obtained
from a second-order analysis of the member as specified in EN 1993-1-1, based on the properties of the
effective cross-section obtained from 7.6. See also 7.2.
(2) As an alternative to (1) the criteria in Formulae (8.73) and (8.74) should be satisfied in each cross-
section along the member:
For major principal axis buckling:
𝛼𝛼y 𝛽𝛽y 𝛿𝛿y
�𝜔𝜔x,y � + �𝜔𝜔x,LT � +� � ≤1 (8.73)
𝜒𝜒y 𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝜒𝜒LT 𝑀𝑀cy,Rd 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd
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For minor principal axis buckling:

𝛼𝛼z 𝛽𝛽z 𝛿𝛿z
�𝜔𝜔x,z � + �𝜔𝜔x,LT � +� � ≤1 (8.74)
𝜒𝜒z 𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝜒𝜒LT 𝑀𝑀cy,Rd 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd
where
NEd is the design value of the compressive force;
My,Ed, Mz,Ed are the design values of the bending moments about the y-y axis and the z-z axis
along the members or, conservatively, the maximum design values of both
bending moments (see NOTE 1);
— For beam-columns with pinned ends and for members not subject to global
sway buckling, MEd is the first order bending moment;
— For members subject to global sway buckling, MEd is the second order bending
moment;
ΔMy,Ed and ΔMz,Ed are the design values of the additional bending moments ΔMy,Ed and ΔMz,Ed due to
shifts of the centroidal axes of the effective cross-section, if Aeff < A, see 8.1.8
(2) (for members with fixed ends: ΔMEd = 0);
χy, χz are the reduction factors for flexural buckling according to 8.2.2. In the case of
torsional-flexural buckling, the relevant reduction factor for flexural buckling χy
or χz should be replaced with χTF according to 8.2.3;
χLT is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling according to 8.2.4;
Nc,Rd is the axial design value of the resistance of the cross-section according to 8.1.3;
Mcy,Rd, Mcz,Rd are the design values of bending moment resistances of the cross-section about
the y-y axis and the z-z axis, respectively, according to 8.1.4;
αy, αz, βy, βz, δy, δz are exponents in the interaction formulae, determined according to Table 8.9;
ωx,y, ωx,z, ωx,LT are the interpolation factors according to Table 8.10. They depend on the location
of the cross-section under consideration and account for the relevant buckling
mode and axial force or bending moment.
NOTE 1 Formulae (8.73) and (8.74) reduce to a single stability check for members, if, conservatively, the
maximum design values of the compressive force NEd and the maximum design values of the bending moments My,Ed,
Mz,Ed are used in combination with the conservative values of the interpolation factors ωx,i = 1,0 according to
Table 8.10.
NOTE 2 The interaction Formulae (8.73) and (8.74) can also be used for hot-rolled and welded members.
NOTE 3 For cold-formed I-shaped members (e.g. two back-to-back channels) the interaction formula of
EN 1993-1-1 can be used.
(3) For asymmetrical sections both the tension and the compression side of bending edges should be
checked using the appropriate design values of resistances. If the resistance on the tension side is less
than the resistance on the compression side the criterion in Formula (8.75) should also be satisfied,
depending on the relevant bending axis:
𝛼𝛼 𝛽𝛽 𝛿𝛿
𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑁𝑁Ed i 𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀y,Ed + ∆𝑀𝑀y,Ed i 𝑀𝑀z,Ed + ∆𝑀𝑀z,Ed i
�𝜔𝜔x,i − � − +� � +� � ≤1 (8.75)
𝜒𝜒i 𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝑀𝑀cy,Rd 𝑀𝑀cz,Rd
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where
Mcy,Rd = Mcy,Rd,ten, see 8.1.7 (8.76)
Mcz,Rd = Mcz,Rd,ten, see 8.1.7 (8.77)
i = y or z, depending on the relevant buckling axis.
(4) In the case of global sway buckling, when using the global analysis method EM (see Table 7.1) the
interpolation factors ωx,i should be taken equal to 1,0 unless the elastically sway buckled shape is
calculated and the distance xs from the relevant cross-section to the simple support or a point of
contraflexure can be determined, see Figure 8.13.
(5) The y-y and z-z axis are principal axes. In case of lateral-torsional buckling due to minor axis bending,
the criteria (8.73) and (8.74) should also be checked with swapped axes y-y and z-z.
Table 8.9 — Exponents to be used in the interaction Formulae (8.73) and (8.74)
Exponents General provisions (NDP) Conservative

αy a
χy/ωx,y
βy a 0,85
but αy, βy, γy ≥ 0,85
δy a
αz a
χz/ωx,z
βz a 0,85
but αz, βz, γz ≥ 0,85
δz a
a In the case of torsional-flexural buckling, the relevant reduction factor for flexural buckling χy or χz should be
replaced with χTF
NOTE The general provisions for the exponents of cold-formed sections are given in the second column of
Table 8.9 unless the National Annex specifies different values.
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Table 8.10 — Interpolation factors ωx,y, ωx,z and ωx,LT
Conservative for
For a specific cross-section location along a uniform member and all cross-section
Factor
special loading cases locations and for
all loading cases
π𝑥𝑥s
ωx,y 𝜒𝜒y + �1 − 𝜒𝜒y � sin
Constant or equivalent axial 𝑙𝑙cr,y
force N a,b,c π𝑥𝑥s
ωx,z 𝜒𝜒z + (1 − 𝜒𝜒z ) sin 1,0
𝑙𝑙cr,z
Constant or equivalent π𝑥𝑥s
ωx,LT 𝜒𝜒LT + (1 − 𝜒𝜒LT ) sin
bending moment My b,c 𝑙𝑙cr,LT
where
lcr,y, lcr,z, lcr,LT are the buckling lengths for the relevant buckling mode;
xs (= xA or xB) is the distance from the cross-section under consideration to a simple support or a point
of contraflexure in the elastically buckled shape of the relevant mode based on the sinusoidal buckling
shape, see Figure 8.13 for examples.
For mono-axial bending end moments without transverse forces (|MEd,2| < MEd,1, always assuming a
positive sign for the value of MEd,1 in this condition), the distance xs to the design section may be obtained
from:
π𝑥𝑥s �𝑀𝑀Ed,1 − 𝑀𝑀Ed,2 � 𝑁𝑁c,Rd 1
cos � �= ∙ ∙ but 𝑥𝑥s ≥ 0
𝑙𝑙cr 𝑀𝑀c,Rd 𝑁𝑁Ed π �1 − 1�
𝜒𝜒
a In the case of torsional-flexural buckling, the relevant reduction factor for flexural buckling χy or χz should be
replaced with χTF
b In the case of an axial force N or a bending moment My which is not constant along the member length the
interpolation factors ωx,y , ωx,z or ωx,LT should conservatively be taken equal to 1,0 near the locations of the
maximum axial force N or bending moment My, or, alternatively taken equal to 1,0 at the locations of the maximum
stresses obtained from an appropriate analysis accounting for member imperferfections.
c In this case “equivalent” means: a shape of normal force and bending moment diagram which results in a
nearly sinusoidal buckling shape (e.g. a parabolic bending moment diagram)
NOTE In these examples cross-sections A and B (marked with transverse line) are the subjects of the design
check.
Figure 8.13 — Buckling length lcr and definition of xs (= xA or xB)
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8.2.6 Bending and axial tension
(1) The Formulae for members subject to combined bending and axial compression in 8.2.5 are applicable
replacing Nc,Rd by Nt,Rd according to 8.1.2 and implementing χy = χz = χTF = 1,0.
9 Serviceability limit states

9.1 General
(1) The rules for the serviceability limit states given in EN 1993-1-1 also apply to cold-formed steel
members and sheeting.
(2) The properties of the effective cross-section under serviceability loading obtained from 7.6 based on
a global elastic analysis should be used in all serviceability limit state calculations for cold-formed steel
members and sheeting. For a plastic global analysis, see 9.2.
(3) As an alternative to explicitly calculating Ieff along the member using (2), a moment of inertia Ieff,fic may
be used along the member, obtained from interpolation between the gross cross-section and the effective
cross-section values using Formula (9.1):
𝜎𝜎gr,ser
𝐼𝐼eff,fic = 𝐼𝐼 − �𝐼𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼eff (𝜎𝜎com,Ed,ser )� (9.1)
𝜎𝜎com,Ed,ser
where
I is the moment of inertia of the gross cross-section;
σgr,ser is the maximum compressive bending stress within the cross-section under
consideration in the serviceability limit state, based on the gross cross-section
properties (and counted as positive in Formula (9.1));
σcom,Ed,ser is the maximum compressive bending stress occurring along the span in the
serviceability limit state, based on the effective cross-section properties (and counted
as positive in Formula (9.1));
Ieff (σcom,Ed,ser) is the moment of inertia of the effective cross-section calculated on the basis of 𝜆𝜆̄p,red
(see 7.6.2 (5)) for a maximum stress σcom,Ed,ser = σeff,ser ≥ σgr,ser and with σeff,ser ≤ fyb.
(4) The effective moment of inertia Ieff according to (2) or Ieff,fic according to (3) may be taken as variable
along the member. Conservatively, the effective moment of inertia Ieff or Ieff,fic may be taken as constant
along the span of the member and equal to the value corresponding to the maximum span moment (in
absolute value) due to serviceability loading.
9.2 Plastic deformation
(1) When a plastic global analysis is carried out the combination of a support moment MEd and a support
reaction FEd at an internal support, both calculated at serviceability limit state for the characteristic
combination of action, should satisfy the criterion in Formula (9.2), (9.3) and (9.4):
𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
≤ 0,9 (9.2)
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
≤ 0,9 (9.3)
𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
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𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐹𝐹𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
+ ≤ 0,9 (9.4)
𝑀𝑀0 𝑅𝑅0
where:
𝑀𝑀0 = 1,25 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (9.5)
𝑅𝑅0 = 1,25 𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (9.6)
with:
Mc,Cd is the design value of the bending moment resistance of the cross-section, based on the
characteristic value of the bending moment resistance in the ultimate limit state, see
8.1.4.1(1), but determined using γM,ser, see 4.2(4);
Rw,Cd is the design value of the resistance to transverse forces of the web, based on the
characteristic value of the resistance to transverse forces in the ultimate limit state, see
8.1.6, but determined using γM,ser, see 4.2(4)..
(2) The design value of the bending moment resistance Mc,Cd may also be calculated using the effective
cross-section for serviceability limit states based on σcom,Ed for the characteristic combination of action,
see 9.1(2) and 7.6.
9.3 Deflections
(1) The deflections may be calculated assuming elastic behaviour.

(2) The influence of slip in the connections (for example in the case of continuous beam systems with
sleeves and overlaps) should be considered in the calculation of deflections, forces and moments.
9.4 Walkability of trapezoidal sheeting
9.4.1 Walkability during installation
(1) During installation, i.e. while the sheeting is not completely or permanentely fixed, the profiled
sheeting may only be walked on for essential activities, e.g. related to installing the roof.
(2) If not otherwise specified, EN 1090-4 gives practical guidance on how to ensure walkability by
adopting load dispersal measures.
(3) If the sheeting span does not exceed the limiting value Llim determined in tests according to A.5.6, then
load-dispersal measures may be omitted.
9.4.2 Walkability after installation
(1) After installation, the profiled sheeting may only be walked on by single individuals for the purpose
of its maintenance and cleaning.
(2) If not otherwise specified, the profiled sheeting should only be walked on if load-dispersal measures
are adopted, see EN 1090-4.
(3) If the sheeting span does not exceed the limiting value Llim determined in tests according to A.5.6, then
load-dispersal measures may be omitted.
NOTE This corresponds to the imposed load Qk = 1 kN according to EN 1991-1-1, category H.
(4) For profiled sheeting continuous over supports, load-dispersal measures may be omitted for sheeting
spans up to 25 % longer than the limiting values determined in single span tests.
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(5) It is advisable to install walkways for access to units requiring regular maintenance or operational
elements (e.g. chimneys, heating plants and photovoltaic panels).
10 Design of joints
10.1 General
(1) The design assumptions and general rules for joints are given in EN 1993-1-8.
(2) For welded connections, with the exception of spot welds and lap welds with core thicknesses
tcor ≤ 4 mm, EN 1993-1-8 applies.
10.2 Splices and end joints of members subject to compression
(1) Splices and end joints in members which are subject to compression should either have at least the
same design resistance as the cross-section of the member, or be designed to resist an additional bending
moment due to the second-order effects within the member, in addition to the internal compressive force
NEd and the internal bending moments My,Ed and Mz,Ed obtained from a global analysis.
(2) Unless a second-order analysis of the member is carried out, the design value of the second-order
bending moment should be taken from Formula (10.1):
1⁄δi
𝑁𝑁Ed αi
𝑀𝑀II,i,Ed = 𝑀𝑀i,Rd �𝑈𝑈i (𝑥𝑥s ) − � � � (10.1)
𝑁𝑁Rd
where
i is y or z depending on the bending axis;
Ui (xs) is the utilization ratio of the splice or end joints according to the member check in 8.2.5;
with
𝛼𝛼
i 𝛿𝛿
𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀i,Ed i
𝑈𝑈i (𝑥𝑥s ) = �𝜔𝜔x,i � +� � ≤1 (10.2)
𝜒𝜒i 𝑁𝑁c,Rd 𝑀𝑀i,Rd
The parameters used in Formula (10.2) are defined in 8.2.5 (2).

Formula (10.1) may also be used for the calculation of shear forces using V instead of M.
(3) Splices and end joints should be designed so that the load can be transmitted to the effective portions
of the cross-section.
(4) If the construction details at the ends of a member are such that the line of action of the internal axial
force cannot be clearly identified, a suitable eccentricity should be assumed and the resulting bending
moments should be taken into account in the design of the member, end joints and splices.
10.3 Connections with mechanical fasteners
(1) Connections with mechanical fasteners should be compact in shape. The positions of the fasteners
should be arranged to provide sufficient room for satisfactory assembly and maintenance.
NOTE EN 1993-1-8 gives detailed information on these requirements.
(2) The shear forces in the individual mechanical fasteners of a connection may be assumed to be equal,
provided that:
— the fastenings have sufficient ductility (see conditions in Tables 10.2-10.5);
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— shear failure of the fasteners is not the critical failure mode.

(3) In design by calculation the design values of resistances of fastenings subject to predominantly static
loads should be determined from:
— Table 10.2 for blind rivets;
— Table 10.3 for self-tapping screws;
— Table 10.4 for cartridge-fired pins;
— Table 10.5 for bolts.
When determining the design values of resistance of mechanical fasteners by testing, 12 and Annex A
apply.
NOTE: Further information about the design resistance of fastenings can be provided by the National Annex as
specified in Table 10.2 to Table 10.5.
(4) In Tables 10.2 to 10.5 the meaning of the symbols is as follows:
As the tensile stress area of a fastener;
Anet the net cross-sectional area of the connected part;
Anet,I the net cross-sectional area of component I directly underneath the head of the fastener (the
swage head in the case of blind rivets);
Anet,II the net cross-sectional area of component II (usually the supporting structure);
βLf the reduction factor for long joints according to EN 1993-1-8;
d the nominal diameter of the fastener;
do the nominal diameter of the fastener hole;
dw the diameter of the washer or the head of the fastener;
e1 the end distance from the centre of the fastener to the adjacent end of the connected part in the
direction of load transfer, see Figure 10.1;
e2 the edge distance from the centre of the fastener to the adjacent edge of the connected part in the
direction perpendicular to the direction of load transfer, see Figure 10.1;
fub the ultimate tensile strength of the fastener material;
fu,I for fastenings with rivets, self tapping screws, cartridge-fired pins or bolts: the ultimate tensile
strength of component I directly underneath the head of the fastener (the swage head in the case
of blind rivets);
fu,II for fastenings with rivets, self-tapping screws, cartridge-fired pins or bolts: the ultimate tensile
strength of component II (usually the supporting structure);
fu for connections with bolts or welds: the ultimate tensile strength of the supporting member into
which a bolt is fixed or onto which a weld is applied;
ns the number of sheets that are fixed to the supporting member by the same screw or pin;
nf the number of mechanical fasteners in one connection;
p1 the centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners in the direction of load transfer, see Figure 10.1;
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p2 the centre-to-centre spacing of fasteners in the direction perpendicular to the direction of load
transfer, see Figure 10.1;
tI for fastenings with rivets, self-tapping screws or cartridge-fired pins: the thickness of component
I directly underneath the head of the fastener (the swage head in the case of blind rivets);
tII for fastenings with rivets, self-tapping screws or cartridge-fired pins: the thickness of component
II (usually the supporting structure);
t for connections with bolts or welds: the design thickness of the steel material after cold-forming,
exclusive of metal and organic coatings;
s the thread pitch.
(5) The partial factor γM for calculating the design value of the resistances of mechanical fasteners should
be taken as γM2, see Clause 4(3).
Key
1 direction of load transfer
Figure 10.1 — End distance, edge distance and spacings of fasteners and spot welds
(6) If the design value of the pull-out resistance Fo,Rd of a fastener is smaller than its design value of the
pull-through resistance Fp,Rd, the deformation capacity of the fastening should be determined from tests.
(7) If fasteners are not located centrally in the troughs of sheeting, the design value of the pull-through
resistances from Tables 10.2 to 10.4 for rivets, self-tapping screws and cartridge-fired pins should be
reduced in accordance with Table 10.1.
(8) The resistance of a fastener to combined shear and tension may be verified by the criterion in Formula
(10.3):
𝐹𝐹t,Ed 𝐹𝐹v,Ed
+ ≤1 (10.3)
min �𝐹𝐹p,Rd , 𝐹𝐹o,Rd � min �𝐹𝐹b,Rd , 𝐹𝐹n,Rd �
where
Fp,Rd, Fo,Rd, Fb,Rd and Fn,Rd are the design value of the resistances of the fastening, calculated using
Tables 10.2 to 10.5.
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Table 10.1 — Fasteners not located centrally in troughs of sheeting
Case Requirement Reduction factor

bu ≤ 150 mm 1,0 if ef ≤ bu/4
0,9 if ef > bU/4
150 mm < bu ≤ 265 mm 0,5 if 0 < ef ≤ bu/4

0,7 if bu/4 < ef ≤ bu/2
If bu > 265 mm, For fasteners I and R:

at least two fasteners are I: 0,0
necessary R: 0,7 if af ≤ 75 mm
R: 0,35 if af > 75 mm
Cross-sections such as See 11.1.6

Z-, C- or Σ-section for calculation of forces in fasteners
(9) The effects of the distortion may be neglected if the design value of the resistance of the fastenings is
obtained from Tables 10.2 to 10.5 and the fastening is made through a flange not more than 150 mm
wide.
(10) The diameter of holes for screws should be in accordance with the manufacturer's guidelines. These
guidelines should be based on following criteria:
— the applied torque should be greater than the threading torque;
— the applied torque should be less than the thread-stripping torque or head-shearing torque;
— the threading torque should be less than 2/3 of the head-shearing torque.
(11) For long joints, the reduction factor βLf from EN 1993-1-8:2024, 5.7.3, should be applied.
(12) The design rules for blind rivets are only valid if the diameter of the hole is not more than 0,1 mm
larger than the diameter of the rivet.
(13) For M12 and M14 bolts with hole diameters 2 mm larger than the bolt diameter, EN 1993-1-8:2024,
5.7.1(5) applies.
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Table 10.2 — Design values of the resistances of blind rivets
Rivets loaded in shear: a

Bearing resistance:
𝛼𝛼r 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I 𝑒𝑒1 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I
𝐹𝐹b,Rd = but 𝐹𝐹b,Rd ≤
𝛾𝛾M2 1,2 𝛾𝛾M2
where αr is given by the following:
— if tI = tII: 𝛼𝛼r = 3,6�𝑡𝑡I ⁄𝑑𝑑 but 𝛼𝛼r ≤ 2,1
— if tII ≥ 2,5 tI: 𝛼𝛼r = 2,1
— if tI < tII < 2,5 tI: αr should be obtained by linear interpolation.
Net-section resistance:
𝐴𝐴net,I 𝑓𝑓u,I 𝐴𝐴net,II 𝑓𝑓u,II
𝐹𝐹n,Rd = min � ; �
Shear resistance:
𝐹𝐹v,Rk
The shear resistance Fv,Rk or Fv,Rd is to be determined by testing and 𝐹𝐹v,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
𝐹𝐹b,Rd
Conditions: d 𝐹𝐹v,Rd ≥ 1,2 or � 𝐹𝐹v,Rd ≥ 1,2 𝐹𝐹n,Rd
𝑛𝑛f 𝛽𝛽Lf
Rivets loaded in tension: b
Pull-through resistance: The pull-through resistance Fp,Rk or Fp,Rd is to be determined by testing.
Pull-out resistance: The pull-out resistance Fo,Rk or Fo,Rd is to be determined by testing.
Tensile resistance: The tensile resistance Ft,Rk or Ft,Rd is to be determined by testing.
Conditions: d Ft,Rd ≥ Fp,Rd or Ft,Rd ≥ Fo,Rd
Range of validity: c
e1 ≥ 1,5 d p1 ≥ 3 d 2,6 mm ≤ d ≤ 6,4 mm
e2 ≥ 1,5 p2 ≥ 3 d fu ≤ 550 N/mm2
a It is assumed that the thinnest sheet is adjacent to the preformed head of the blind rivet, i.e. tI ≤ tII. Otherwise
tI = tII should be assumed in design.
b Blind rivets are not usually used in tension.
c Blind rivets may be used beyond this range of validity if the resistance is determined from testing.
d The conditions should be fulfilled when sufficient deformation capacity of the connection is required. When
these conditions are not fulfilled it should be proved that the deformation capacity will be provided by other
parts of the structure.
NOTE 1 According to Table 10.2, the resistance of blind rivets loaded in shear and the pull-through, pull-out and
tensile resistance of blind rivets loaded in tension is determined by testing unless further information is provided
by the National Annex.
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Table 10.3 — Design values of the resistances of self-tapping screws
Screws loaded in shear: a

