WHAT IS LITERATURE?

Comprehensively, Literature can be defined as a work of creative art produced by a writer or a narrator.
This creative work of art can be either oral or written and it talks about issues affecting society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LITERATURE

The following are the characteristics of literature:

1. It is imaginative
2. It has emotional appeal
3. It appeals to our sense of artistic beauty
4. It is entertaining

FUNCTIONS OF LITERATURE

The following are the functions of Literature:

1. Enables us learn language

2. Enriches us culturally
3. Expands our imagination
4. Entertains us
5. Rebukes us
6. Encourages us

GENRES OF LITERATURE

Genres means a category, or the type of writing style or format. There are two broad genres of
literature:

1. Written Literature
2. Oral Literature

ORAL LITERATURE

Oral literature is imaginative art that is delivered through performance and the spoken work. It refers to
all our traditional art including oral narratives, proverbs, riddles, recitations, songs and other forms of
imaginative expressions rendered by word of mouth. All these forms of expressions are literature
because, like written literature, they appeal to our feelings and emotions.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORAL AND WRITTEN LITERATURE

1. Oral literature is verbal while written literature is not.

2. Oral literature is temporal and changes depending on the occasion and the narrator, while
written literature is permanent.
3. Oral literature is communal –it is owned by the community while written literature can be
individual.

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FORMS OF ORAL LITERATURE

Forms of oral literature include:

1. Oral narratives
2. Poetic expressions: these include songs, recitations, praises.
3. Short forms: these include proverbs and riddles.

TYPES OF ORAL NARRATIVES

A narrative is a tale or story. Oral narratives are stories with a moral, historical or social significance in
society. They are presented in prose form and involve orderly development from episode to episode
until the end. Oral narratives include:

1. Fables
2. Myths
3. Legends
4. Folktales

FABLES

These are stories which involve animals as the main characters. Fables have a moral lesson.

Example and exercise from ACHIEVERS SENIOR SECONDARY LITERATURE 10 LEARNERS’ BOOK (ZAMBIA).
Pages: 7-8.

FOLKTALES

Folktales are a type of oral narratives that are mainly meant for entertainment. They involve both
animal and human characters. They include the following:

1. Trickster narratives
2. Ogre stories
3. Human stories
4. Dilemma stories

Trickster Narratives

Trickster Narratives are stories that involve humorous characters who rely on their wit and intelligence
to survive. These characters are called tricksters. In Africa, tricksters are mainly the hare, the spider, the
tortoise or the chameleon. The trickster is usually cunning, witty, small bodied, relies on cheating and
lying or is lazy and wants free things.

Example and exercise from ACHIEVERS SENIOR SECONDARY LITERATURE 10 LEARNERS’ BOOK (ZAMBIA).
Pages: 8-10.

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Ogre Stories

Ogres are extraordinary beings that appear in some stories. Stories where these creatures appear are
called ogre stories. These creatures share some characteristics with human beings. The ogres are,
however, stupid and inhuman.

Example and exercise from ACHIEVERS SENIOR SECONDARY LITERATURE 10 LEARNERS’ BOOK (ZAMBIA).
Pages: 10-11.

Human Stories

These are folk stories that involve human characters as the main characters.

Example and exercise from ACHIEVERS SENIOR SECONDARY LITERATURE 10 LEARNERS’ BOOK (ZAMBIA).
Pages: 12-14.

Dilemma Stories

Dilemma stories present us with a dilemma – a situation where a person has to choose between two
options. This is a situation in which we have to make a tough choice.

Example and exercise from ACHIEVERS SENIOR SECONDARY LITERATURE 10 LEARNERS’ BOOK (ZAMBIA).
Pages: 14-15.

MYTHS

Myths are stories that explain the origin of people. Sometimes they tell us about what happened as the
world was being formed. In some cases, they tell us about the origin of such things such as death, birth
and work. One of the well-known myths of origin is the story of Adam and Eve in the Bible.

Example and exercise from ACHIEVERS SENIOR SECONDARY LITERATURE 10 LEARNERS’ BOOK (ZAMBIA).
Pages: 15-17.