Bearing resistance:
𝛼𝛼sc 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I
𝐹𝐹b,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
where αsc is given by the following:
— if tI = tII: 𝛼𝛼sc = 𝛼𝛼1 = 3,2�𝑡𝑡I ⁄𝑑𝑑 but 𝛼𝛼sc ≤ 1,7
— if tII ≥ 2,5 tI: 𝛼𝛼sc = 𝛼𝛼2,5 = 1,7
1 𝑡𝑡II 𝑡𝑡I + 𝑡𝑡II
— if tI < tII < 2,5 tI: 𝛼𝛼sc = �𝛼𝛼1 + �𝛼𝛼2,5 − 𝛼𝛼1 � � − 1�� but 𝛼𝛼sc ≤ 𝛼𝛼2,5 = 1,7
1,5 𝑡𝑡I 2 𝑡𝑡I
Net-section resistance: 𝐹𝐹n,Rd = min � ; �
The shear resistance Fv,Rk or Fv,Rd is to be determined 𝐹𝐹v,Rk
Shear resistance: and 𝐹𝐹v,Rd =
by testing 𝛾𝛾M2
Conditions: d Fv,Rd ≥ 1,2 Fb,Rd or Σ Fv,Rd ≥ 1,2 Fn,Rd
Screws loaded in tension: a
Pull-through resistance: b
𝑑𝑑w 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I
— for static loads: 𝐹𝐹p,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
— for screws subject to wind loads or a combination of wind loads and static loads:
0,67 𝑑𝑑w 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I
𝐹𝐹p,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
Pull-out resistance:
0,45 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡II 𝑓𝑓u,II
— if tII/s < 1: 𝐹𝐹o,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
0,65 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡II 𝑓𝑓u,II
— if tII/s ≥ 1: 𝐹𝐹o,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
Tensile resistance: The tensile resistance Ft,Rk or Ft,Rd is to be determined by testing.
Conditions: d Ft,Rd ≥ Fp,Rd or Ft,Rd ≥ Fo,Rd
Range of validity: c
Generally: e1 ≥ 3 d p1 ≥ 3 d 3,0 mm ≤ d ≤ 8,0 mm
e2 ≥ 1,5 d p2 ≥ 3 d fu ≤ 550 N/mm2
For tension: 0,5 mm ≤ tI ≤ 1,5 mm and tII ≥ 0,9 mm
a It is assumed that the thinnest sheet is adjacent to the head of the screw, i.e. tI ≤ tII. Otherwise tI = tII should
be assumed in design.
b These values assume that the washer has sufficient rigidity to prevent it from being deformed appreciably
and/or pulled over the head of the fastener.
c Self-tapping screws may be used beyond this range of validity if the resistance is determined from testing.
d The conditions should be fulfilled when sufficient deformation capacity of the connection is required. When
NOTE 2 According to Table 10.3, the resistance of self-tapping screws loaded in shear and the tensile resistance
of self-tapping screws loaded in tension is determined by testing unless further information is provided by the
National Annex.
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Table 10.4 — Design values of the resistances of cartridge-fired pins
Pins loaded in shear:

Bearing resistance:
3,2 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I
𝐹𝐹b,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
𝐹𝐹n,Rd = min � ; �
Shear resistance:
𝐹𝐹v,Rk
The shear resistance Fv,Rk or Fv,Rd is to be determined by testing and 𝐹𝐹v,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
Conditions: c Fv,Rd ≥ 1,5 Fb,Rd or Σ Fv,Rd ≥ 1,5 Fn,Rd
Pins loaded in tension:
Pull-through resistance: a
𝑑𝑑w 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I
— for static loads: 𝐹𝐹p,Rd =
γM2
0,5 𝑑𝑑w 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I
— for wind loads or a combination of wind loads and static loads: 𝐹𝐹p,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
Pull-out resistance:
The pull-out resistance Fo,Rk or Fo,Rd is to be determined by testing
Tensile resistance:
Tensile resistance Ft,Rk or Ft,Rd is to be determined by testing
Conditions: c Fo,Rd ≥ Fp,Rd or Ft,Rd ≥ Fo,Rd
Range of validity: b
Generally: e1 ≥ 4,5 d 3,7 mm ≤ d ≤ 6,0 mm
e2 ≥ 4,5 d for d = 3,7 mm: tII ≥ 4,0 mm
p1 ≥ 4,5 d for d = 4,5 mm: tII ≥ 6,0 mm
p2 ≥ 4,5 d for d = 5,2 mm: tII ≥ 8,0 mm
fu ≤ 550 N/mm2
For tension: 0,5 mm ≤ tI ≤ 1,5 mm tII ≥ 6,0 mm
a These values assume that the washer has sufficient rigidity to prevent it from being deformed appreciably
and/or pulled over the head of the fastener.
b Cartridge-fired pins may be used beyond this range of validity if the resistance is determined from testing.
c The conditions should be fulfilled when sufficient deformation capacity of the connection is required. When
NOTE 3 According to Table 10.4, the resistance of cartridge-fired pins loaded in shear and the pull-out and the
tensile resistance of cartridge-fired pins loaded in tension is determined by testing unless further information is
provided by the National Annex.
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Table 10.5 — Design values of the resistances of bolts
Bolts loaded in shear: a

Bearing resistance: b
2,5 𝛼𝛼b 𝑘𝑘tI 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡I 𝑓𝑓u,I 2,5 𝛼𝛼b 𝑘𝑘tII 𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡II 𝑓𝑓u,II
𝐹𝐹b,Rd = min � ; �
with:
αb is the smaller of 1,0 or e1/(3d);
ktI = (0,8 tI + 1,5)/2,5 for 0,75 mm ≤ tI ≤ 1,25 mm;
ktI = 1,0 for tI > 1,25 mm
ktII = (0,8 tII + 1,5)/2,5 for 0,75 mm ≤ tII ≤ 1,25 mm;
ktII = 1,0 for tII > 1,25 mm
𝐴𝐴net,I 𝑓𝑓u,I 𝐴𝐴net,II 𝑓𝑓u,II 𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑0
𝐹𝐹n,Rd = min � ; � ∙ �1 + 3𝑘𝑘num � − 0,3�� but �1 + 3𝑘𝑘num � − 0,3�� ≤ 1
𝛾𝛾M2 𝛾𝛾M2 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢
with:
knum = [number of bolts at the cross-section]/[total number of bolts in the connection]
u = 2 e2 but u ≤ p2
Shear resistance:
0,6 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓ub
— for strength grades 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8: 𝐹𝐹v,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
— for strength grades 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9: 𝐹𝐹v,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
Conditions: c Fv,Rd ≥ 1,2 Fb,Rd or Σ Fv,Rd ≥ 1,2 Fn,Rd
Bolts loaded in tension: a
Pull-through resistance: The pull-through resistance Fp,Rk or Fp,Rd is to be determined by testing.
Pull-out resistance: The pull-out resistance Fo,Rk or Fo,Rd is to be determined by testing.
Tensile resistance: 𝐹𝐹t,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
Conditions: c Ft,Rd ≥ Fp,Rd or Ft,Rd ≥ Fo,Rd
Range of validity: b
e1 ≥ 1,0 do p1 ≥ 3 do 0,75 mm ≤ t ≤ 4 mm Minimum bolt size: M 6

e2 ≥ 1,5 do p2 ≥ 3 do Strength grades: 4.6 – 10.9 fu ≤ 550 N/mm2
a For thicknesses greater than or equal to 3 mm the rules for bolts in EN 1993-1-8 may be used as an alternative.
For thicknesses greater than 4 mm the rules for bolts in EN 1993-1-8 should be used.
b Bolts may be used beyond this range of validity if the resistance is determined from testing.
c The conditions should be fulfilled when sufficient deformation capacity of the connection is required. When
NOTE 4 According to Table 10.5, the pull-out and the tensile resistance of bolts loaded in tension is determined
by testing unless further information is provided by the National Annex.
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10.4 Spot welds
(1) Spot welds may be used with as-rolled or galvanized parent material up to 4,0 mm thick, provided
that the thinner connected part is not more than 3,0 mm thick.
(2) Spot welds may either be resistance welded or fusion welded.
(3) The design value of the resistance Fv,Rd of a spot weld loaded in shear should be determined using
Table 10.6.
(4) The meaning of the symbols in Table 10.6 is as follows:
Anet is the net cross-sectional area of the connected part;
ds is the spot weld interface diameter, see 10.4(6)(7);
nw is the number of spot welds in one connection;
t is the thickness of the thinner connected part or sheet [mm];
t1 is the thickness of the thicker connected part or sheet [mm];
The end and edge distances e1 and e2 and the spacings p1 and p2 are as defined in 10.3(5).
(5) The partial factor γM for calculating the design value of the resistances of spot welds should be taken
as γM2, see Clause 4(3).
Table 10.6 — Design values of the resistances of spot welds
Spot welds loaded in shear:

Tearing and bearing resistance:
— if t ≤ t1 ≤ 2,5 t:
2,7 √𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = with: t in [mm]
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2
— if t1 > 2,5 t:
2,7 √𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑s 𝑓𝑓u 0,7 𝑑𝑑s2 f𝑢𝑢 3,1 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑s 𝑓𝑓u
𝐹𝐹tb,Rd = but 𝐹𝐹tb,Rd ≤ and 𝐹𝐹tb,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2 𝛾𝛾M2 𝛾𝛾M2
1,4 𝑡𝑡 𝑒𝑒1 𝑓𝑓u
End resistance: 𝐹𝐹e,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
𝐴𝐴net 𝑓𝑓u
Net section resistance: 𝐹𝐹n,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
π(𝑑𝑑s2 ⁄4) 𝑓𝑓u
Shear resistance: 𝐹𝐹v,Rd =
𝛾𝛾M2
Conditions: Fv,Rd ≥ 1,25 Ftb,Rd or Fv,Rd ≥ 1,25 Fe,Rd or Σ Fv,Rd ≥ 1,25 Fn,Rd
Range of validity:
2 ds ≤ e1 ≤ 6 ds 3 ds ≤ p1 ≤ 8 ds
e2 ≤ 4 ds 3 ds ≤ p2 ≤ 6 ds
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(6) The interface diameter ds of a spot weld should be determined from Formulae (10.4) and (10.5):
— for fusion welding:
𝑑𝑑s = 0,5 𝑡𝑡 + 5 mm (10.4)
— for resistance welding:
𝑑𝑑s = 5√𝑡𝑡 with t in [mm] (10.5)
(7) The value of ds produced by the welding procedure should be verified by shear tests in accordance
with Clause 12, using single-lap test specimens, as shown in Figure 10.2. The thickness t of the specimen
should be the same as that used in practice. The end and edge distances e1 and e2 in tests should satisfy
the condition in Formula (10.6):
3,5 𝑑𝑑s ≤ 𝑒𝑒 ≤ 5 𝑑𝑑s (10.6)
Key
1 resistance weld
2 fusion weld
Figure 10.2 — Test specimen for shear tests of spot welds
10.5 Lap welds
10.5.1 General
(1) The provisions in 10.5 should be used for the design of arc-welded lap welds where the parent
material is 4,0 mm thick or less. Lap welds with thicker parent material should be designed using
EN 1993-1-8.
(2) The weld size should be chosen such that the resistance of the connection is governed by the thickness
of the connected part or sheet, rather than the resistance of the weld.
(3) (2) may be assumed to be satisfied if the throat size of the weld is at least equal to the thickness of the
connected part or sheet.
(4) The partial factor γM for calculating the design value of the resistances of lap welds should be taken
as γM2, see Clause 4(3).
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10.5.2 Fillet welds
(1) The design value of the resistance Fw.Rd of a fillet-welded connection should be determined from the
Formulae (10.7) to (10.9):
— for a side fillet that is one of a pair of side fillets:
𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙w,s �0,9 − 0,45 𝑙𝑙w,s /𝑏𝑏� 𝑓𝑓u

𝐹𝐹w,Rd = if lw,s ≤ b (10.7)
𝛾𝛾M2
0,45 𝑡𝑡 𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑓u
𝐹𝐹w,Rd = if lw,s > b (10.8)
𝛾𝛾M2
— for an end fillet:
𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙w,e �1 − 0,3 𝑙𝑙w,e /𝑏𝑏� 𝑓𝑓u

𝐹𝐹w,Rd = for one weld and if lw,s ≤ b (10.9)
𝛾𝛾M2
where
b is the width of the connected part or sheet, see Figure 10.3;
lw,e is the effective length of the end fillet weld, see Figure 10.3;
lw,s is the effective length of a side fillet weld, see Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3 — Fillet-welded lap connection
(2) If a combination of end fillets and side fillets is used in the same connection, its total design value of
resistance should be taken as the sum of the design values of resistances of the end fillets and the side
fillets. A realistic assumption of the distribution of forces should be made, taken into account the position
of the centroid of the connection.
(3) The effective length lw of a fillet weld should be taken as the overall length of the full-size fillet,
including end returns. Provided that the weld is full size throughout this length, a reduction in effective
length need not be made for either the start or termination of the weld.
(4) Fillet welds with effective lengths less than 8 times the thickness of the thinner connected part should
not be considered to transmit any forces.
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10.5.3 Arc spot welds
(1) Arc spot welds should not be designed to transmit any forces other than shear.
(2) Arc spot welds should not be used to connect parts or sheets with a total thickness Σ t larger than
4 mm.
(3) Arc spot welds should have an interface diameter ds of at least 10 mm.
(4) If the connected part or sheet is less than 0,7 mm thick, a weld washer should be used, see Figure 10.4.
(5) Arc spot welds should have adequate end and edge distances, as determined by the following:
(a) The minimum distance measured parallel to the direction of force transfer, from the centre
of an arc spot weld to the nearest edge of an adjacent weld or to the end of the connected
part, should not be less than the value of aw,min given by the following:
𝐹𝐹w,Rd
𝑎𝑎w,min = 1,8 if fu/fy < 1,15 (10.10)
𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓u 𝛾𝛾M2
𝐹𝐹w,Rd
𝑎𝑎w,min = 2,1 if fu/fy ≥ 1,15 (10.11)
𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓u 𝛾𝛾M2
(b) The minimum distance from the centre of a circular arc spot weld to the end or edge of the
connected sheet should not be less than 1,5 das where das is the visible diameter of the arc
spot weld.
(c) The minimum clear distance between an elongated arc spot weld and the end of the sheet or
between the elongated arc spot weld and the edge of the sheet should not be less than 1,0 das.
Key
1 supporting member
2 connected part of sheet
3 weld washer
Figure 10.4 — Arc spot weld with weld washer
(6) The design value of the shear resistance Fw,Rd of a circular arc spot weld should be determined from
Formula (10.12):
0,625 π (𝑑𝑑s2 ⁄4) 𝑓𝑓uw
𝐹𝐹w,Rd = (10.12)
𝛾𝛾M2
where
fuw is the ultimate tensile strength of the welding electrodes;
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but:
Fw,Rd should not be larger than the design value of resistance given in the following:
— if 𝑑𝑑p ⁄∑ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 18 �420⁄𝑓𝑓u with fu in [N/mm2]
1,5 𝑑𝑑p ∑ 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓u

𝐹𝐹w,Rd = (10.13)
𝛾𝛾M2
— if 18 �420⁄𝑓𝑓u < 𝑑𝑑p ⁄∑ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 30 �420⁄𝑓𝑓u with fu in [N/mm2]
27 �420⁄𝑓𝑓u (∑ 𝑡𝑡)2 𝑓𝑓u

𝐹𝐹w,Rd = (10.14)
𝛾𝛾M2
— if 𝑑𝑑p ⁄∑ 𝑡𝑡 > 30 �420⁄𝑓𝑓u with fu in [N/mm2]
0,9 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 ∑ 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢

𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (10.15)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2
where
dp is the effective peripheral diameter of an arc spot weld according to (8).
(7) The interface diameter ds of an arc spot weld, see Table 10.7, should be obtained from Formula
(10.16):
𝑑𝑑s = 0,7 𝑑𝑑as − 1,5 � 𝑡𝑡 but ds ≥ 0,55 das (10.16)
where
das is the visible diameter of the arc spot weld, see Table 10.7.
(8) The effective peripheral diameter dp of an arc spot weld should be obtained as follows:
— for a single connected sheet or part of thickness t:
dp = das − t (10.17)
— for multiple connected sheets or parts of total thickness t:

dp = das − 2 t (10.18)
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Table 10.7 — Arc spot welds
case thickness
Single
� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡
connected sheet
Two connected
� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑡𝑡2
sheets
Single
connected sheet
� 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡
with weld
washers
Key
1 Weld washer
(9) The design value of the shear resistance Fw,Rd of an elongated arc spot weld should be determined
0,625 �π(𝑑𝑑s2 ⁄4) + 𝑙𝑙w,as 𝑑𝑑s � 𝑓𝑓uw

𝐹𝐹w,Rd = (10.19)
𝛾𝛾M2
but Fw,Rd should not be larger than the design value of the peripheral resistance given by Formula (10.20):
�0,5𝑙𝑙w,as + 1,67𝑑𝑑p � ∑ 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓u

𝐹𝐹w,Rd = (10.20)
𝛾𝛾M2
where
lw,as is the length of the elongated arc spot weld, measured as shown in Figure 10.5.
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Key
1 supporting member
2 connected part of sheet
Figure 10.5 — Elongated arc spot weld
11 Special considerations for members, liner trays and sheeting

11.1 Members restrained by sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels
11.1.1 General
(1) The provisions in 11.1 may be applied to members with a Z-, C-, Σ-, U- or Hat cross-section.
(2) These provisions may be used for beams with or without anti-sag bars and single-span, continuous,
sleeved or overlapped beams.
(3) These provisions may also be applied to cold-formed steel members used as purlins, side rails, floor
beams and other types of members that are similarly restrained by sheeting, liner trays or sandwich
panels.
(4) Side rails may be designed on the basis that wind pressure has an effect similar to gravity loading on
members, and that wind suction acts in a way similar to uplift loading on members.
(5) Full continuous lateral restraint can be supplied by profiled steel sheeting, liner trays or sandwich
panels with sufficient stiffness, continuously connected to the flange of the member. In the case of profiled
sheeting these connections should be made through the troughs of the sheets. The member may be
regarded as laterally restrained at the connection with profiled steel sheeting, liner trays or sandwich
panels if the conditions in 11.4.1 are fulfilled. In other cases (e.g. sheeting fixed to the member through
the crest) the degree of lateral restraint should either be validated by experience or determined from
tests.
NOTE For guidance on testing, see Clause 12 and Annex A.
(6) Unless alternative support arrangements are justified from the results of tests the member should
have support details, such as cleats, that prevent lateral displacement and rotation at its supports. The
effects of forces in the plane of the sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels that are transmitted to the
supports of the member should be taken into account in the design of the support details. Where cleats
are used, the transverse bending of the web due to the lateral load transferred by the sheeting may be
neglected. In a cleat connection verification of the member for web crippling may be omitted if a gap
between the support and the bottom flange of the member is provided and maintained during member
deflections.
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(7) The behaviour of a laterally restrained member may be modelled as outlined for purlins in Table 11.1.
The connection of the member to the sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panel may be assumed to partially
restrain twist of the member. This partial torsional restraint may be represented by a rotational spring
with a spring stiffness CD. The stresses in the free flange, not directly connected to the sheeting, liner trays
or sandwich panels, should then be calculated by superposing the effects of in-plane bending and the
effects of torsion, including lateral bending due to cross-sectional distortion. The rotational restraint
provided by the sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panel should be determined following 11.4.2.
(8) Where the free flange of a single span member is in compression under uplift loading, allowance
should also be made for the additional stresses due to torsion and distortion.
11.1.2 Calculation methods
(1) Unless a second order analysis is carried out, the method given in 11.1.3 and 11.1.4 should be used to
allow for the tendency of the free flange to move laterally (thus inducing additional stresses) by treating
it as a member subject to a lateral load qh,Ed = kh qEd, see Table 11.1. The axis convention is provided in
3.3.4. Specifications in accordance with the design provisions in 11.1 are given in Figure 11.2.
(2) In the method described in 11.1.3 and 11.1.4, the influence of the rotational spring introduced in
11.1.1(7) is replaced by an equivalent lateral linear spring with stiffness K. The free flange may be treated
as a compression member subject to a non-uniform axial force, with a continuous lateral spring support
with stiffness K. The effects of cross-sectional distortion should be accounted for in determining K.
(3) If the free flange is subject to compression resulting from bending in the plane of the web (for
example, due to uplift loading on a single span purlin), the resistance of the free flange to lateral buckling
should also be verified.
(4) For a more precise calculation, a numerical analysis may be carried out, using values of the rotational
spring stiffness CD obtained from 11.4.2. Allowance should be made for the effects of a bow imperfection
eo in the free flange, as defined in 7.2.2.3. The imperfection should have the shape of the critical buckling
mode, determined from an elastic first order buckling analysis (see 7.1(2)).
(5) A numerical analysis using the rotational spring stiffness CD obtained from 11.4.2 may also be used if
lateral restraint is not present or if its effectiveness cannot be proved. The numerical analysis should take
into account the bi-axial bending, pure St.-Venant torsion and warping torsion.
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Table 11.1 — Modelling laterally braced members rotationally restrained by sheeting, liner
trays or sandwich panels
Gravity loading Uplift loading

a) Z- and C-section purlin with upper flange connected to sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels
In-plane bending + torsion and lateral bending

b) Total deformation decomposed into two parts
c) Model of laterally braced purlin with rotational spring stiffness CD from sheeting, liner trays or
sandwich panels
d) Simplified model with the e) Free flange of purlin, modelled as a member on an elastic
rotational spring stiffness CD foundation under lateral loading, representing the effects of torsion
replaced by a lateral spring and lateral bending (including cross-section distortion)
with stiffness K
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11.1.3 Design criteria
11.1.3.1 General
(1) Members should satisfy the criteria for cross-sectional resistance given in 11.1.4.1 and, where the free
flange is in compression, the criteria for stability of the free flange given in 11.1.4.2.
11.1.3.2 Members with full continuity over supports
(1) The bending moment distribution in a member which is physically continuous over two or more
spans without overlaps or sleeves may either be obtained by calculation or based on the results of tests.
(2) If the bending moments are obtained by calculation they may be determined using elastic global
analysis.
(3) Alternatively, a more realistic bending moment distribution may be obtained by accounting for
inelastic moment-rotation behaviour of the member over the internal support(s), whereby the moment-
rotation behaviour is determined from testing in accordance with Clause 12 and A.6.
(4) If the moment-rotation behaviour at a support location is determined with the assistance of testing,
the design value of the bending moment resistance Msupp,Rd corresponding to a given value of the
distributed load qEd applied to the member should be obtained from the intersection of two curves (see
Figure 11.1):
— the moment-rotation curve at the support, obtained by testing in accordance with Clause 12 and A.6
(see Figure A.9);
— the theoretical relationship between the support bending moment Msupp,Ed and the corresponding
plastic hinge rotation θEd in the member over the support determined from the elasto-plastic analysis
of the full member under a loading qEd with a perfectly plastic hinge above the support.
In the case of a member with two equal spans under a uniformly distributed load this relationship is given
by:
𝐿𝐿
𝜃𝜃Ed = �𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿2 − 8 𝑀𝑀supp,Ed � (11.1)
12 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼eff Ed
2
�𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿2 − 2 𝑀𝑀supp,Rd �
𝑀𝑀span,Ed = (11.2)
8 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿2
where
Ieff is the effective moment of inertia of the member for the bending moment Mspan,Ed;
L is the span of the member;
Mspan,Ed is the design value of the maximum bending moment in the span of the member.
For other cases, a relationship equivalent to Formula (11.1) should be determined by appropriate
analysis.
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Key
1 moment-rotation curve
2 Msupp,Ed vs. θEd
Figure 11.1 — Determination of bending moment resistance at support
(5) For member subjected to gravity loading additional consideration should be given to the state of
stress in the free flange and the lateral stability of the free flange around the support, since these issues
are not fully accounted for in the internal support test according to A.6.2. If the free flange is continuous
over the support and if the distance between the support and the nearest anti-sag bar is larger than 0,5L,
the cross-sectional resistance at the support should be verified according to 11.1.4.1 and the buckling
resistance at the support should be verified according to 11.1.4.2, taking into account the additional
lateral load qh,Ed. Alternatively, full-scale tests on two- or multi-span members may be used to investigate
the stress state and stability of that free flange around the mid-support.
(6) The maximum span bending moment Mspan,Ed should be calculated from the value of the support
bending moment using the conditions of static equilibrium. The maximum span bending moment Mspan,Ed
in the member should satisfy the criteria for cross-sectional resistance given in 11.1.4.1 and, for a member
under uplift loading, the criteria for stability of the free flange given in 11.1.4.2. Alternatively, these
criteria may be evaluated by testing. A single span test may be used with a span comparable to the
distance between the points of contraflexure in the span.
(7) Unless the test procedure in A.6 is employed, the member should be designed for a combination of a
bending moment and a reaction force at the support. If the support reaction is a tensile force, this check
may be omitted.
(8) Unless the test procedure in A.6 is employed, the member should be designed for a combination of a
bending moment and a shear force at the support.
11.1.3.3 Members with semi-continuity provided by overlaps or sleeves
(1) Tests should be carried out to determine:

— the flexural stiffness of the overlapped or sleeved part of the member system;
— the — generally non-linear — moment-rotation behaviour of the overlapped or sleeved part. If linear
behaviour is assumed in the calculations, both minimum and maximum values of the rotational
stiffness should be considered (see A.9.3). The redistribution of bending moments may only be
applied if failure occurs at the support and if lateral displacements are prevented at the support (e.g.
by a cleat plate)
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— the resistance of the overlapped or sleeved part to a combination of a support reaction and a bending
moment;
— the resistance to combined shear force and bending moment.
Alternatively, these characteristics may be determined by numerical methods with a model validated by
a sufficient number of tests.
11.1.3.4 Serviceability criteria
(1) The serviceability criteria relevant to members should be satisfied.
11.1.4 Design resistance
11.1.4.1 Resistance of cross-sections
(1) The cross-sectional resistance of a members subject to axial force and transverse load should be
verified as indicated in Figure 11.2 by superposing the stresses resulting from:
— the bending moment in the plane of the web My′,Ed;
— the axial force NEd;
— the equivalent lateral load qh,Ed acting on the free flange, causing lateral bending of the free flange, see
(3).
(2) The maximum design value of the stresses in the cross-section should satisfy the criteria in Formulae
(11.3) and (11.4):
— in the restrained flange:
𝜎𝜎max,Ed 𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀y′ ,Ed
= + ≤1
𝑓𝑓y 𝐴𝐴eff 𝑓𝑓y 𝑊𝑊eff,y′ 𝑓𝑓y (11.3)
𝛾𝛾M0 𝛾𝛾M0 𝛾𝛾M0
— in the free flange:

𝜎𝜎max,Ed 𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀y′ ,Ed 𝑀𝑀fz′ ,Ed
= + + ≤1
𝑓𝑓y 𝐴𝐴eff 𝑓𝑓y 𝑊𝑊eff,y′ 𝑓𝑓y 𝑊𝑊fz′ 𝑓𝑓y (11.4)
𝛾𝛾M0 𝛾𝛾M0 𝛾𝛾M0 𝛾𝛾M0
where
Aeff is the area of the effective cross-section in uniform compression;
fy is the yield strength as defined in 5.2.2;
Mfz′,Ed is the design value of the bending moment in the free flange due to the lateral load qh,Ed, see
Formula (11.5);
Weff,y′ is the section modulus of the effective cross-section in bending about the y′-y′ axis;
Wfz′ is the elastic section modulus of the cross-section consisting of the gross cross-section of
the free flange and the contributing part of the web, for bending about its own centroidal
axis z′-z′ axis; unless a more sophisticated analysis is carried out the contributing part of
the web may be taken equal to 1/5 of the depth of the web in the case of C- and Z-sections
and 1/6 of the depth of the web in the case of Σ-section, measured from the web-flange
intersection, see Figure 11.2;
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Figure 11.2 — Superposition of stresses
(3) The equivalent lateral load qh,Ed acting on the free flange, representing the effects of torsion and lateral
bending in the cross-section, should be obtained from Formula (11.5):
qh,Ed = kh qEd (11.5)
(4) The coefficient kh should be obtained as indicated in Table 11.2 for common types of cross-section.
Otherwise, it should be justified by appropriate analysis.
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Table 11.2 — Conversion of torsion and lateral bending effects into an equivalent lateral load
kh qEd
kh0 coefficient for lateral load on free flange

(kh0 corresponds to loading applied at the shear centre)
ℎw 𝑡𝑡 �𝑏𝑏f2 + 2𝑐𝑐l 𝑏𝑏f − 2𝑐𝑐l2 𝑏𝑏f /ℎw � 𝐼𝐼yz′ 𝑔𝑔s

𝑘𝑘h0 = 𝑘𝑘h0 =
4 𝐼𝐼y′ 𝐼𝐼y′ ℎw
(a) Point-symmetric Z-section (b) Z-, C- or Σ-sections
Equivalent lateral load factor kh
kh = kh0 kh = kh0 + as/hw kh = kh0 + as/hw*** kh = kh0 − as/hw* kh = kh0 + as/hw** kh = kh0 + as/hw**
Z-, C- or Σ-sections Z-, C- or Σ-sections

(a) Gravity loading (b) Uplift loading
with:
gs is the distance from the loaded flange to the shear centre (measured in z′-direction)
as is the distance from the load qEd to the shear centre (measured in y′-direction)
I´ is the moment of inertia of the cross-section about the relevant y´-y´ or z´-z´ axis
* If as/hw > kh0 then the load kh qEd is acting in the opposite direction.
** The position of the load qEd is limited to locations between the edges of the top flange.
*** If the shear centre is located to the right of the load qEd then the equivalent lateral load is acting in the opposite
direction.
Key
1 shear centre
(5) The lateral bending moment Mfz′,Ed may be determined from Formula (11.6), except for a member with
the free flange in tension, where, due to the positive influence of flange curling and second-order effects,
the lateral bending moment Mfz′,Ed may be taken equal to zero:
𝑀𝑀fz′ ,Ed = 𝜅𝜅R 𝑀𝑀0,fz′ ,Ed (11.6)
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where
M0,fz′,Ed is the initial lateral bending moment in the free flange without any spring support;
κR is a correction factor accounting for the effective spring support.
(6) The initial lateral bending moment in the free flange M0,fz′,Ed may be determined from Table 11.3 for
the critical locations in the span, at the supports, at the anti-sag bars and between the anti-sag bars.
(7) The correction factor κR for the relevant location and boundary conditions may be determined from
Table 11.3, using a value of the coefficient kss given by Formula (11.7):
𝐾𝐾 𝐿𝐿4a
𝑘𝑘ss = (11.7)
π4 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼fz′
where
Ifz′ is the moment of inertia of the cross-section consisting of the gross cross-section of the free
flange and the contributing part of the web, for bending about the z′-z′ axis, see 11.1.4.1(2);
when numerical analysis is carried out, see 11.1.2(5);
K is the lateral spring stiffness per unit length, see 11.1.5;
La is the distance between anti-sag bars or, if none are present, the span L of the member.
Alternatively, the theory of memberon an elastic Winkler foundation may be used to determine κR.
Table 11.3 — Values of initial bending moment M0,fz′,Ed and correction factor κR (range of validity
limited to kss ≤ 40)
System Location M0,fz′,Ed κR
1 1 − 0,0225 𝑘𝑘ss
m 𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿2 𝜅𝜅R =
8 h,Ed a 1 + 1,013 𝑘𝑘ss
9 1 − 0,0141 𝑘𝑘ss
128 h,Ed a 1 + 0,416 𝑘𝑘ss
1 1 + 0,0314 𝑘𝑘ss
e − 𝑞𝑞h,Ed 𝐿𝐿2a 𝜅𝜅R =
8 1 + 0,396 𝑘𝑘ss
1 1 − 0,0125 𝑘𝑘ss
24 h,Ed a 1 + 0,198 𝑘𝑘ss
1 1 + 0,0178 𝑘𝑘ss
e − 𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿2 𝜅𝜅R =
12 h,Ed a 1 + 0,191 𝑘𝑘ss
Key
1 anti-sag bar or support
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11.1.4.2 Buckling resistance of the free flange
(1) If the free flange is subjected to compression, its buckling resistance should be verified using the
criterion in Formula (11.8):
1 𝑁𝑁Ed 𝑀𝑀y′ ,Ed 𝑀𝑀fz′ ,Ed
� + �+ ≤1
𝜒𝜒fz′ 𝑓𝑓yb 𝐴𝐴eff 𝑊𝑊eff,y′ 𝑊𝑊fz′ 𝑓𝑓yb (11.8)
where
χfz′ is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling (flexural buckling of the free flange).
with
1 1
𝜒𝜒fz′ = ≤ min �1; �
2 ̅2 𝜆𝜆̅2 ′
fz (11.9)
𝜙𝜙fz′ + �𝜙𝜙fz′ − 0,75 𝜆𝜆fz′
𝜙𝜙fz′ = 0,5 �1 + 0,34 �𝜆𝜆̅fz′ − 0,4� + 0,75 �𝜆𝜆2fz′ � (11.10)
In case a member is subjected to an axial compressive force NEd > 0,04 Ncr,y′, flexural buckling of the
member about the axis y′-y′ of the cross-section should also be checked according to 8.2.5,
Formula (8.71), under consideration of NEd, My,Ed = My′,Ed and Mz,Ed = Mfz′,Ed, replacing the principal axes
y-y and z-z by the centroidal axis y′-y′ and the centroidal axis z′-z′ of the free flange plus the contributing
part of the web (see 11.1.4.1(2)), and using χy = χy′, χLT = χfz′ and ωx,LT = 1,0.
(2) The relative slenderness 𝜆𝜆fz' for flexural buckling of the free flange should be determined from
Formula (11.11):
𝑙𝑙fz′
𝜆𝜆̅fz′ = (11.11)
𝑖𝑖fz′ 𝜆𝜆1
with
𝐸𝐸
𝜆𝜆1 = π� (11.12)
𝑓𝑓yb
where
lfz′ is the buckling length of the free flange, determined from (3);
ifz′ is the radius of gyration of the cross-section, consisting of the gross cross-section of the free
flange and the contributing part of the web, for bending about the z′-z′ axis, see 11.1.4.1(2).
(3) The buckling length should be determined by appropriate analysis. Provided that 0 ≤ kss ≤ 200, the
buckling length of a free flange with varying compressive stress over the span length L (as shown in
Figures 11.3 and 11.4) may be obtained from Formula (11.13):
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𝑙𝑙fz′ = 𝜂𝜂1 𝐿𝐿a (1 + 𝜂𝜂2 𝑘𝑘ss 𝜂𝜂3 )𝜂𝜂4 (11.13)
where
La is the distance between anti-sag bars or, if none are present, the span L of the member;
kss is as given in 11.1.4.1(7);
η1 to η4 are coefficients which depend on the number of anti-sag bars and are given in Table 11.4
for gravity loading and Table 11.5 for uplift loading.
Tables 11.4 and 11.5 are only valid for:

— equal spans;
— equal distances between anti-sag bars (if present);
— uniformly distributed transverse loading on members and without axial load;
— systems without overlaps or sleeves, or members with sleeves and overlaps, provided that the
connection system may be considered as fully continuous with constant moment of inertia
— members without anti-sag bars, or members with anti-sag bars which, if present, provide full lateral
restraint to the free flange at the anti-sag bar locations.
Alternatively, with the exception of cantilevers, the following values from Formulae (11.14) and (11.15)
may be used:
— for gravity loading:
η1 = 0,75 and η2 = η3 = η4 = 0; (11.14)
— for uplift loading

η1 = 0,95 and η2 = η3 = η4 = 0. (11.15)
In overlapped or sleeved connections, the buckling length of the free flange should account for the
potential effect of lack of full continuity on the bending moment distribution in the members.
NOTE Dotted areas show regions in compression
Figure 11.3 — Varying compressive stress in the free flange for gravity load cases
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NOTE Dotted areas show regions in compression
Figure 11.4 — Varying compressive stress in the free flange for uplift load cases
Table 11.4 — Coefficients ηi for gravity loading with 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 anti-sag bars
Number of
Location η1 η2 η3 η4
anti-sag bars
End span 0,414 1,72 1,11 −0,178
0
Intermediate span 0,657 8,17 2,22 −0,107
End span 0,515 1,26 0,868 −0,242
1
End and intermediate span 2 0,596 2,33 1,15 −0,192
End and intermediate span 3 and 4 0,694 5,45 1,27 −0,168
Table 11.5 — Coefficients ηi for uplift loading with 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 anti-sag bars
Number of
Location η1 η2 η3 η4
anti-sag bars
Simple span 0,694 5,45 1,27 −0,168
End span 0 0,515 1,26 0,868 −0,242
Simple and end spans 0,800 6,75 1,49 −0,155
1
Simple span 0,902 8,55 2,18 −0,111
2
End and intermediate spans 0,800 6,75 1,49 −0,155
Simple and end spans 0,902 8,55 2,18 −0,111
3 and 4
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11.1.5 Lateral spring stiffness provided to the free flange of a member
(1) The partial lateral support provided to the free flange of a member by the sheeting, liner trays or
sandwich panels should be modelled as a lateral spring acting at the free flange, see Table 11.1. The total
lateral stiffness K per unit length should be determined from Formula (11.16):
1 1 1 1
= + + (11.16)
𝐾𝐾 𝐾𝐾A 𝐾𝐾B 𝐾𝐾C
where
KA is the lateral stiffness resulting from the rotational stiffness of the joint between the sheeting,
liner trays or sandwich panels and the member;
KB is the lateral stiffness resulting from the distortion of the cross-section of the member;
KC is the lateral stiffness resulting from the flexural stiffness of the sheeting.
(2) The term 1/KC in Formula (11.16) may be neglected.
(3) The value of K should be obtained from Formula (11.17):
2 2 2 2
1 ℎw ℎw ℎw ℎw
= = + + (11.17)
𝐾𝐾 𝐶𝐶D 𝐶𝐶D,A 𝐶𝐶D,B 𝐶𝐶D,C
where
CD,A, CD,B, CD,C are the rotational stiffnesses according to 11.4.2;
hw is the depth of the web of the cross-section, measured between the midlines of the
flanges, see Figure 11.5.
(4) The rotational stiffness CD,B resulting from the distortion of the cross-section of a member may be
determined from Formula (11.18):
2 2 (1
ℎw 4 ℎw − 𝜈𝜈 2 )(ℎd + 𝑏𝑏mod )
= (11.18)
𝐶𝐶D,B 𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡 3
where the dimension bmod is determined as follows:

— for cases where the equivalent lateral force qh,Ed tends to bring the member into contact with the
sheeting at the member web-flange junction:
bmod = afp (11.19)
— for cases where the equivalent lateral force qh,Ed tends to bring the member into contact with the
sheeting at the tip of the member flange or the flange-lip junction:
bmod = 2 afp + b (11.20)
where
t is the thickness of the member;
afp is the distance from the sheet-to-member fastener to the member web, see Figure 11.5;
b is the width of the member flange connected to the sheeting, see Figure 11.5;
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hw is the depth of the web of the member, measured between the midlines of the flanges, see
Figure 11.5;
hd is the developed length of the member web, measured between the midlines of the flanges, see
Figure 11.5.
Key
1 sheeting
2 fastener
Figure 11.5 — Member and attached sheeting
11.1.6 Forces in sheet-to-member fasteners and reaction forces
(1) Fasteners fixing the sheeting to the member should be checked for a combination of a shear force qs
e, perpendicular to the member axis, and a tensile force qt e, where qs and qt may be calculated using
Table 11.6 and e is the pitch of the fasteners. The shear force due to stabilizing effects, see EN1993-1-1,
should be added to the shear force qs e. Furthermore, the shear force due to diaphragm action, acting in
the longitudinal direction of the member, should be vectorially added to qs e.
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Table 11.6 — Shear force and tensile force in the fastener
Shear force per unit length Tensile force per unit length
Member and loading
qs qt
Z-member, gravity (1 + 𝜉𝜉) 𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed
0
loading may be taken as 0
� 𝜉𝜉 𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed ℎ/𝑎𝑎fp � + 𝑞𝑞Ed
Z-member, uplift loading (1 + 𝜉𝜉) 𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed
with �𝑎𝑎fp ≅ 𝑏𝑏/2�
C-member, gravity
(1 − 𝜉𝜉) 𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝜉𝜉 𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed ℎ/𝑎𝑎fp
loading
C-member, uplift loading (1 − 𝜉𝜉) 𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝜉𝜉 𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed ℎ/�𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎fp � + 𝑞𝑞Ed
with
𝜉𝜉 factor according to (4)
kh equivalent lateral load factor according to Table 11.2
afp see Figure 11.5
(2) The fasteners fixing the member to the supports should be checked for the reaction force Rw in the
plane of the web and the transverse reaction forces FR1 and FR2 in the planes of the flanges, see Figure 11.6.
The forces FR1 and FR2 may be calculated using Table 11.7. The force FR2 should also include loads parallel
to the roof for sloped roofs. FR2 should be transferred from the sheeting to the top flange of the member
and further down on to the rafter (main beam) through the member/rafter connection (e.g. support
cleat). The reaction forces at an inner support of a continuous member may be taken as 2,2 times the
values given in Table 11.7.
NOTE 1 For sloped roofs vertical loads are resolved into a component perpendicular to the roof, acting as
transvers loading on the members, and a component acting in the plane of the roof.
NOTE 2 If FR1 is positive there is no tensile force in the fastener.
Figure 11.6 — Reaction forces at support
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Table 11.7 — Reaction force at support for simply supported members
Reaction force on bottom flange Reaction force on top flange

Member and loading
FR1 FR2
Z-member, gravity loading (1 − 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2 (1 + 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2
Z-member, uplift loading − (1 − 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2 − (1 + 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2
C-member, gravity loading (1 − 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2 − (1 − 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2
C-member, uplift loading − (1 − 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2 (1 − 𝜁𝜁)𝑘𝑘h 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝐿𝐿/2
with
ζ factor according to (3)
kh equivalent lateral load factor according to Table 11.2
L member length
(3) The factor ζ may be taken from Formula (11.21):
3
𝜁𝜁 = 1 − �𝜅𝜅R2 (11.21)
where
κR is a correction factor given in Table 11.3.
(4) The factor ξ may be taken from Formula (11.22):
𝜉𝜉 = 0,67 𝜁𝜁 (11.22)
11.2 Liner trays restrained by sheeting
11.2.1 General
(1) The two narrow flanges of liner trays should be laterally restrained by attached profiled steel
sheeting, members or other similar components.
NOTE Liner trays are large channel-type sections with two webs, two narrow flanges on one side and one wide
flange on the other side, as generally shown in Figure 11.7.
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Figure 11.7 — Typical geometry for liner trays
(2) The resistance of the webs of liner trays to shear forces and to local transverse forces should be
obtained using 8.1.5 to 8.1.11, but using the design value of Mlt,c,Rd given by (3) or (4).
(3) The design value of the bending moment resistance Mlt,c,Rd of a liner tray may be obtained using 11.2.2
provided that:
— the geometric properties are within the range given in Table 11.8;
— the depth hlt,u of the corrugations of the wide flange does not exceed h/8, where h is the overall depth
of the liner tray.
Table 11.8 — Range of validity of provisions in 11.2.2
0,75 mm ≤ tnom ≤ 1,5 mm

30 mm ≤ bf ≤ 60 mm
60 mm ≤ h ≤ 200 mm
300 mm ≤ blt ≤ 600 mm
Ilt,a/blt ≤ 10 mm4/mm
p1,lt ≤ 2000 mm
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(4) Alternatively, the bending moment resistance of a liner tray may be determined by testing, provided
that it is ensured that the local behaviour of the liner tray is not affected by the testing equipment.
NOTE Appropriate testing procedures are given in Annex A.
11.2.2 Bending moment resistance
11.2.2.1 Wide flange in compression
(1) The bending moment resistance of a liner tray with its wide flange in compression should be
determined using the step-by-step procedure outlined in Figure 11.8:
— Step 1: Determine the effective areas of all compression elements of the cross-section, based on
values of the stress ratio ψ = σ2/σ1 obtained using the effective widths of the compression flanges but
the area of the gross cross-section of the webs, see 7.6;
— Step 2: Find the centroid of the effective cross-section and obtain the design value of the bending
moment resistance Mlt,c,Rd from Formula (11.23):
𝑓𝑓yb
𝑀𝑀lt,c,Rd = 0,8 𝑊𝑊eff,min (11.23)
𝛾𝛾M0
with
Weff,min = Iy,eff/zc but Weff,min ≤ Iy,eff/zt; (11.24)
where
zc and zt are as indicated in Figure 11.8.
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a) b) c)
d) e)
Key
a) Gross cross-section of the liner tray (one half)
b) Cross-section with a large effective portion of the wide flange (Step 1)
c) Cross-section with a small effective portion of the wide flange (Step 1)
d) Effective cross-section of the liner tray with large effective portion of the wide flange and corresponding
bending stresses (Step 2)
e) Effective cross-section or the liner tray with small effective portion of the wide flange and corresponding
Figure 11.8 — Determination of bending moment resistance — wide flange in compression
11.2.2.2 Wide flange in tension
(1) The bending moment resistance of a liner tray with its wide flange in tension should be determined
using the step-by-step procedure outlined in Figure 11.9:
— Step 1: Locate the centroid of the gross cross-section;
— Step 2: Obtain the effective width of the wide flange blt,eff,curl allowing for possible flange curling, from
Formula (11.25):
2
53,3 ∙ 1010 𝑒𝑒lt,0 𝑡𝑡 3 𝑡𝑡lt,eq
𝑏𝑏lt,eff,curl = (11.25)
ℎ 𝐿𝐿 𝑏𝑏lt3
where
blt is the overall width of the wide flange;
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elt,0 is the distance from the centroidal axis of the gross cross-section to the midline of the narrow
flanges;
h is the overall depth of the liner tray;
L is the span of the liner tray;
tlt,eq is the equivalent thickness of the wide flange, given by:
tlt,eq = (12 Ilt,a/blt)1/3 (11.26)
Ilt,a is the moment of inertia of the wide flange about its own centroidal axis a-a parallel to the wide
flange, as illustrated in Figure 11.7.
— Step 3: Determine the effective areas of all compression elements, based on values of the stress ratio
ψ = σ2/σ1 obtained using the effective widths of the flanges but the area of the gross cross-section of
the webs, see 7.6;
— Step 4: Find the centroid of the effective cross-section and obtain the design value of the bending
moment resistance Mlt,t,Rd using Formula (11.27):
𝑓𝑓yb 𝑓𝑓yb
𝑀𝑀lt,t,Rd = 0,8 𝛽𝛽lt 𝑊𝑊eff,com but 𝑀𝑀lt,t,Rd = 0,8 𝑊𝑊eff,t (11.27)
with
Weff,com = Iy,eff/zc
Weff,t = Iy,eff/zt
βlt is the correlation factor according to 11.2.2.4
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a) b) c)
d) e)
Key
(a) Gross cross-section of the liner tray (one half)
(b) Cross-section with a large effective portion of the wide flange (Step 1)
(c) Cross-section with a small effective portion of the wide flange (Step 1)
(d) Effective cross-section of the liner tray with large effective portion of the wide flange and corrresponding
(e) Effective cross-section or the liner tray with small effective portion of the wide flange and corrresponding
Figure 11.9 — Determination of bending moment resistance — wide flange in tension
(2) The effects of shear lag may be neglected if L/blt,eff ≥ 25. Otherwise, a reduced value of ρ should be
determined as specified in 8.1.4.3(1).
(3) Flange curling may be neglected in determining deflections at serviceability limit states.
(4) As a simplified alternative, the bending moment resistance of a liner tray with an unstiffened wide
flange may be approximated by taking the same effective area for the wide flange in tension as for the
two narrow flanges in compression combined.
11.2.2.3 Buckling of the narrow flanges
(1) The correlation factor βlt which expresses the reduction in resistance due to buckling of the
compressed narrow flange should be obtained from (2) to (4).
NOTE The bending moment resistance of liner trays with the wide flange in tension is limited by the buckling
resistance of the narrow flanges. The narrow flanges are stabilized against lateral buckling by the connections of
the outer cladding to the liner tray. The longitudinal spacing of fasteners p1,lt defines the buckling length of the
compressed narrow flange.
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(2) For a longitudinal spacing p1,lt ≤ 300 mm, the correlation factor βlt may be set equal to 1,0.
(3) For a longitudinal spacing 300 mm < p1,lt ≤ 1 000 mm, the correlation factor βlt may conservatively
be calculated using Formula (11.28):
𝑝𝑝1,lt
𝛽𝛽lt = 1,15 − (11.28)
2 000
where
p1,lt is the centre-to-centre spacing fasteners in the longitudinal direction providing lateral
restraint to the narrow flanges, in [mm], see Figure 11.7.
(4) For a longitudinal spacing 300 mm < p1,lt ≤ 2000 mm, the correlation factor βlt may be taken from
Formula (11.29):
𝑁𝑁b,Rk,1
𝛽𝛽lt = (11.29)
𝑁𝑁b,Rk,ref
where
Nb,Rk,ref is the characteristic value of the buckling resistance of the narrow flange of the liner tray,
calculated for a buckling length Lcr = p1,lt,ref = 300 mm;
Nb,Rk,1 is the characteristic value of the buckling resistance of the narrow flange of the liner tray,
calculated for a buckling length Lcr = p1,lt;
p1,lt is the centre-to-centre spacing of the fasteners in the longitudinal direction providing lateral
restraint to the narrow flanges, see Figure 11.7.
NOTE Formula (11.29) can also be used to scale test results for different longitudinal spacings of fasteners. In
that case, p1,lt,ref corresponds to the longitudinal spacing of the fasteners used in the tests.
(5) The design value of the buckling resistance of a narrow flange of a liner tray in compression should
be determined using the following step-by-step procedure for both Nb,Rk,ref and Nb,Rk,1:
— Step 1: Determine the gross cross-section of the compressed narrow flange, consisting of the narrow
flange, the edge stiffener and 1/5 of the web, as illustrated in Figure 11.10.
Figure 11.10 — Definition of the gross cross-sections of the compressed narrow flanges
If the widths of both narrow flanges of a liner tray differ, separate calculations are required for each
flange using the factor βlt based on the mean values for both Nb,Rk,ref and Nb,Rk,1.
— Step 2: Obtain the effective cross-section of the narrow flange, following the procedure given in
7.6.3.3 with a spring stiffness Kst,1 according to Formula (7.17), calculated for a coefficient klf = 0.
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— Step 3: Obtain the elastic critical buckling load Ncr of the flange, using the mechanical model of a
member on an elastic foundation (Figure 11.11) with a spring stiffness Kfz (see Figure 11.12) obtained
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 3
𝐾𝐾fz = (11.30)
4(1 − 𝜈𝜈 2 )(ℎ3 + 1,5ℎ2 𝑏𝑏lt )
Figure 11.11 — Mechanical model of the compressed narrow flange
Figure 11.12 — Mechanical model for calculating the spring stiffness Kfz
NOTE See CEN/TR 1993-1-103 3 for the elastic critical buckling load of a member on an elastic foundation.
Alternatively, the elastic critical buckling load can be calculated using lfz′ according to 11.1.4.2.(2).
— Step 4: Obtain the characteristic value of the buckling resistance Nb,Rk of the flange according to
EN 1993-1-1 using the approach given in 11.1.4.2.
11.2.2.4 Moment of inertia for calculating deflections
(1) The effective section for calculating deflections may be calculated using the procedures given in
11.2.2.1 and 11.2.2.2, but replacing fyb with fyb/1,50.
11.3 Special considerations for sheeting
11.3.1 Line load or point load on trapezoidal sheeting
11.3.1.1 General
(1) When verifying the resistance to transverse forces according to 8.1.6 in the case of point loads or line
loads on trapezoidal sheeting, the nature of the load distribution perpendicular to the span should be
taken into account, a distinction being made between the direct loading of one or two adjacent ribs (direct
load distribution) and indirect load distribution (i.e. loading via load-bearing intermediate systems).
3 Under preparation. Stage at the time of publication: prCEN/TR 1993-1-103.
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11.3.1.2 Direct load distribution without intermediate systems
(1) Unless a more precise analysis is carried out, concentrated loads FEd that are applied to one or two
adjacent ribs of a profiled sheet at a distance x ≤ L/2 from the support may be assumed to be distributed
as specified in Figure 11.13, if the load is applied via at least two webs and the loading width parallel to
the direction of the span is at least 50 mm.
Key
FEd applied load
FEd,1, FEd,2 assumed load distribution
Figure 11.13 — Load distribution without intermediate load-distributing systems
(2) For the purpose of verifying the bending resistance of the trapezoidal sheeting, the load contribution
of each rib Frib,Ed should be taken from Formula (11.31):
𝑘𝑘ld,i
𝐹𝐹rib,Ed = ∙ 𝐹𝐹 (11.31)
100 Ed,i
where
kld,i is the load dispersal coefficient according to Table 11.9;
FEd.i is the introduced load in the case of direct load distribution, see Figure 11.13.
(3) In addition, the web-crippling resistance should be checked.
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Table 11.9 — Load dispersal without intermediate load-distributing systems
Loaded rib Adjacent rib

Distribution of
kld,1 kld,2
load
[%] [%]
2
Both sides 𝑥𝑥 2
(352 − 0,8 𝑏𝑏rib ) � − 0,5� 𝑥𝑥
(intermediate 𝐿𝐿span (44 − 0,1𝑏𝑏rib ) �1 − 4 � − 0,5� �
rib) 𝐿𝐿span
+ (12 + 0,2 𝑏𝑏rib )
2
𝑥𝑥 2
One side (240 − 0,6 𝑏𝑏rib ) � − 0,5� 𝑥𝑥
𝐿𝐿span (60 − 0,15𝑏𝑏rib ) �1 − 4 � − 0,5� �
(edge rib) 𝐿𝐿span
+ (40 + 0,15 𝑏𝑏rib )
where
Lspan is the span of the profiled sheet;
x is the distance from the concentrated load to the adjacent support;
brib is the rib width, in [mm].
11.3.2 Perforated sheeting
(1) Perforated sheeting with the holes arranged in the shape of equilateral triangles, as illustrated in
Figure 11.14, may be designed by calculation, provided that the rules for non-perforated sheeting are
modified by introducing the equivalent thicknesses for elements of the sheeting with perforations given
below.
NOTE These calculation rules tend to give rather conservative values. For more economical solutions design
assisted by testing can be carried out in accordance with Clause 12 and Annex A.
Figure 11.14 — Perforated sheeting with the holes arranged in the shape of equilateral triangles
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(2) Provided that 0,2 ≤ dper/aper ≤ 0,9, the section properties of the gross cross-section may be calculated
using Clause 7, but while replacing t by ta,eq, obtained from Formula (11.32):
𝑑𝑑per
𝑡𝑡a,eq = 1,18 𝑡𝑡 �1 − � (11.32)
0,9 𝑎𝑎per
where
dper is the diameter of the perforations;
aper is the spacing between the centres of the perforations.
(3) Provided that 0,2 ≤ dper/aper ≤ 0,9 effective section properties may be calculated using Clause 7, but
while replacing t by tb,eq, obtained from Formula (11.33):
3 𝑑𝑑per
𝑡𝑡b,eq = 𝑡𝑡 � 1,18 �1 − � (11.33)
𝑎𝑎per
(4) The resistance of a single web to local transverse forces may be calculated using 8.1.6, but while
replacing t by tc,eq, obtained from Formula (11.34):
2 3/2
𝑑𝑑per 𝑠𝑠per
𝑡𝑡c,eq = 𝑡𝑡 �1 − � � � (11.34)
𝑎𝑎per 𝑠𝑠w
where
sper is the slant height of the perforated part of the web;
sw is the total slant height of the web.
11.3.3 Sheeting with openings
(1) Openings and penetrations in trapezoidal or sinusoidal sheets shall be taken into account in the
verification of the ultimate and serviceability limit states, and shall be indicated on the layout drawing.
(2) Circular or square openings up to dper = 125 mm in a trapezoidal or sinusoidal sheet in the span
(sagging moments only) may be used without additional design analysis if the distance from the end
supports or the points of zero moment is less than or equal to 10 % of the span, provided that
— openings are located in the flange only, with a residual flange width bp ≥ 0,2h;
— the load is uniformly distributed;
— openings are spaced at least four ribs apart, measured perpendicular to the direction of the span.
(3) In the case of circular or square openings up to dper = 125 mm (see Figure 11.15) in the span of a
trapezoidal sheeting (sagging moments only), the effective width of the flange parts adjacent to the webs
should be determined while considering them as outstand elements of width bp (see Figure 11.15).
The application range is as follows:
— openings are located in the flange only, with a residual flange width bp ≥ 0.2h;
— the load is uniformly distributed;
— openings are spaced at least four ribs apart, measured perpendicular to the direction of the span;
— there are no more than two holes in a flange, with minimum distances according to Figure 11.15.
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Key
a) Top view of upper flange with circular holes
b) Top view of the upper flange with square holes
Figure 11.15 — Sheeting with circular (a) or square (b) holes in flange
(4) For openings ranging from 125 mm × 125 mm to 300 mm × 300 mm in the span of trapezoidal
sheeting (sagging moments only) framing may be omitted under the following conditions:
a) the opening should be reinforced by a plate with a thickness t ≥ 1,5 tsheet ≥ 1,13 mm in accordance
with Table 11.10;
b) the sheeting is subjected to uniformly distributed loading only;
c) the cross-section weakened by the opening is designed for αper times the design value of the bending
moment, as given by Formula (11.35):
𝛼𝛼per 𝑀𝑀Ed
≤1 (11.35)
𝑀𝑀Rd
where
αper is the load amplification factor, see Table 11.11;
d) the cross-section weakened by the opening is designed for αper times the design value of the shear
force, analogously as in Formula (11.35);
e) there should be no more than one opening per metre in the direction perpendicular to the span of the
profiled sheet;
f) the width of the cover plate should be chosen such that at least two webs on each side of the opening
are covered and shoud be at least 600 mm.
g) the cover plate should be fastened to the top flanges of the trapezoidal or sinusoidal sheet as shown
in Table 11.10.
(5) Framing of circular or square openings in liner trays may be omitted if the webs and at least 100 mm
of the flanges adjacent to the webs of the liner tray remain in place. The spacing between openings,
measured between their inner edges, should be at least twice the width of the wide flange blt of the liner
trays.
(6) Reinforcing members around the openings shall be installed in such a way that the existing profile
geometry of the trapezoidal sheets or the liner trays is not changed — not even at the points of attachment
to the reinforcing member. The reinforcing members shall meet at least the same requirements of
corrosion protection as the adjacent sheeting.
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(7) The minimum diameter of blind rivets when connecting the longitudinal edge of a profiled sheet
adjacent to an opening in the laying area is 4 mm and the minimum diameter of screws is 4,2 mm.
Table 11.10 — Openings in profiled sheets, fastening of cover plates to top flanges
a) Small pitch of ribs b) Small pitch of ribs

Opening arranged almost centrally with respect to top Opening arranged almost centrally with respect to
flange; bottom flange;
Opening in profiled sheet: 300 mm × 300 mm; Opening in profiled sheet: 300 mm × 300 mm;
Cover plate with circular opening. Cover plate with rectangular opening:
300 mm × 300 mm.
c) Large pitch of ribs d) Large pitch of ribs

Opening arranged almost centrally with respect to top Opening arranged almost centrally with respect to
flange: bottom flange;
Opening in profiled sheet: 300 mm × 300 mm; Opening in profiled sheet: 125 mm × 125 mm (design
Cover plate with circular hole. to be based on a rectangular opening in the cover plate
of 300 mm × 300 mm).
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Table 11.11 — Load amplification factor αper in the case of openings in the laying area
Diameter of opening Load amplification factora

dper αper
[mm]
≤ 200 1,5
300 2,5
a For diameters of the opening between 200 mm and 300 mm, the value αper may be linearly interpolated.
11.3.4 Trapezoidal sheeting with overlap at support
11.3.4.1 Moment resisting overlap
11.3.4.1.1 General
(1) Overlapping ends of sheeting may only be designed to transfer bending moments in the area around
the inner supports of continuous systems. The different overlapping systems shown in Table 11.12 may
be dimensioned according to 11.3.4.1 to 11.3.4.5.
Table 11.12 — Static scheme of overlapping sheeting
Single overlap with

cantilevered lower
11.3.4.2 sheeting
SOL-L
Single overlap with

cantilevered upper
11.3.4.3 sheeting
SOL-U
Double overlap
11.3.4.4
DOL
Continuous sheeting
reinforced above the
11.3.4.5 support
CR
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(2) For profiled sheeting thicker than 1,0 mm, depending on the cross-section (e.g. steep webs, ϕ > 75°,
and flat trough, see Figure 11.16) flat sheets may be inserted between the bottom flanges in the area of
the support to promote contact and load sharing at the overlap (see EN 1090-4).
(3) In the case of profiled sheeting partially perforated through the web, the fasteners should be arranged
in the unperforated areas of the web.
(4) Overlaps shall not be considered to transfer bending moments in liner trays.
11.3.4.1.2 Continous overlapping sheeting with fasteners in the web
(1) Overlapping sheeting may be considered as continuous if the overlapping length aol is at least 0,08L,
the fasteners are arranged as shown in Figure 11.16 and the lengths of the adjacent spans are about the
same.
(2) For the fasteners, the limits on edge distances and spacings of Figure 11.16 should be applied.
with: 4𝑑𝑑 ≤ 𝑝𝑝ol ≤ 10𝑑𝑑

𝑝𝑝ol ≥ 40 mm
Key
1 shim of flat sheet
Figure 11.16 — Trapezoidal sheeting with single overlap at support
(3) A minimum of two fasteners should be provided in each vertical row adjacent to the free edge of the
upper sheeting.
11.3.4.1.3 Static scheme accounting for deformations in the overlaps and the connections
(1) For the purpose of analysis, a static scheme according to Figure 11.17 should be used, where the
fasteners are modelled as springs with spring constant Kol,f or Kol,w according to (4).
Figure 11.17 — Static scheme for trapezoidal sheeting with single overlap at supports
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(2) The overlapping length should be between 0,065L and 0,11L, where L is the larger of the adjacent
spans; the overlapping length should not be longer than 0,15 times the shorter adjacent span.
(3) The end and edge distances and the spacing of fasteners should fulfil the conditions in 10.3 and, for
fasteners in the crest or trough, those in Table 11.13.
(4) The spring stiffness of the connections should be taken
— for fasteners in the flange from Formula (11.36):
𝑡𝑡 3 𝑑𝑑w
𝐾𝐾ol,f = 0,5 𝑘𝑘ol 𝐸𝐸 � (11.36)
ℎw 𝑏𝑏p
— for fasteners in the webs: the deformation may be omitted i.e.

𝐾𝐾ol,w = ∞ (11.37)
where
kol is a coefficient according to Table 11.13;
d is the diameter of the fastener;
dW is the diameter of the washer;
hw is the depth of the profile;
bp is the width of the flat part of the flange according to Table 11.13.
The spring stiffness in Formula (11.36) refers to a single flange. If two flanges are connected, the
deformations are doubled, i.e. Kol,i = 0,5 Kol,f applies.
Table 11.13 — Arrangement of fasteners at support and coefficient kol
e1 ≥ bp, e2 ≥ 40 mm e1 ≥ bp,
kol = 0,07 e2 ≥ 40 mm
kol = 0,13
(5) The fasteners at the ends of the overlaps should be distributed over the depth of the web and fastened
in the order indicated in Figure 11.18 (1,2,3,…); if needed, they may be arranged in two vertical rows.
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(a) Single overlap of type SOL-L (b) Alternative positions of fasteners
Figure 11.18 — Trapezoidal sheeting with single overlap at support (SOL-L)

(6) The fasteners should be designed for the force in the springs of the static scheme according to
Figure 11.17, with allowance for the slope of the web.
11.3.4.2 Single overlap with overlapping lower sheeting (SOL-L)
(1) If gravity loading is dominant, the fasteners at the cantilevered end (section D in Figure 11.19) may
be omitted in the SOL-L case. For uplift loading the sheeting should then be considered as simply
supported.
(2) The lower sheeting should be designed depending on the position of the fasteners: W, TF or BF
according to Figure 11.18.
(a) Alternating W or TF (fasteners in the webs or (b) Alternating BF (fasteners in the trough)
crests)
Figure 11.19 — Support reaction force on overlapping lower sheeting (SOL-L)

(3) The fasteners should be designed for a design value of the shear force in each web taken from Formula
(11.38):
�𝑀𝑀supp,Ed �
𝐹𝐹k,ol,Ed = 𝑏𝑏 for SOL-L (11.38)
2 𝑎𝑎ol sin 𝜙𝜙 rib
where
Msupp,Ed is the design value of the bending moment at the support;
aol is the length of the overlap in Figure 11.17;
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φ is the angle of the web relative to the flanges (see Figure 11.18);
brib is the rib width (pitch of the profile).
11.3.4.3 Single overlap with overlapping upper sheeting (SOL-U)
(1) In the case of overlapping upper sheeting (SOL-U according to Table 11.12) the support reaction is
distributed over the upper and lower sheeting according to Figure 11.20.
Figure 11.20 — Support reaction force on overlapping upper sheeting (SOL-U)
(2) The fasteners should be designed for a design value of the shear force in each web taken from Formula
(11.39):
�𝑀𝑀supp,Ed � + 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 �𝑉𝑉supp,l,Ed �

𝐹𝐹k,ol,Ed = 𝑏𝑏rib for SOL-U (11.39)
2 𝑎𝑎ol sin 𝜙𝜙
where
Vsupp,l,Ed is the design value of the shear force to the left of the support in Figure 11.20;
ϕ is the angle of the web relative to the flanges (see Figure 11.18);
11.3.4.4 Double overlap (DOL)
(1) The bending moment resistance of a double overlap region (DOL according to Table 11.12) subjected
to a combination of a bending moment and a support reaction should be taken as the sum of the bending
moment resistance of the bottom sheeting at the support and the bending moment resistance of the upper
sheeting, see Figure 11.21.
The bending moment and the support reaction resulting from the actions should reflect the fact that the
increased stiffness of the double sheeting can alter the distribution of the internal forces in the sheeting,
and they should be increased to no less than 1,1 times the values encountered in the corresponding
continuous sheeting.
(2) If the bending moment is calculated with a model as shown in Figure 11.17, the bending moment
resistance may be taken as the sum of the bending moment resistances of the two sheets at the support.
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(3) The fasteners at the end of the overlap should resist a design value of the shear force taken from
Formula (11.40):
2
�𝑀𝑀supp,Ed �/2 + 𝑞𝑞Ed 𝑎𝑎ol /2
𝐹𝐹K,ol,Ed = 𝑏𝑏rib for DOL (11.40)
2 𝑎𝑎ol sin 𝜙𝜙
where
ϕ is the angle of the web relative to the flanges, see Figure 11.18;
Figure 11.21 — Support reaction force and bending moment in doubly overlapping sheeting
(DOL)
(4) The sheeting outside the ends of the overlap (points D and E in Figure 11.21) should be checked for
the bending moment in that region without the need to account for interaction with the reaction force
between the two sheets.
(5) The end of the upper sheeting should be checked for the reaction force FK,ol,Ed and the resistance RwRd
should be based on a loaded length equal to the vertical distance between the fasteners in section E.
(6) If gravity loading is dominant and there is no uplift loading in the relevant load combination, the
fasteners at the cantilevered end D in Figure 11.21 may be omitted.
11.3.4.5 Local reinforcement (CR)
(1) The resistance of sheeting reinforced with additional sheeting placed above the continuous sheeting
(CR according to Table 11.12 and Figure 11.22) may be obtained from the same procedure as described
for a double overlap in 11.3.4.4.
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Figure 11.22 — Support reaction force on continuous sheeting with reinforcement (CR)
(2) Fasteners should be mounted in the webs at the cantilevered ends D and E and above the support A.
(3) If the reinforcing sheeting is placed under the continuous sheeting, the shear and bending resistance
above the support may be taken equal to the sum of the resistances of the two sheets. The sheeting outside
the ends of the overlap should be checked according to 11.3.4.4(4).
11.3.5 Trapezoidal sheeting with side overlaps
(1) An overlap at the seam (side overlap) of sheeting may be used to increase the stiffness and the
bending resistance under distributed loads (which should be constant in the transverse direction). In this
case, the design value of the bending moment resistance of the sheeting may be increased by multiplying
with the factor taken from Formula (11.41):
𝑛𝑛p 𝑛𝑛c
𝜇𝜇so = 1 + 1,02 − 0,02 (11.41)
𝑛𝑛c 𝑛𝑛p
where
nc is the number of corrugations between the longitudinal edge of the sheet and the
corresponding edge of the next sheet, see Figure 11.23;
np is the number of whole corrugations with overlapping sheeting within the width nc times brib,
see Figure 11.23.
with
1 ≤ np ≤ nc (11.42)
and
np ≥ nc/7 (11.43)
(2) See EN 1090-4 for detailing rules.
Figure 11.23 — Side overlap of sheeting
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11.4 Lateral and torsional restraints of members provided by sheeting, liner trays or
sandwich panels
11.4.1 Lateral restraint on members
11.4.1.1 General
(1) If sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels are connected to a member and the condition expressed by
Formula (11.44) is met, the membermay be regarded as laterally restrained at the connection in the plane
of the sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels.
π2 π2 70
𝑆𝑆 ≥ �𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼w 2 + 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼T + 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼z 2 0,25 ℎ2 � 2 (11.44)
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 ℎ
where
S is the shear stiffness provided by the sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels, regarding the
deformation in their plane;
Iw is the warping constant of the member;
IT is the torsion constant of the member;
Iz is the moment of inertia about the minor axis of the cross-section of the member;
L is the span of the member;
h is the depth of the member.
(2) Formula (11.44) may also be used to examine the lateral stability of the flanges of members connected
to cladding types other than sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels, provided that the connections are
of suitable design.
11.4.1.2 Lateral restraint provided by steel trapezoidal sheeting
(1) The shear stiffness of trapezoidal sheeting connected to the member at each rib and connected in
every side overlap may be determined from Formula (11.45):
𝑎𝑎pur
𝑆𝑆 = 1 000 �𝑡𝑡 3 �50 + 10 3�𝐿𝐿dia � in [N] (11.45)
ℎw
where
t is the design thickness of the sheeting in [mm];
Ldia is the overall length of the roof diaphragm in the direction of the span of the trapezoidal
sheeting in [mm];
apur is the distance between the members in [mm], see Figure 11.24;
hw is the profile depth of the sheeting in [mm].
Formula (11.45) only applies if shear connectors are provided between the sheeting and the end rafters.
(2) If the sheeting is only connected to an edge member of the diaphragm at every second rib, then the
value S given by Formula (11.45) should be multiplied by 0,20.
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NOTE For additional information about the shear stiffness S of trapezoidal sheeting, see ECCS guidance (NOTE
to 11.5.1(3)) or design by testing.
11.4.1.3 Lateral restraint provided by steel liner trays
(1) For steel liner trays the shear stiffness S is given by Formula (11.46):
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆lt 𝑎𝑎pur (11.46)
where
Slt is the shear stiffness of a steel liner tray diaphragm per unit length according to (2);
apur is the distance between the members.
(2) The shear stiffness Slt per unit length may be obtained from Formula (11.47):
𝑘𝑘α 𝐿𝐿dia 𝑏𝑏lt
𝑆𝑆lt = (11.47)
𝑝𝑝1,lt (𝑏𝑏 − 𝑏𝑏lt )
where
Ldia is the overall length of the shear diaphragm (in the direction of the span of the liner trays);
b is the overall width of the shear diaphragm (b = Σ blt);
p1,lt is the centre-to-centre spacing of the fasteners in the longitudinal direction;
kα is a stiffness factor.
(3) The stiffness factor kα may conservatively be taken equal to 2000 N/mm, unless more accurate values
are derived from tests.
(4) The design value of the shear flow in the liner tray vlt,Ed per unit length of the span due to ultimate
limit state design loads should not exceed the design value of the shear flow vlt,Rd per unit length of the
span given by Formula (11.48):
4
𝑣𝑣lt,Rd = 8,43 𝐸𝐸 �𝐼𝐼lt,a (𝑡𝑡/𝑏𝑏lt )9 (11.48)
where
Ilt,a is the moment of inertia of the wide flange about its own centroidal axis a-a, see Figure 11.7;
blt is the overall width of the wide flange.
(5) The shear flow in the liner tray vlt,Ed,ser per unit length of the span due to serviceability design loads
should not exceed vlt,Rd,ser per unit length of the span given by Formula (11.49):
𝑆𝑆lt
𝑣𝑣lt,Rd,ser = (11.49)
750
where
Slt is the shear stiffness of the steel liner tray diaphragm per unit length of the span, obtained from
(2).
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11.4.1.4 Lateral restraint provided by sandwich panels
(1) The shear stiffness of sandwich panels connected to the member using at least one pair and at most
4 pairs of fasteners may be calculated from Formula (11.50):
𝑛𝑛k
𝑘𝑘v
𝑆𝑆 = � 𝑐𝑐k2 (11.50)
2 𝑏𝑏sw
𝑘𝑘=1
where
kv is the shear stiffness determined from Table 11.14;
bsw is the panel width;
ck is the distance between the two fasteners of a pair k;
nk is the number of pairs of fasteners per panel and support.
The sandwich panels should be placed perpendicular to the members.

NOTE Additional information about the shear stiffness S of sandwich panels (e.g. regarding the edge distance
of connectors) is provided in ECCS Publication 135/CIB Publication 379: European Recommendations on the
Stabilization of Steel Structures by Sandwich Panels (2014).
Table 11.14 — Shear stiffness kv [kN/mm] of fastenings
Nominal thickness of Steel grade

inner face sheet S 220GD S 280GD ≥ S 320GD
0,40 mm 1,6 1,9 2,0
0,50 mm 2,0 2,3 2,5
0,63 mm 2,4 2,9 3,1
0,75 mm 2,8 3,3 3,6
NOTE: Linear interpolation is allowed with respect to the steel grade and the nominal thickness of the inner
face sheet.
(2) Table 11.14 may be applied within the ranges given in Table 11.15. The effect of the core material on
the kv values may be neglected.
Table 11.15 — Application range of Table 11.14
Nominal diameter d of fasteners 5,5 mm ≤ d ≤ 8,0 mm

Total panel thickness D D ≥ 40 mm
Nominal thickness tF2 of inner face sheet 0,40 mm ≤ tF2 ≤ 1,00 mm
Nominal thickness tsupp of supporting structure 1,50 mm ≤ tsupp
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11.4.2 Rotational restraint of members
11.4.2.1 General
(1) The rotational restraint provided to a member by sheeting, sandwich panels or liner trays connected
to its top flange may be modelled as a rotational spring acting at the top flange of the member, see
Figure 11.24. The total rotational spring stiffness CD should be determined from Formula (11.51):
1
𝐶𝐶D =
1 1 1 (11.51)
𝐶𝐶D,A + 𝐶𝐶D,B + 𝐶𝐶D,C
where
CD,A is the rotational spring stiffness (per unit of member length) of the connection between the
member and the sheeting, sandwich panel or liner trays;
CD,B is the rotational spring stiffness (per unit of member length) due to the distortion of the
member cross-section, deduced from an analysis of the distortional deformations of the
member cross-section, where the flange in compression is the free one. Where the flange in
compression is the connected one: CD,B = ∞;
CD,C is the rotational spring stiffness (per unit of member length) corresponding to the flexural
stiffness of the sheeting, sandwich panel or liner trays.
(2) The values of CD,A, CD,B, CD,C may be may be obtained by either calculation or testing (see Clause 12 and
A.6) or by a combination of both.
(3) The value of CD,C may be taken as the minimum value from Formula (11.52) obtained from analytical
models of the type shown in Figure 11.24, taking account of the rotations of the adjacent members and
the degree of continuity of the sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels:
CD,C = m/θ (11.52)
where
m is the applied bending moment per unit width of sheeting, liner trays or sandwich panels,
applied as indicated in Figure 11.24;
θ is the resulting rotation, measured as indicated in Figure 11.24 [radians].
Figure 11.24 — Model for calculating CD,C
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(4) Alternatively, a conservative value of CD,C may be obtained from Formula (11.53):
𝑘𝑘pur 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼eff
𝐶𝐶D,C = (11.53)
𝑎𝑎pur
in which kpur is a coefficient accounting for the type of member, e.g. with respect to the members in
Figure 11.24, with the following values:
— end member, case (a) in Figure 11.24: kpur = 2; (11.54)
— end member, case (b) in Figure 11.24: kpur = 3; (11.55)
— intermediate member, case (a) in Figure 11.24: kpur = 4 (11.56)
— intermediate member, case (b) in Figure 11.24: kpur = 6; (11.57)
where
Ieff is the effective moment of inertia per unit width of the sheeting, liner tray or sandwich panel;
apur is the spacing of the member, see Figure 11.24.
11.4.2.2 Rotational restraint provided by steel trapezoidal sheeting
(1) For trapezoidal sheeting connected to the top flange of a member, provided that the sheet-to-member
fasteners are positioned centrally on the top flange, the value of CD,A may be determined from Formula
(11.58) as follows:
𝐶𝐶D,A = 𝐶𝐶100 ∙ 𝑘𝑘ba ∙ 𝑘𝑘t ∙ 𝑘𝑘b,corr ∙ 𝑘𝑘A ∙ 𝑘𝑘bu (11.58)
where
kba = (ba/100)2 if ba < 125 mm; (11.59)
kba = 1,25 (ba/100) if 125 mm ≤ ba < 200 mm; (11.60)
kt = (tnom/0,75)1,1 if tnom ≥ 0,75 mm; positive position of the sheeting; (11.61)
kt = (tnom/0,75)1,5 if tnom ≥ 0,75 mm; negative position of the sheeting; (11.62)
kt = (tnom/0,75)1,5 if tnom < 0,75 mm; (11.63)
kb,corr = 1,0 if bcorr ≤ 185 mm; (11.64)
kb,corr = 185/bcorr if bcorr > 185 mm; (11.65)
kA is a coefficient depending on the loading and the position of the sheeting as follows:
— For gravity loading:
kA = 1,0 + (qpur − 1,0)⋅0,08 if tnom = 0,75 mm; positive position of the sheeting; (11.66)
kA = 1,0 + (qpur − 1,0)⋅0,16 if tnom = 0,75 mm; negative position of the sheeting; (11.67)
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kA = 1,0 + (qpur − 1,0)⋅0,095 if tnom = 1,00 mm; positive position of the sheeting; (11.68)
kA = 1,0 + (qpur − 1,0)⋅0,095 if tnom = 1,00 mm; negative position of the sheeting; (11.69)
with:
qpur [kN/m] ≤ 12 kN/m is the load introduced by the sheeting into the member;
taking into account that:

— linear interpolation between tnom = 0,75 and tnom = 1,0 mm is allowed;
— for tnom < 0,75 mm: kA = 1,0;
— for tnom > 1 mm, the Formulae (11.65) and (11.66) for kA should be used with
tnom = 1 mm.
— For uplift loading:
kA = 1,0; (11.70)
𝑏𝑏u,max
𝑘𝑘bu = � if bu > bu,max, otherwise kbu = 1; (11.71)
𝑏𝑏u
where
ba is the width of the member flange [in mm];
bcorr is the corrugation width [in mm];
bu is the width of the sheeting flange which is fastened to the member, see Table 11.16;
bu,max is given in Table 11.16;
C100 is a rotation coefficient provided in Table 11.16, representing the value of CD,A when
ba = 100 mm.
NOTE The position of sheeting is considered positive when the narrow flange is in contact with the member
and negative when the wide flange is in contact with the member.
(2) Provided that there is no insulation present between the sheeting and the member, the value of the
rotation coefficient C100 may be obtained from Table 11.16.
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Table 11.16 — Rotation coefficient C100 for trapezoidal steel sheeting
Sheet fastened Washer

Positioning of sheeting Pitch of fasteners C100 bu,max
through diameter
Positive a Negative a Trough Crest e = bcorr e = 2bcorr [mm] [kNm/m] [mm]
For gravity loading:
× × × 22 5,2 40
× × × 22 3,1 40
× × × Ka 10,0 40
× × × Ka 5,2 40
× × × 22 3,1 120
× × × 22 2,0 120
For uplift loading:
× × × 16 2,6 40
× × × 16 1,7 40
Key
bcorr is the corrugation width;
bu is the width of the sheeting flange which is fastened to the member.
Ka indicates a steel saddle washer with t ≥ 0,75 mm, see below Sheet fastened:
— through the trough:
— through the crest:

The values in this Table are valid for:
— sheet fastener screws of diameter: Φ = 6,3 mm;
— steel washers of thickness: tw ≥ 1,0 mm.
a The position of sheeting is positive when the narrow flange is in contact with the member and negative
when the wide flange is in contact with the member.
11.4.2.3 Rotational restraint provided by aluminium trapezoidal sheeting
(1) The value of CD,A for aluminium trapezoidal sheeting conforming to EN 1999-1-4, connected to the top
flange of the member, may be determined from Formula (11.72):
𝐶𝐶D,A = 𝐶𝐶100 ∙ 𝑘𝑘ba ∙ 𝑘𝑘t ∙ 𝑘𝑘b,corr ∙ 𝑘𝑘bu (11.72)
where
kba = (ba/100)2 if ba < 100 mm; (11.73)
kba = 1,25 (ba/100) if 125 mm ≤ ba < 200 mm; (11.74)
kt = (tnom/0,7 mm) if tnom ≥ 0,70 mm; gravity loading; (11.75)
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kt = 0,0 if tnom < 0,70 mm; gravity loading; (11.76)
kt = 1,0 if tnom ≥ 0,80 mm; uplift loading; (11.77)
kt = 0,0 if tnom < 0,80 mm; uplift loading; (11.78)
kb,corr = 1,0 if bcorr ≤ bcorr,max; (11.79)
kb,corr = bcorr,max/bcorr if bcorr > bcorr,max; (11.80)
𝑏𝑏u,max
𝑘𝑘bu = � if bu > bu,max, otherwise kbu = 1; (11.81)
𝑏𝑏u
where
ba is the width of the member flange [in mm];
bcorr is the corrugation width [in mm];
bcorr,max is given in Table 11.17;
bu is the width of the sheeting flange which is fastened to the member;
bu,max is given in Table 11.17;
C100 is a rotation coefficient given in see Table 11.17, representing the value of CD,A when
ba = 100 mm.
(2) Provided that there is no insulation present between the sheeting and the members, the value of the
rotation coefficient C100 may be obtained from Table 11.17.
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Table 11.17 — Rotation coefficient C100 for trapezoidal aluminium sheeting
Positioning of Sheet fastened

Pitch of fasteners Washer C100 bcorr,max bu,max
sheeting through
⌀ t
Positivea Negativea Trough Crest e = bcorr e = 2bcorr
[mm] [mm] [kNm/m] [mm]
For gravity loading:
× × × 19 ≥ 1,0 7,0 124 35
× × × 19 ≥ 1,0 4,0 124 35
× × × 19 ≥ 1,0 3,2 200 35
× × × 19 ≥ 1,0 2,0 200 35
For uplift loading:
× × × 19 ≥ 1,0 1,3 124 63
× × × Ka ≥ 0,75 3,0 124 63
× × × 19 ≥ 1,0 4,1 124 20
Key
bcorr is the corrugation width;
bu is the width of the sheeting flange which is fastened to the member.
Ka indicates a steel saddle washer with t ≥ 0,75 mm, see below Sheet fastened:
— through the trough:
— through the crest:
a The position of sheeting is positive when the narrow flange is in contact with the member and negative when
the wide flange is in contact with the member.
11.4.2.4 Rotational restraint provided by steel liner trays
(1) For steel liner trays with tnom ≥ 0,75 mm and blt ≤ 600 mm, a connection rigidity CD,A = 1,7 kNm/m
may be used if a more precise analysis has not been carried out. The liner tray shall be fixed with at least
two fasteners per panel and per support, with a distance ≤ 75 mm between the fastener and the web, as
illustrated in Figure 5 of EN 1090-4:2018.
NOTE This also applies to liner trays with perforations according to 11.3.2.
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11.4.2.5 Rotational restraint provided by sandwich panels
(1) For sandwich panels, a reduced rotational stiffness CD,A should be used based on testing to account for
the indentation of the fastener and the potential presence of a gap between the upper flange of the
member and the inner face of the sandwich panel caused by uplift loading.
For gravity loading the rotational stiffness CD,A
— for members symmetric about the minor axis may be taken from Formula (11.82):
𝐶𝐶D,A = 0,75 𝑘𝑘c1 𝐸𝐸C,t,θ 𝑏𝑏a2 (11.82)
— for members with Σ-, Z-, U- or C-cross-sections may be taken from Formula (11.83):
𝐶𝐶D,A = 0,75 𝑘𝑘c2 𝐸𝐸C,t,θ (11.83)
where
𝐸𝐸C
𝐸𝐸C,t,θ = �𝑘𝑘 3 (11.84)
1 + 𝜑𝜑θ,t 1
with
Ec is the elastic modulus of the core, see Table 11.19;
k1 is a factor according to EN 14509:2013, A.5.5.5;
ba is the width of the member flange;
kc1 and kc2 are coefficients given in Table 11.18.
(2) The remaining parameters, as well as the application range of the Formulae (11.82) to (11.84), are
given in Table 11.19.
Table 11.18 — Coefficients kc1 and kc2
kc1 kc2
Core material Geometry of outer face (at the head of fastener)
[–] [mm2]
PUR/PIR and profiled a 0,180 648

XPS/EPS slightly profiled/flat 0,142 511
profiled a 0,089 320
Mineral wool
slightly profiled/flat 0,048 173
a Depth of profiling ≥ 30 mm.
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Table 11.19 — Additional parameters and application range of the Formulae (11.82) to (11.84)
and Table 11.18
Parameters depending on the duration of loading [t]

Core materials PUR/PIR and XPS/EPS, t = 2 000 hours φθ,2000 = 1,29
Core materials PUR/PIR and XPS/EPS, t = 100 000 hours φθ,100000 = 1,83 a
Core material mineral wool, t = 2 000 hours φθ,2000 = 1,35
Core material mineral wool, t = 100 000 hours φθ,100000 = 2,31 a
Additional parameters and application range
Width ba [mm] of the flange of a member which is symmetric about the 60 mm ≤ ba ≤ 180 mm
minor axis
Width ba [mm] of the flange of a Σ-, Z-, U- or C-cross-section 60 mm ≤ ba ≤ 80 mm
Elastic modulus of the core EC; 2,0 N/mm2 ≤ EC ≤ 8,0 N/mm2
EC may be taken as the mean value of the compressive modulus ECc and
the tensile modulus ECt EC = 0,5 (ECc + ECt) [N/mm²]
Sheet thickness tcor of both faces of the panel 0,38 ≤ tcor ≤ 0,71 mm
Characteristic value of the compressive strength fCc of the core material core materials PUR/PIR and XPS/EPS:
fCc ≥ 0,08 N/mm2
core material mineral wool:
fCc ≥ 0,05 N/mm2
Characteristic value of the tensile strength fCt of the core material fCt ≥ 0,06 N/mm2
Diameter of the washer dW dW ≥ 16 mm
If higher values of the parameters ba, EC and tcor are encountered, the calculation procedure may be applied, but
these values should be reduced to the corresponding upper limits of the application range. If lower values are
encountered, tests according to EN 14509 shall be performed.
a Values given for a duration of loading of t = 100 000 hours may also be applied for longer durations.
11.5 Stressed skin design
11.5.1 General
(1) The interaction between structural members and sheeting panels which are designed to act together
as parts of a combined structural system may be accounted for as described in 11.5.
(2) The provisions given in 11.5 should only be applied to diaphragms that are made of steel.
(3) Diaphragms may consist of profiled sheeting used as roof or wall cladding or floor decking. They may
also consist of wall or roof structures composed of liner trays.
NOTE Additional information on the verification procedure of such diaphragms can be found in ECCS
Publication No. 88 (1995): European recommendations for the application of metal sheeting acting as a diaphragm.
11.5.2 Diaphragm action
(1) In stressed skin design, advantage may be taken of the contribution that diaphragms used as roofing,
flooring or wall cladding make to the overall stiffness and strength of the structural frame, by means of
their stiffness and strength in shear.
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(2) Roofs and floors may be treated as deep plate girders extending throughout the length of a building,
resisting transverse in-plane loads and transmitting them to end gables, or to intermediate stiffened
frames. The panel of sheeting may be treated as a web that resists in-plane transverse loads in shear, with
the edge members acting as flanges that resist axial tensile and compressive forces, see Figures 11.25 and
11.26.
(3) Similarly, rectangular wall panels may be treated as bracing systems that act as shear diaphragms to
resist in-plane forces.
Key
1 sheeting
2 shear field in sheeting
3 flange forces in edge members
Figure 11.25 — Stressed skin action in a flat-roof building
11.5.3 Necessary conditions
(1) Methods of stressed skin design that utilize sheeting as an integral part of a structure, may only be
used under the following conditions:
— the use made of the sheeting, in addition to its primary purpose, is limited to the formation of shear
diaphragms to resist structural displacement in the plane of that sheeting;
— the diaphragms have longitudinal edge members to carry flange forces arising from diaphragm
action;
— the diaphragm forces in the plane of a roof or floor are transmitted to the foundations by means of
braced frames, further stressed-skin diaphragms, or other methods of sway resistance;
— suitable structural connections are used to transmit diaphragm forces to the main steel framework
and to join the edge members acting as flanges;
— the sheeting is treated as a structural component that cannot be removed without proper
consideration;
— the project specification, including the calculations and drawings, draws attention to the fact that the
building is designed to utilize stressed skin action;
— in sheeting with the corrugation oriented in the longitudinal direction of the roof the flange forces
due to diaphragm action may be taken up by the sheeting.
(2) Stressed skin design may be used in the roofs, floors and facades of buildings.
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(3) Stressed skin diaphragms may be used predominantly to resist wind loads, snow loads and other
loads that are applied through the sheeting itself. They may also be used to resist small transient loads,
such as the surge from light overhead cranes or hoists on runway beams, but may not be used to resist
permanent external loads, such as those from mechanical plant.
Key
1 sheeting
2 flange forces in edge members
3 shear field in sheeting
4 gable tie required to resist forces in roof sheeting
Figure 11.26 — Stressed skin action in a pitched roof building
11.5.4 Profiled steel sheet diaphragms
(1) In a profiled steel sheet diaphragm, see Figure 11.27, both ends of the sheets should be attached to
the supporting members by means of self-tapping screws, cartridge-fired pins, welding, bolts or other
fasteners of a type that will not work loose in service, pull out, or fail in shear before causing tearing of
the sheeting. All such fasteners should be fixed directly through the sheeting into the supporting member,
for example through the troughs of profiled sheets, unless special measures are taken to ensure that the
connections effectively transmit the forces assumed in the design.
(2) The seams between adjacent sheets should be fastened by rivets, self-drilling screws, welds, or other
fasteners of a type that will not work loose in service, pull out, or fail in shear before causing tearing of
the sheeting. The spacing of such fasteners should not exceed 500 mm.
(3) The distances from all fasteners to the edges and ends of the sheets should be adequate to prevent
premature tearing of the sheets.
(4) Small randomly arranged openings, up to 3 % of the relevant area, may be introduced without special
calculation, provided that the total number of fasteners is not reduced. Openings up to 15 % of the
relevant area (i.e. the surface area of the diaphragm taken into account in the calculations) may be
introduced if justified by detailed calculations. Areas that contain larger openings should be split into
smaller areas, each with full diaphragm action.
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Key
1 rafter
2 purlin
3 shear connector
4 sheet-to-shear connector fastener
5 purlin
6 sheet-to-purlin fastener
7 seam fastener
Figure 11.27 — Design model of a diaphragm
(5) All sheeting that also forms part of a stressed-skin diaphragm should first be designed for its primary
purpose in bending. To ensure that any deterioration of the sheeting would be apparent in bending before
the resistance to stressed skin action is affected, it should then be verified that the shear stress due to
diaphragm action does not exceed 0,25 fyb/γM1.
(6) The resistance of the seam connections and the sheet-to-member connections in the direction parallel
to the corrugations should be designed for the acting design value of the load. The shear resistance of the
sheet-to-purlin fasteners and sheet-to-rafter fasteners (for sheeting connected directly to main beams)
should satisfy the criterion in Formula (11.82), unless the prying action due to profile distortion (see
Figure 11.28(6)) and the force perpendicular to the purlin due to slip in the seams (see Figure 11.28(5))
are accounted for by appropriate calculation.
1,5 𝐹𝐹v,Ed
≤1 (11.85)
min(𝐹𝐹b,Rd , 𝐹𝐹n,Rd )
where
Fb,Rd and Fn,Rd are the design values of the resistances of the fastening calculated using Tables 10.2
to 10.5;
Fv,Ed is the design value of the acting shear load.
Prying action due to profile distortion may be avoided by using end reinforcement, see Figure 11.28(9).
The combination of shear force and wind uplift should be checked in accordance with 10.3(8).
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For any other type of failure in fastenings the design value of the resistance should exceed the design
value of the acting load by at least 25 %.
Key
1 rafter
2 seam fasteners
3 purlins
4 end sheet
5 shear force due to slip in seam fasteners
6 shear and prying action effect at end section
7 mid-section
8 forces acting on the sheet-to-purlin fasteners
9 end reinforcement preventing the prying action effect at end section
Figure 11.28 — Design model of diaphragm deformations
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11.5.5 Steel liner tray diaphragms
(1) Liner trays used to form shear diaphragms should have stiffened wide flanges.
(2) Liner trays in shear diaphragms should be inter-connected by seam fasteners (normally blind rivets)
through the web at a spacing p1,lt of not more than 300 mm and located at a distance eu from the wide
flange of not more than 30 mm, as shown in Figure 11.29.
(3) An accurate evaluation of deformations accounting for the fasteners may be made using a similar
procedure to that for trapezoidal sheeting.
NOTE EAD 330046-01-0602 can be used.
Figure 11.29 — Location of seam fasteners
12 Design assisted by testing

(1) Design assisted by testing according to 12 should be applied in conjunction with the principles given
in EN 1990 and EN 1993-1-1; Clause 12 includes additional provisions specific to cold-formed steel
members and sheeting.
NOTE Further information on testing can be provided by the National Annex.
(2) Each test specimen should be similar in all respects to the component or structure which it represents.
One should be aware of the fact that when the manufacturing process changes (e.g. different rolling
equipment), the test results can be invalidated.
(3) In the case of a test on an assembly (e.g. an internal support test on an overlap or sleeve system), the
test specimens shall be assembled in accordance with the relevant execution specifications.
(4) The supporting devices used in the tests should preferably provide end conditions which closely
resemble those in the actual structure. If this cannot be achieved, less favourable end conditions which
decrease the load carrying capacity or increase the flexibility should be used. If there is no rotational
restraint from the supports, pin and roller supports or spherical bearings should be used, as applicable.
(5) If local buckling governs the resistance of the cross-section, the specimen should have a length of at
least three times the width of the widest plate element. In the case of a cross-section with edge or
intermediate stiffeners, it should be ensured that the specimen is long enough to accommodate multiple
distortional half-waves.
(6) Before testing, the cross-sectional dimensions of the specimen should be measured to ensure that
they are within the permitted tolerances specified by the relevant product standard.
(7) If the given load combination includes forces on more than one line of action, each of these forces
should be increased proportionally during the test.
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(8) The loads shall either be applied incrementally or continuously. When the load is applied
incrementally, the increments shall be chosen such that the behaviour can be clearly observed. When the
load is applied continuously, the rate of loading shall be slow enough to ensure that static conditions
prevail.
(9) At each stage of loading, the displacements and/or strains should be measured at one or more
principal locations on the structure. Readings of displacements or strains should not be taken until the
structure has completely stabilized after a load increment.
(10) The support settlements at both ends of the test specimen should also be monitored.
(11) The test result on resistance should correspond to the maximum value of the loading at failure.
(12) Failure of a test specimen should be considered to have occurred in any of the following cases:
— at collapse or fracture;
— if a crack initiates in a vital part of the specimen;
— if the displacements are excessive.
(13) For each test series, formal documentation shall be prepared providing all the relevant data, so that
the test series can be accurately reproduced.
(14) The following test procedures shall be carried out as specified in Annex A:
— tests on materials, see A.2;
— tests on single beams and columns, see A.3;
— tests on structures and sub-assemblies, see A.4;
— tests on profiled sheeting and liner trays, see A.5;
— tests on members restrained by sheeting, see A.6;
— tests on fastenings, see A.7;
— tests on storage equipment, see A.8;
— evaluation of test results to determine design values, see A.9.
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Annex A
(normative)
Testing procedures
A.1 General
A.1.1 Use of this annex
(1) This Normative Annex A contains additional provisions to Clause 12 for design assisted by testing.
NOTE Conversion factors for existing test results to be equivalent to the outcome of standardized tests
according to this Annex can be specified by the National Annex.
A.1.2 Scope and field of application
(1) This Normative Annex covers:

— tests on materials, see A.2;
— tests on single beams and columns, see A.3;
— tests on structures and sub-assemblies, see A.4;
— tests on profiled sheeting and liner trays, see A.5;
— tests on torsionally restrained members, see A.6;
— tests on fastenings, see A.7;
— tests on storage equipment, see A.8;
— evaluation of test results to determine design values, see A.9.
(2) The accuracy of all measurements should be compatible with the magnitude of the measurement
concerned and in no case should the error exceed ±1 % of the value to be determined. The following
magnitudes for accuracies should also be attained for:
— the overall dimensions (width, depth and length): ±1,0 mm;
— the widths of plane elements of the cross-section: ±1,0 mm;
— the radii of bends: ±1,0 mm;
— the inclinations of plane elements: ±2,0°;
— the angles between flat surfaces: ±2,0°;
— the locations and dimensions of intermediate stiffeners: ±1,0 mm;
— the thickness of the material: ±0,01 mm;
— all cross-sectional measurements: 0,5 % of the nominal values.
In addition, the locations of fasteners and of all components relative to each other should be recorded.
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(3) In the case of tests on structures or sub-assemblies with bolted joints, the test specimens shall be
assembled with the specified bolts, nuts and washers and with the tooling and tightening procedures
used during execution. In case of snug tight bolted joints, where no tightening procedure is given, these
should be assembled with a torque not greater than the one applied during execution. If either
— the latter is not ensured or
— the applied torque is not guaranteed over time or
— slip is not explicitly considered in evaluation, analysis and design
the torque moments given in Table A.1 may be applied as a maximum value for assembling the test
specimens by using a manual torque wrench.
Table A.1 — Preparation of test specimen with snug tight bolted joints: Maximum torque
moments for bolt dimensions commonly used in cold-formed structures
Bolt dimension M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16

Mtorque,max [Nm] 1,5 4 8 15 22 35
NOTE The execution specification for non-preloaded (snug tight) bolted joints given in EN 1090-2 and referred
to in EN 1090-4, does not specify a torque moment to be applied and to be inspected. Mtorque as specified in Table A.1
is adopted from Schmidt, H. et al., Ausführung von Stahlbauten: Kommentare zu DIN EN 1090-1 und DIN
EN 1090-2:2014, Table KII.8-1, for the minimum bolt property class 4.6.
A.2 Tests on materials

Tensile tests
(1) If the characteristic values of material properties are determined from tests, such tests should be
carried out in accordance with EN ISO 6892-1. The number of test coupons should be at least 5 and the
coupons should be taken in the following way:
1. Coils:
a) Coils from the same origin (one pot of melted steel): at least one coupon per coil taken from 30 %
of the coils;
b) Coils from different origins: at least one coupon per coil;
2. Strips:
a) at least one coupon per 2 000 kg of steel of the same origin;
b) at least one coupon for each different origin.
The coupons should be taken at random from the lot of steel and the orientation should be in the
longitudinal direction of the structural element. The characteristic values should be determined on the
basis of a statistical evaluation in accordance with EN 1990:2023, Annex D.
A.3 Tests on single beams and columns

A.3.1 Full cross-section compression tests
A.3.1.1 Stub column tests
(1) Stub column tests may be used to allow for the effects of local and distortional buckling by
determining the value of the ratio βA = Aeff/A and the location of the centroid of the effective cross-section.
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(2) The lengths of specimens with perforated cross-sections should include at least five pitches of the
perforations, and should be such that the specimen is cut to length midway between two perforations.
(3) If the overall length of the specimen exceeds 20 times the least radius of gyration of its gross cross-
section imin, intermediate lateral restraints should be supplied at a spacing of not more than 20 imin.
(4) The cut ends of the specimen should be flat, and should be perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.
(5) An axial compressive force should be applied to each end of the specimen through pressure pads at
least 30 mm thick that protrude at least 10 mm beyond the perimeter of the cross-section.
(6) The test specimen should be placed in the testing machine with a ball bearing at each end. There
should be small drilled indentations in the pressure pads to receive the ball bearings. The ball bearings
should be located in line with the centroid of the calculated effective cross-section. If the calculated
location of this effective centroid proves not to be correct, it may be adjusted within the test series.
(7) In the case of open cross-sections, possible spring-back may be corrected.
(8) Stub column tests may be used to determine the compressive resistance of a cross-section. In
interpreting the test results, the following parameters should be treated as variables:
— the thickness t;
— the ratios bp/t of the constituent plates;
— the ultimate strength fu;
— the yield strength fyb;
— the ratio fu/fyb;
— the location of the centroid of the effective cross-section;
— geometric imperfections of the cross-section;
— the method of cold-forming (for example increasing the yield strength by introducing a deformation
that is subsequently removed).
A.3.1.2 Member buckling tests
(1) Member buckling tests may be used to determine the resistance of compression members to overall
buckling (including flexural buckling, torsional buckling and torsional-flexural buckling) and the
interaction between local buckling and overall buckling.
(2) The method of carrying out the test should be generally as given for stub column tests in A.3.1.1.
(3) A series of tests on axially loaded specimens with different member lengths may be used to determine
the appropriate buckling curve for a given type of cross-section and a given grade of steel, produced by a
specific process. The values of relative slenderness to be tested and the minimum number of tests n at
each value should be as given in Table A.2.
Table A.2 — Relative slenderness values 𝝀𝝀̄ and minimum numbers of tests Ntest
𝜆𝜆̄ 0,2 0,5 0,7 1,0 1,3 1,6 2,0 3,0
Ntest 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
(4) Similar tests may also be used to determine the effect of introducing intermediate restraints on the
torsional buckling resistance of a member.
(5) In the interpretation of the test results the following parameters should be taken into account:
— the parameters listed for stub column tests in A.3.1.1(8);
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— overall lack-of-straightness imperfections compared to standard production output, see Clause 12(6)
— the type of end or intermediate restraint (flexural, torsional or both).
(6) Overall lack of straightness may be taken into account as follows:
a) Determine the elastic load of the member by an appropriate analysis with an bow imperfection equal
to that of the test sample: Fbow,test
b) As a) but with an bow imperfection equal to the maximum allowed value according to the product
specification: Fbow,max,nom
c) Apply a correction factor Fbow,max,nom/Fbow,test to the test results
A.3.2 Full cross-section tension tests
(1) This test may be used to determine the average yield strength fya of a cross-section.
(2) The specimen should have a length of at least 5 times the width of the widest plane element in the
cross-section.
(3) The load should be applied through end supports that ensure a uniform stress distribution across the
cross-section.
(4) The failure zone should occur at a distance from the end supports which is at least equal to the width
of the widest plane element in the cross-section.
A.3.3 Full cross-section bending tests
(1) This test may be used to determine the bending moment resistance and rotation capacity of a cross-
section.
(2) The specimen should have a length of at least 15 times its largest cross-sectional dimension. The
spacing of lateral restraints to the compression flange should not be less than the spacing used in service.
(3) A pair of equal point loads should be applied to the specimen to produce a central length subject to
uniform bending moment of at least 0,2 Ltest (span) but not more than 0,33 Ltest (span). These loads should
be applied through the shear centre of the cross-section. The section should be torsionally restrained at
the loading points. If necessary, local buckling of the specimen should be prevented at the loading points,
to ensure that failure occurs within the central portion of the span. The deflection should be measured at
the loading points, at midspan and at the ends of the specimen.
(4) In interpreting the test results, the following parameters should be treated as variables:
— the thickness t;
— the ratio bp/t;
— the ultimate strength fu;
— the yield strength fyb;
— the ratio fu/fyb;
— differences between restraints used in the test and those available in service;
— the support conditions.
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A.4 Tests on structures and sub-assemblies

A.4.1 Acceptance test
(1) An acceptance test may be used as a non-destructive test to confirm the structural performance of a
structure or sub-assembly.
(2) The acceptance test load should be taken equal to the sum of:
— 1,0 × (the actual self-weight present during the test);
— 1,15 × (the remainder of the permanent load);
— 1,25 × (the variable loads),
but may be less than the average of the total ultimate limit state design load and the total serviceability
limit state design load for the governing load combination.
(3) Before carrying out the acceptance test, preliminary bedding-down loading (not exceeding the
characteristic values of the loads) may optionally be applied, and then removed.
(4) The structure should first be loaded up to a load equal to the total characteristic load. Under this load
it should exhibit predominantely elastic behaviour. Upon removal of this load the residual deflection
should not exceed 20 % of the maximum recorded deflection. If these criteria are not satisfied this part
of the test procedure should be repeated. In this repeat load cycle, to achieve acceptance, the structure
should exhibit predominantely linear behaviour up to the characteristic load and the residual deflection
should not exceed 10 % of the maximum recorded deflection.
(5) During the acceptance test, the loads should be applied in a number of regular increments at regular
time intervals and the principal deflections should be measured at each stage. When the deflections start
to show significant non-linearity, the load increments should be reduced.
(6) On the attainment of the acceptance test load, the load should be maintained at a constant level to
check whether the structure or assembly is stable. Deflection measurements should be taken to establish
whether the structure is subject to any time-dependent deformations, such as deformations of fasteners
or deformations arising from creep in the zinc layer.
(7) Unloading should be completed in regular decrements, with deflection readings taken at each stage.
(8) The structure should prove capable of sustaining the acceptance test load, and there should be no
significant local distortions or defects likely to render the structure unserviceable after the test.
A.4.2 Strength test
(1) A strength test may be used to confirm the calculated load carrying capacity of a structure or a sub-
assembly. Where a number of similar items are constructed to a common design and one or more
prototypes have been tested and have met all the requirements of this strength test, the other items may
be accepted without further testing, provided that they are similar in all relevant aspects to the
prototypes.
(2) Before carrying out the strength test the specimen should first pass the acceptance test detailed in
A.4.1.
(3) The load should then be increased in increments up to the strength test load Fstr and the principal
deflections should be measured at each stage. The strength test load should be maintained for at least
one hour and deflection measurements should be taken to establish whether the structure is subject to
creep.
(4) Unloading should be completed in regular decrements, with deflection readings taken at each stage.
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(5) The total strength test load (including self-weight) Fstr should be determined from the design value of
the total load FEd specified for ultimate limit state verifications by calculation, using Formula (A.1):
Fstr = γMi μF FEd (A.1)
where
µF is the load adjustment coefficient;
γMi is the partial factor for the ultimate limit state.
(6) The load adjustment coefficient µF should take account of variations in the load carrying capacity of
the structure or sub-assembly due to the effects of variations in the material yield strength, local buckling
load, overall buckling load and any other relevant parameters.
(7) Where a realistic assessment of the load carrying capacity of the structure or sub-assembly may be
made using the provisions of Annex A or another proven analysis which takes account of all buckling
effects, the load adjustment coefficient µF may be taken as the ratio of the predicted load carrying capacity
based on the average basic yield strength fym to the corresponding value based on the nominal basic yield
strength fyb.
(8) The value of fym should be determined from the measured basic yield strength fyb,obs of the various
components of the structure or a sub-assembly, with due regard for their relative importance.
(9) If a realistic theoretical assessment of the load carrying capacity cannot be made, the load adjustment
coefficient µF should be taken as equal to the resistance adjustment coefficient µR defined in A.9.2.
(10) When subjected to the test load there should be no failure by buckling or rupture in any part of the
specimen.
(11) Upon removal of the test load, the deflection should be reduced by at least 20 %.
A.4.3 Prototype failure test
(1) A test to failure may be used to determine the mode of failure and the ultimate load carrying capacity
of a structure or assembly. If the prototype is not required for use, it may optionally be used to obtain this
additional information after completing the strength test described in A.4.2.
(2) Alternatively, a test to failure may be carried out to determine the true design load carrying capacity
from the ultimate test load. As the acceptance and strength test procedures should preferably be carried
out first, an estimate should be made of the anticipated design load carrying capacity as a basis for such
tests.
(3) Before carrying out a test to failure, the specimen should first pass the strength test described in A.4.2.
The estimated design load carrying capacity may then be adjusted based on its behaviour in the strength
test.
(4) During a test to failure, the loading should first be applied in increments up to the strength test load.
Subsequent load increments should then be determined based on an examination of the plot of the
principal deflections.
(5) The ultimate load carrying capacity should be taken as the value of the test load at the point where
the structure or assembly is unable to sustain any further increase in load.
NOTE At this point overall permanent distortion is likely to have occurred. In some cases, the overall
deformation defines the test limit.
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A.4.4 Calibration test
(1) A calibration test may be used to:

— verify load bearing behaviour relative to analytical design models;
— quantify parameters derived from design models, such as the strength or stiffness of members or
joints.
A.5 Tests on profiled sheeting and liner trays

A.5.1 General
(1) Although these test procedures are presented in terms of profiled sheets, similar test procedures
based on the same principles may also be used for liner trays and other types of sheeting.
(2) Loading may be applied through air bags, in a vacuum chamber or by steel or timber cross-beams
arranged to provide approximately uniformly distributed loading.
(3) To prevent spreading of corrugations, transverse ties or other appropriate test accessories, such as
timber blocks, may be applied to the test specimen at the supports and points of loading. Some examples
are given in Figure A.1.
Key
1 rivet or screw
2 transverse tie (metal strip)
3 timber blocks
Figure A.1 — Examples of appropriate test accessories
(4) In order to comply with 7.3.2(3) test specimens comprising sheeting with more than two ribs should
consist of an integer number of complete ribs, as measured between the centre lines of ribs. If a
longitudinal edge of the specimen is in tension, the outstanding part of it should be removed, as shown in
Figure A.2. If a longitudinal edge rib is in compression, the edge rib should be removed, as shown in
Figure A.3.
NOTE Parts to be removed are drawn in dotted lines
Figure A.2 — Procedure to cut the longitudinal edges in tension
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NOTE Parts to be removed are drawn in dotted lines
Figure A.3 — Procedure to cut the longitudinal edges in compression
A.5.2 Single span test
(1) A test set-up equivalent to that shown in Table A.3 may be used to determine the midspan bending
moment resistance (in the absence of shear force) and the effective flexural stiffness.
(2) The flexural stiffness should be determined from the load-deflection diagram as the secant stiffness
corresponding to a bending moment equal to 60 % of the ultimate bending moment.
(3) For the purpose of assessment (see A.9.3), tests on different specimens may be grouped into families
if they consist of specimens which comply with all of the following:
— they have the same common nominal yield strength fyb
— they either have the same or different test spans
— they either have the same or different nominal thicknesses tnom
(4) For each nominal thickness, at least two specimens shall be tested.
(5) Specimens consisting of perforated sheeting or sheeting with holes should not be grouped into the
same family with specimens consisting of unperforated sheeting or sheeting without holes.
Table A.3 — Test set-up for single span tests
(a) Uniformly distributed loading and an example (b) Distributed loading applied by an airbag
of alternative equivalent line loads (alternatively by a vacuum test rig)
Key
1 Transverse tie
(c) Example of support arrangements to prevent distortion
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(d) Example of method to apply a line load
A.5.3 Double span test
(1) The test set-ups shown in Figures A.4 and A.5 may be used to determine the governing resistance of
sheeting or liner trays (for a given support width bB) which are continuous over two equal spans and
subject to a uniformly distributed load.
NOTE A.5.1(4) does not apply to these set-ups.
Figure A.4 — Test set-up for double span tests
(2) The uniformly distributed load (Figure A.4) may be applied using, for instance, an air bag or a vacuum
chamber. Alternatively, loads may be arranged to provide approximately uniformly distributed loading,
as shown in Figure A.5.
Figure A.5 — Examples of equivalent line loads for two double span tests
(3) As these test configurations do not provide direct information about the behaviour under the
combined action of a bending moment and an internal support reaction, to determine the bending
moment resistance, as well as the moment-rotation behaviour at the support, and to allow for an
adequate interpretation of the test results, the support reactions at all supports should be measured.
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A.5.4 Internal support test
(1) The test set-up shown in Table A.4 is suitable to determine the behaviour of continuous sheeting at
internal supports under a combined bending moment and a reaction force and for a given support width
bsupp. This test is applicable to equal or unequal spans under uniformly or non-uniformly distributed load.
(2) In order to obtain the same ratio of bending moment to support reaction as in the case of two
continuous spans of length L, the test span Ltest may be taken from Formula (A.2):
Ltest = 0,4 L (A.2)
(3) To obtain the behaviour over a range of different spans, tests should be carried out for at least 3
different spans Ltest, preferably with equal intervals.
(4) For each value of the test span Ltest the support reaction Fsupp should be taken as the mean of the
adjusted values of the peak load Fmax for that value of Ltest. The corresponding value of the support
moment M should then be determined from Formula (A.3):
𝐿𝐿test 𝐹𝐹supp
𝑀𝑀 = (A.3)
4
The influence of the permanent load should be added when calculating the value of the bending moment
M according to Formula (A.3).
(5) The values of M and Fsupp for each value of Ltest should be plotted as shown in Figure A.6. Values for
intermediate combinations of M and Fsupp may then be determined by linear interpolation. Instead of a
polygonal line (b), as shown in Figure A.6, a conservatively chosen straight or curved line may be adopted,
using appropriate interaction Formulae.
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Table A.4 — Test set-up for internal support test
(a) Internal support under gravity loading
(b) Internal support under uplift loading
(c) Internal support with loading applied to tension flange (geometry of the contact area at the point
of laod introduction into the lower flange corresponding to the geometry of fastener)
Key
1 test results for different test spans
2 linear interpolation
Figure A.6 — Relationship between support moment M and support reaction Fsupp
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(6) The net deflection at the point of load application C in Figure A.7 should be obtained from the overall
measured values by considering the average of the corresponding deflections measured at the points B
and D located at a distance Le from the support points A and E, see Figure A.7.
Figure A.7 — Test set-up for internal support tests
(7) For each test the applied load should be plotted against the corresponding net deflection, see
Figure A.8. From this plot, the rotation θ should be obtained for a range of values of the applied load using
Formulae (A.4) and (A.5):
2 �𝛿𝛿pl − 𝛿𝛿e − 𝛿𝛿el �

𝜃𝜃 = for analyses based on the effective cross-section (A.4)
0,5 𝐿𝐿test − 𝐿𝐿e
2 �𝛿𝛿pl − 𝛿𝛿e − 𝛿𝛿lin �

𝜃𝜃 = for analyses based on the gross cross-section (A.5)
0,5 𝐿𝐿test − 𝐿𝐿e
where
δel is the net deflection corresponding to a given load on the rising part of the test curve (before
Fmax);
δpl is the net deflection for the same load on the falling part of the curve (past Fmax);
δlin is the fictitious net deflection corresponding to a given load, obtained assuming linear
behaviour, see Figure A.8;
δe is the average deflection measured at a distance Le from the support, see Figure A.7;
Ltest is the test span;
Le is the distance from the deflection measurement points B and D to the support, see Figure A.7.
If timber blocks according to A.5.1(3) are used, measurement of the deflection δe at points B and D may
be omitted and δe and Le may be taken as zero.
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Figure A.8 — Relation between load F and deflection δ
(8) The relationship between M and θ should be plotted for all tests carried out with the same test span
Ltest, corresponding to a certain value of the actual span L, as shown in Figure A.9. The design M − θ curve
of the sheeting over an internal support should then be taken as equal to 0,9 times the average M − θ
curve for all tests corresponding to that value of the actual span L.
Key
Mmean mean value of bending moment
Md design value of the bending moment
1 data from test 1
2 data from test 2
Figure A.9 — Derivation of moment-rotation (M − θ) relationship
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(9) A conservative simplified design may be carried out using a constant value of the support moment
Md,lim corresponding to an arbitrarily chosen rotation limit θlim. As part of the design process it should be
verified that the rotation at the ultimate limit state does not exceed the rotation limit θlim.
NOTE The actual rotation θ is usually less than 0,15 rad.
— they have the same nominal yield strength fyb
— they have the same nominal thickness tnom
— they have the same support width bsupp
— they either have the same or different test spans Ltest
For each span, at least two specimens shall be tested.
(11) A.5.2(5) applies.
(12) If the characteristics of the moment-rotation behaviour are obtained from tests with a different
support width bB, the characteristics for an intermediate support width may be determinated by linear
interpolation.
A.5.5 End support test
(1) The test set-up shown in Figure A.10 may be used to determine the shear and web crippling
resistances of sheeting at an end support.
NOTE End support tests performed according to EN 1993-1-3:2006 lead to more conservative results.
Key
bsupp support length
aend distance from internal edge of end support to end of sheet
1 timber blocks
Figure A.10 — Test set-up for end support tests

(2) The resistance of the end support may be taken as the maximum value of the reaction R,
corresponding to collapse of the specimen.
NOTE Despite load application onto the bottom flange using timber blocks, in some cases failure occurs by
bending in the area where the load is introduced, leading to more conservative results.
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(3) If the characteristics are obtained from tests with a different support width bsupp, the characteristics
for an intermediate support width may be determined by linear interpolation.
— they have the same nominal yield strength fyb
— they either have the same or different nominal thicknesses tnom
— they have the same test spans Ltest
For each nominal thickness, at least two specimens shall be tested.
(5) A.5.2(5) applies.
A.5.6 Walkability
(1) The walkability of sheeting is satisfied up to the maximum span for which the assessment criteria in
Table A.5 are fulfilled.
Table A.5 — Assessment criteria for walkability

Loading
Type of loading Loading pattern Fmin Assessment criterion
[kN]
significant permanent
1,2
deformation
Edge loading
Outermost completely 1,5 failure load a
formed rib in direction sudden failure without
of lay 2,0 significant overall
deformation
Central loading 2,0 failure load b
a Assessment criteria Fmin ≤ 1,5 kN has to be applied to the first load peak.
b After a decrease in load following the first load peak, membrane effects may lead to a subsequent increase in
load. Assessment criteria may be applied to the second load peak, provided that the additional criterion
Fmin ≥ 1,5 kN is satisfied at the first load peak.
(2) The test sheeting should be placed on flat rails with a width of 40 mm. The overhang of the sheeting
should be chosen between h and 2h. For edge loading, representative of walkability during installation,
A.5.1(3) does not apply. For central loading, the use of the test accessories acc. to A.5.1(3) may be applied
at supports and third points of the span.
(3) A concentrated quasi-static load should be applied in midspan of a single span sheet in the direction
of gravity over a 100 mm x 150 mm area, with the longer side of the area parallel to the direction of the
span. In order to prevent any stress concentrations, loading should be applied through a soft layer of
about 10 mm thickness, e.g. a felt pad.
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(4) A significant permanent deformation may be taken to be 3mm. Sudden failure without significant
overall deformation may be assumed if failure occurs before a deflection of 1/100 of the span,
(5) The tests should begin with the largest span envisaged for use in practice. If the assessment criteria
given in Table A.5 are not fulfilled by all of the required number of tests, as listed in Table A.6, the span is
reduced until the required number of tests satisfy the assessment criteria.
Table A.6 — Minimum number of tests
Number of nominal sheet thicknesses to be tested Number of tests

≥3 ≥2
for tnom ≥ 0,60 mm 2 ≥3
1 ≥4
for tnom < 0,60 mm ≥4
(6) The maximum sheeting span Llim which may be walked on by a single person is the smallest of the
spans Llim,test resulting from loading at the edges or central loading.
(7) The test results should be adjusted according to A.9.2, but a statistical evaluation according to A.9.3
may be omitted. For Radj,i < Fmin, the test results may be adjusted using Formula (A.6):
𝑅𝑅obs,min
𝐿𝐿lim = 𝐿𝐿test ∙ min � ;1� (A.6)
𝜇𝜇R 𝐹𝐹min
where
Ltest is the span used in the tests;
Robs,min is the minimum value obtained from both test series (edge loading and central loading);
μR is the adjustment coefficient according to A.9.2.
A.6 Tests on torsionally restrained members

A.6.1 General
(1) A.6 applies to cold-formed steel members, such as purlins, side rails, floor beams and other similar
types of members where one flange is laterally and/or partially torsionally restrained by steel sheeting.
(2) A.6 does not apply to members restrained by sandwich panels, for which testing procedures and test
set-ups are specified in EN 14509-2.
NOTE 1 The set-up shown in Figure A.11 can be used for sandwich panels under gravity loading.
NOTE 2 Additional information on testing procedures for sandwich panels can be found in European
Recommendations on the Stabilization of Steel Structures by Sandwich Panels. ECCS Pub. No. 135/CIB Pub. No. 320
(2014).
A.6.2 Internal support test
(1) The test set-up for an internal support test provided in A.5.4, Figure A.7, should be used.
(2) The interpretation of the test results should be carried out according to A.5.4.
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A.6.3 Determination of torsional restraint
(1) The test set-ups shown in Figure A.11 may be used to determine the amount of torsional restraint
provided by adequately fastened sheeting or by a discrete member running perpendicular to the span of
the member under test.
(2) The test set-ups in Figure A.11 measure the total amount of restraint from two combined
contributions:
a) The lateral stiffness KA per unit length resulting from the rotational stiffness of the connection
between the sheeting and the member;
b) The lateral stiffness KB per unit length resulting from the distortion of the cross-section of the
member.
a) Test set-up 1
b) Test set-up 2
Key
1 sheeting 7 fastener
2 fastener 8 member
3 member 9 load
4 load 10 insulation (if applicable)
5 clamped support 11 timber blocks
6 sheeting
Figure A.11 — Alternative test set-ups for determining the spring stiffness values KA and KB
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(3) The evaluation of the test results should be based on Formula (A.7):
1 1 𝛿𝛿lat
+ = (A.7)
𝐾𝐾A 𝑙𝑙A 𝐾𝐾B 𝑙𝑙B 𝐹𝐹lat
where
lA is the width of the tested sheeting;
lB is the length of the tested member;
Flat is the load which produces a lateral deflection of h/10;
δlat is the lateral displacement of the top flange in the direction of the load Flat.
(4) The values of CD,A for gravity loading and for uplift loading should be determined from Formula (A.8):
2
ℎw
𝑙𝑙A
𝐶𝐶D,A = 2 2 (ℎ + 𝑏𝑏 (A.8)
𝛿𝛿lat 4(1 − 𝜐𝜐 ) ℎw d mod )
𝐹𝐹lat −
𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡 3 𝑙𝑙B
where
bmod, hw and hd are parameters defined in 11.1.5(4);
lA and lB are the lengths defined in A.6.3(3).
(5) When interpreting the test results according to A.9, the following parameters should be treated as
variables:
— the number of fasteners per unit length of the specimen;
— the type of fasteners;
— the flexural stiffness of the member, relative to its thickness;
— the flexural stiffness of the bottom flange of the sheeting, relative to its thickness;
— the positions of the fasteners in the flange of the sheeting;
— the distance from the fasteners to the centre of rotation of the member;
— the overall depth of the beam;
— the presence of insulation between the member and the sheeting.
A.7 Tests on fastenings

(1) Testing of fasteners is not further specified in this document.
NOTE 1 EAD 330046-01-0602, Fastening Screws for Metal Members and Sheeting and EAD 330153-01-0602,
Cartridge fired pin for Connections of thin gauge Steel Members and Sheeting is available for the assessment and
determination of properties for fastenings required for design of cold-formed structures according to this Eurocode.
NOTE 2 Additional information on testing procedures for fastenings is given in The Design and Testing of
Connections in Steel Sheeting and Sections: ECCS Publication No. 124 (2009).
(2) An additional margin of safety should be provided for a brittle failure mode compared to a ductile
failure mode.
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A.8 Tests on components of storage equipment

(1) Testing of components of adjustable pallet racking is described in EN 15512.
NOTE For other types of storage equipment no standard is available, However, there are a number of industry
codes of practice:
— FEM 10.2.06: Shelving
— FEM 10.2.07: Drive-in and drive-through racking
— FEM 10.2.09: Cantilever racking
A.9 Evaluation of test results

A.9.1 General
(1) A test specimen should be regarded as having failed if the applied loads have reached their maximum
values, a crack has initiated in a vital part of the specimen or the overall deformations have exceeded
specified limits.
(2) The overall deformations of members should generally satisfy the criteria:
For span tests:
δ ≤ L/50 (A.9)
For support tests:

θ ≤ 1/50 (A.10)
where
δ is the maximum deflection of a member of span L;
θ is the rotation (sway angle) of a structure.
(3) When testing connections or components in which the examination of large deformations is necessary
for accurate assessment (for example, when evaluating the moment-rotation characteristics of sleeves),
no limit needs to be placed on the overall deformation during the test.
A.9.2 Adjustment of test results
(1) Test results should be appropriately adjusted to account for differences between the actual measured
properties of the test specimens and their nominal values.
(2) The measured basic yield strength fyb,obs should not deviate by more than −25 % from the nominal
basic yield strength fyb, thus: fyb,obs ≥ 0,75 fyb.
(3) The measured thickness tobs should not exceed the nominal material thickness tnom (see 5.2.4) by more
than 12 %.
(4) Adjustments should be made with respect to the actual measured values of the core material
thickness tcor,obs and the basic yield strength fyb,obs for all tests, except if the values measured in the tests
are used to calibrate a design model. In the latter case the provisions of A.9.2(5) do not need to be applied.
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(5) The adjusted value of the resistance Radj,i of the ith test result (i = 1…n) should be determined from the
measured test result Robs,i using Formula (A.11):
Radj,I = Robs,i/μR (A.11)
where
μR is the resistance adjustment coefficient given by:
𝛼𝛼
𝑓𝑓yb,obs 𝑡𝑡cor,obs 𝛽𝛽 (A.12)
𝜇𝜇R = � � � �
𝑓𝑓yb 𝑡𝑡cor
(6) The exponent α for use in Formula (A.12) should be obtained from Formulae (A.13) and (A.14):
— if fyb,obs ≤ fyb: α=0 (A.13)
— if fyb,obs > fyb: α=1 (A.14)
For profiled sheeting or liner trays in which compression elements have such large bp/t ratios that local
buckling will clearly be the failure mode: α = 0,5.
(7) The exponent β for use in Formula (A.12) should be obtained as follows:
— if tcor,obs ≤ tcor: β=1 (A.15)
— if tcor,obs > tcor:
— for tests on profiled sheeting or liner trays: β=2 (A.16)
— for tests on members, structures or subassemblies:
— if bp/t ≤ (bp/t) lim: β=1 (A.17)
— if bp/t > 1,5 (bp/t) lim: β=2 (A.18)
— if (bp/t) lim < bp/t < 1,5 (bp/t) lim: obtain β by linear interpolation.
with the limiting width-to-thickness ratio (bp/t)lim given by:
𝑏𝑏p 𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘σ 𝑓𝑓yb /𝛾𝛾M0 𝑓𝑓yb /𝛾𝛾M0

� � = 0,64 � � ≅ 19,1 𝜀𝜀 �𝑘𝑘σ � (A.19)
𝑡𝑡 lim 𝑓𝑓yb 𝜎𝜎com,Ed 𝜎𝜎com,Ed
where
bp is the notional flat width of a plane element;
kσ is the relevant buckling factor from Table 6.1 or 6.2 in EN 1993-1-5:2024;
σcom,Ed is the calculated maximum compressive stress in the element in the ultimate limit
state;
235
𝜀𝜀 = � with 𝑓𝑓y in N/mm2 (A.20)
𝑓𝑓yb
(8) When adjusting the moment of inertia, if linear behaviour is observed in the serviceability limit state,
the exponents in the Formula (A.12) should be taken as follows: α = 0,0 and β = 1,0.
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A.9.3 Characteristic values
A.9.3.1 General
(1) Characteristic values of tested properties may be determined statistically, provided that there are at
least 3 test results.
(2) Additional rules apply to families of tests, as specified in A.9.3.2, or to cases where only a limited
number of test results are available, as specified in A.9.3.3.
(3) The statistical evaluation leading to the determination of the characteristic values should be carried
out according to EN 1990:2023, Annex D.
(4) The values of the coefficient kn should be determined from Table D.1 of EN 1990:2023, according to
the number of test results and for an unknown Vx value.
A.9.3.2 Characteristic values for families of tests
(1) Generally, several series of tests carried out on a number of otherwise similar structures, sub-
assemblies, members, sheeting or other structural components, in which one or more parameters are
varied, may be treated as a single family of tests, provided that they all have the same failure mode. The
parameters that are varied may include the cross-sectional dimensions, the span length, the thickness
and the material strength.
For single span tests, internal support tests and end support tests the families of tests are defined in A.5.2,
A.5.4 and A.5.5, respectively.
(2) In order to calculate the characteristic value of the resistance Rk,j from a test series j, each test result
should first be normalized by dividing it by the mean value of the resistance of the series j, Radj,m,j , see
Formula (A.21):
𝑅𝑅adj,i,j
𝑥𝑥i,j = i = 1…nj (A.21)
𝑅𝑅adj,m,j
where
nj is the number of individual tests in a series j;
Radj,i,j is the adjusted value of the resistance of specimen i of test series j;
Radj,m,j is the mean value of the adjusted resistance Radj,i,j of series j.
(3) The value of kn, obtained from Table D.1 of EN 1990:2023, should be based on the total number of
tests ntot in the family according to Formula (A.22):
𝑛𝑛tot = � 𝑛𝑛j
(A.22)
j
where
nj is the number of individual tests in the series j.
(4) The standard deviation sx should be calculated using Formula (A.23):
1 2
𝑠𝑠x = � � ��𝑥𝑥i,j − 1� (A.23)
𝑛𝑛tot − 1
j i
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(5) The characteristic value of the resistance Rk should be calculated using Formula (A.24):
𝑅𝑅k,j = 𝑅𝑅adj,m,j ∙ (1 ± 𝑘𝑘n 𝑠𝑠x ) (A.24)
where
sx is the standard deviation, as specified in (4);
kn is the appropriate coefficient from Table D.1 of EN 1990:2023;
Radj,m,j is the mean value of the adjusted resistances Radj,i,j.
In Formula (A.24) the least favourable sign “+” or “−”, should be adopted.
(6) A.9.3.2 is analogously applicable to determine characteristic values in the serviceability limit state for
deformations, rotations and the stiffnesses of members, sheeting and structures.
For characteristic values of rotations, both signs should be considered in Formula (A.24).
A.9.3.3 Characteristic values based on a small number of tests
(1) If only one test is carried out, then the characteristic value of the resistance Rk corresponding to this
test should be obtained from the adjusted value of the test result Radj using Formula (A.25):
Rk = 0,9 ηk Radj (A.25)
where ηk should be taken as follows, depending on the failure mode:

— yielding: ηk = 0,9;
— excessive overall deformation: ηk = 0,9;
— local buckling: ηk = 0,8 to 0,9 depending on effects on global behaviour in tests;
— overall instability: ηk = 0,7.
(2) For a series of two tests, provided that each adjusted test result Radj,i is within ±10 % of the mean
value Radj,m of the adjusted test results, the characteristic value of the resistance Rk should be obtained
using Formula (A.26):
Rk = ηk Radj,m (A.26)
(3) If only one test is carried out, the characteristic value of a stiffness should be multiplied by 0,95 in
cases where a higher stiffness results in a favourable effect and multiplied by 1,05 in cases where a higher
stiffness results in an unfavourable effect.
(4) The characteristic values of stiffness properties (such as a flexural or rotational stiffness) may be
taken as the mean value of at least two tests, provided that each test result is within ±10 % of the mean
value.
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A.9.4 Design values
(1) The design value of the resistance Rd should be derived from the corresponding characteristic value
of the resistance Rk determined by testing, using Formula (A.27):
𝑅𝑅k
𝑅𝑅d = 𝜂𝜂sys (A.27)
𝛾𝛾M
where
γM is the partial factor for the resistance, see Clause 4;
ηsys is a conversion factor accounting for the differences in behaviour between test conditions and
reality.
(2) The appropriate value of ηsys should be determined depending on the modelling of the test set-up with
the aid of analytical or numerical models compared to reality.
(3) For testing of
— single beams and columns according to A.3;
— sheeting according to A.5;
— torsionally restrained members according to A.6;
— fastenings according to A.7;
— components of storage equipment according to A.8;
and for other well-defined standard testing procedures, ηsys may be taken equal to 1.0.
NOTE The partial factor γM can be set by the National Annex. The γM-values given in Clause 4 are used unless
different values result from the use of Annex D of EN 1990:2023.
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Annex B
(informative)
Durability of fasteners
B.1 Use of this annex

(1) This Informative Annex provides complementary guidance to Clause 6 for durability, accounting for
situations where sheet and fasteners of different materials act compositely. Table B.1 defines
recommended configurations with respect to corrosion.
NOTE National choice on the application of this Informative Annex is given in the National Annex. If the National
Annex contains no information on the application of this informative annex, it can be used.
B.2 Scope and field of application

(1) This Informative Annex covers the sheet materials and materials of fasteners given in Table B.1.
(2) The environmental classification following EN ISO 12944-2 is presented in Table B.2.
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Table B.1 — Fastener material in relation to corrosion environment (sheeting material only
given for information). Only the risk of corrosion is considered. Classification of environments
according to EN ISO 12944-2
Material of fastener
Classification Electro- Hot-dip zinc
Sheet
of galvanized steel. coated steelb. Stainless
material Aluminium Monela
environment Coat thickness Coat thickness steeld
≥ 8 µm > 45 µm
C1 A, B, C X X X X
D, E, S X X X X
C2 A X – X X
C, D, E X – X X
S X – X X
C3 A X – X X
C, E X – X –
D X – X X
S – – X See EN 1993- X
C4 A X – (X)C 1-4 –
D – – X –
E X – X –
S – – X X
C5-I A X – – –
Df – – X –
S – – – –
C5-M A X – – –
Df – – X –
S – – – –
Key
A= Aluminium irrespective of surface finish
B= Un-coated steel sheet
C= Hot-dip zinc coated (Z275) or aluzink coated (AZ150) steel sheet
D= Hot-dip zinc coated steel sheet + coating of paint or plastics
E= Aluzink coated (AZ185) steel sheet
S= Stainless steel
X= Type of material recommended from a corrosion standpoint
(X) = Type of material recommended from a corrosion standpoint under the specified condition only
-= Type of material not recommended from a corrosion standpoint
NOTE Fasteners of carbon steel without coating can be used in corrosion classification class C1.
a Refers to rivets only.
b Refers to screws and nuts only.
c Insulating washer, of material resistant to ageing, between sheeting and fastener.
d Stainless steel EN 10088.
e Risk of discoloration.
f Always check with sheet supplier.
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Table B.2 — Atmospheric corrosivity categories according to EN ISO 12944-2 and examples of
typical environments
Corrosivity Corrosivity Examples of typical environments in a temperate climate (informative)

category level Exterior Interior
C1 Very low – Heated buildings with clean
atmospheres, e. g. offices, shops,
schools and hotels.
C2 Low Atmospheres with low level of Unheated buildings where conden-
pollution. Mostly rural areas sation may occur, e. g. depots, sport
halls.
C3 Medium Urban and industrial atmospheres, Production rooms with high humidity
moderate sulphur dioxide and some air pollution, e. g. food-
pollution. Coastal areas with low processing plants, laundries, breweries
salinity. and dairies.
C4 High Industrial areas and coastal areas Chemical plants, swimming pools,
with moderate salinity. coastal ship- and boatyards.
C5-I Very high Industrial areas with high humidity Buildings or areas with almost per-
(industrial) and aggressive atmosphere. manent condensation and with high
pollution.
C5-M Very high Coastal and offshore areas with Buildings or areas with almost per-
(marine) high salinity. manent condensation and with high
pollution.
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Annex C
(normative)
Mixed effective width/effective thickness method for outstand

elements
C.1 Use of this annex

(1) This Normative Annex provides complementary guidance complementary to Clause 7.6.2 for the
design of outstand elements subject to local buckling.
C.2 Scope and field of application

(1) This Normative Annex covers the local buckling design of outstand elements in compression and/or
bending based on the mixed effective width/effective thickness method.
C.3 Cross-sectional resistance

(1) The mixed effective width/effective thickness method for outstand elements in compression and/or
bending shall be applied as specified in this Annex C.
(2) The outstand element is divided into a fully effective part and a reduced part due to local buckling.
The area of the effective cross-section of the outstand element is composed of an effective width be0 times
the full element thickness t and an element width (bp − be0) times the effective thickness teff, see Table C.1.
(3) The reduction factor for local buckling is given by Formula (C.1):
1 0,188
⎧ − ≤ 1 if 0,749 ≤ 𝜆𝜆̅p < 1,2
⎪ 𝜆𝜆̅p 𝜆𝜆̅2p
𝜌𝜌 = 0,77 (C.1)
⎨ if 1,2 ≤ 𝜆𝜆̅p ≤ 3,2
⎪ �𝜆𝜆̅p
⎩
where
𝜆𝜆̅p is the relative slenderness for local buckling of plane elements given in 7.6.2.
(4) The buckling factor kσ for different stress distributions may be determined with numerical methods.
Conservatively, the values given in EN 1993-1-5:2024, Table 6.2, may be used.
(5) The stress ratio ψ used in (4) and Table C.1 should be based on the properties of the gross cross-
section.
(6) The cross-sectional resistance should be based on an elastic stress distribution in the effective cross-
section.
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Table C.1 — Outstand compression elements
Maximum compression at free longitudinal edge

Stress distribution Effective width and thickness
1 ≥ 𝜓𝜓 ≥ 0
𝑏𝑏e0 = 0,42 𝑏𝑏p
𝑡𝑡eff = (1,75 𝜌𝜌 − 0,75) 𝑡𝑡
𝜓𝜓 < 0
0,42 𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝
𝑏𝑏e0 = + 𝑏𝑏t < 𝑏𝑏p
(1 − 𝜓𝜓)
𝜓𝜓 𝑏𝑏p
𝑏𝑏t =
(𝜓𝜓 − 1)
𝑡𝑡eff = (1,75 𝜌𝜌 − 0,75 − 0,15 𝜓𝜓) 𝑡𝑡
Maximum compression at supported longitudinal edge

Stress distribution Effective width and thickness
1 ≥ 𝜓𝜓 ≥ 0
𝑏𝑏e0 = 0,42 𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝
𝑡𝑡eff = (1,75 𝜌𝜌 − 0,75) 𝑡𝑡
𝜓𝜓 < 0
0,42 𝑏𝑏p
𝑏𝑏e0 =
(1 − 𝜓𝜓)
𝜓𝜓 𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝
𝑏𝑏t =
(𝜓𝜓 − 1)
𝑡𝑡eff = (1,75 𝜌𝜌 − 0,75) 𝑡𝑡
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The following documents are referred to in the text in such a way that some or all of their content,
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EN 1993-1-3:2024 (E)
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BS EN 1993‑1‑3:2024

BSI Standards Publication

Eurocode 3 — Design of steel structures

Part 1-3: Cold-formed members and sheeting

© The British Standards Institution 2024

Amendments/corrigenda issued since publication

EUROPEAN STANDARD EN 1993-1-3

ICS 91.010.30; 91.080.13 Supersedes EN 1993-1-3:2006

Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures - Part 1-3: Cold-

This European Standard was approved by CEN on 1 January 2024.

EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION

CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Rue de la Science 23, B-1040 Brussels

European foreword ............................................................................................................................................ 4

11.3 Special considerations for sheeting .......................................................................................... 150

This document supersedes EN 1993-1-3:2006 and its corrigenda.

— Harmonization of wording according to the latest editions of EN 1993-1-1, EN 1993-1-5 and

— Design of cross-sectional resistance to transverse forces of cross-sections with two or more

0.1 Introduction to the Eurocodes

— EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures

— EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures

— EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures

— EN 1994, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures

— EN 1995, Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures

— EN 1996, Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures

— EN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design

— EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance

— EN 1999, Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures

EN 1993-2, Design of Steel Structures — Part 2: Bridges;

EN 1993-3, Design of Steel Structures — Part 3: Towers, masts and chimneys;

EN 1993-4, Design of Steel Structures — Part 4: Silos and tanks;

EN 1993-5, Design of Steel Structures — Part 5: Piling;

EN 1993-6, Design of Steel Structures — Part 6: Crane supporting structures;

EN 1993-7, Design of steel structures — Part 7: Sandwich panels.

EN 1993-1-2, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-2: Structural fire design;

EN 1993-1-4, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-4: Stainless steel structures;

EN 1993-1-5, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-5: Plated structural elements;

EN 1993-1-8, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-8: Joints;

EN 1993-1-9, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-9: Fatigue;

EN 1993-1-11, Design of Steel Structures — Part 1-11: Tension components;

0.4 Verbal forms used in the Eurocodes

4.2(3) 4.2(4) 4.2(5) 5.2.1(3)

EN 1990, Eurocode — Basis of structural and geotechnical design

EN 1991 (all parts), Eurocode 1 — Actions on structures

EN 1993 (all parts), Eurocode 3 — Design of steel structures

EN ISO 7438, Metallic materials — Bend test (ISO 7438)

3 Terms, definitions and symbols

3.1.2 Cold-formed steel members, sheeting and sandwich panels

Figure 3.1 — Typical cross-sectional shapes of cold-formed members

Figure 3.2 — Examples of cold-formed profiled sheeting and liner trays

Note 1 to entry: Typical edge stiffeners are shown in Figure 3.3.

a) Single-fold edge stiffeners b) Double-fold edge stiffeners

Figure 3.3 — Typical edge stiffeners

Note 1 to entry: Typical intermediate stiffeners are shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4 — Typical intermediate stiffeners

3.1.3 Stability modes

3.1.4 Cross-sectional analysis

3.1.5 Cold-formed steel structures

For the purposes of this document, the following symbols apply.

3.2.1 Latin upper-case symbols

EC modulus of elasticity of the core of a sandwich panel

Κ1 category dependent coefficient for calculating the resistance to transverse forces

3.2.2 Latin lower-case symbols

𝑏𝑏 relevant width of a plane element for local buckling analysis