LEGENDS

Legends are like myths since they are regarded as true. They tell of how people migrated to where they
live now and tell of wars and victories of the community. Some tell of the heroic deeds of historical
personalities. Legends are therefore stories that tell the stories of heroes in society. These stories are
almost similar to myths only that they tell the heroic stories of individuals in history while myths are
sacred.

Example and exercise from ACHIEVERS SENIOR SECONDARY LITERATURE 10 LEARNERS’ BOOK (ZAMBIA).
Page: 17.

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SONGS AND SHORT FORMS

SONGS

These are words that go along with a short piece of music. They have a tune and rhythm.

Types of Song

1. Hymns
These types of song are associated with religious activities. They are sung in praise of the
Almighty God or in asking for mercies from God. For example, psalms from the Bible, church
songs…..etc.
2. Praise Songs
These types of song are sang in praise of an individual. They are mainly sang to celebrate one’s
achievements.
3. Political Songs
Political songs are about events associated with competitive politics. In Africa, there are many
songs that praise political leaders and parties. Some call for unity and peace in our countries.
4. Funeral Songs
These are songs that are sang when death occurs. They are also referred to as dirges. They
express emotions of people at that time when death occurs. They also give hope to those who
are left behind by the deceased.
5. Love Songs
Love songs are sang to express emotional attachment that people have for one another. They
are characterized by sentimental words of romance.
6. Thematic Songs
These are songs sang on various issues that affect society. In recent times, there are many songs
that are sang about HIV/AIDS. These songs are composed to express what people feel about the
scourge. In African communities, any emerging issue always inspires some form of poetic
reaction in form of song. Our people sing about poverty, disease, hunger, floods and any other
occurrences.
7. Lullabies
Lullabies are children’s songs. They are sang by children during their play time or sang by adults
for children. They praise the child, her nurse or parents and beseech the baby to be good. It is
important to note that lullabies are sung slowly and softly because sometimes they are meant to
send the child to sleep. They reveal some information about the family, clan or community or
the environment of the child.
8. Work Songs
These are songs that are sang when people are working. They cheer the workers to go on with
the activity that they are engaged in and they sometimes castigate those who do not work hard.

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 9. Wedding Songs
These are songs sang during marriage ceremonies. They praise the bride and the groom while
highlighting the pain that is occasioned by the departure of the bride from her family. Some are
nasty and express the duties of both the bride and the groom to one another within marriage.

Functions of Songs

Songs have various functions in society. Indeed, without songs, life can be very boring. Some of the
functions of songs include the following:

1. Expression of Emotions
Songs express our emotions at various stages and occasions in our lives. They express our joy
especially in happy moments while they also express our anger and bitterness in moments of
sorrow.
2. Encouragement
Songs encourage us to be strong especially when we are facing big challenges. While working,
we sing to fire ourselves to do more in order to accomplish the task at hand.
3. Entertainment
Songs are used to entertain us. Virtually every one of us listens to music as part of what we do at
leisure time.
4. Worship
We use songs in worshipping God. In almost every worship house, songs are sang as part of the
process of praising God.

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SHORT FORMS

Proverbs

Proverbs are short and witty statements packed with wisdom.

How to Recognize and Interpret a Proverb

Zambian Proverbs: e.g. One with a big head cannot avoid a punch; Two buttocks together cannot avoid
friction.

English Proverbs: e.g. Two wrongs don’t make a right; When in Rome, do as the Romans.

African Proverbs: e.g. An old woman is always uneasy when dry bones are mentioned in a proverb; It
takes a whole village to raise a child.

Interpretation of Proverbs

In order to identify and interpret proverbs we need to know the following characteristics of proverbs:

1. Proverbs use language creatively. They are part of the artistic communication of our people. E.g.
“The mouth which eats does not talk” may not necessarily mean a mouth full of food but that a
person who acts rarely talks much. In other words, action oriented people are always busy
hence they have no time for idle talk.
2. They draw their imagery and symbolism from the environment. They draw comparisons within
the environment. E.g. The proverb “Looking at a king’s mouth one would never think he sucked
his mother’s breast” will only originate from an environment where monarchy is practised. A
society that does not have kings and queens may not have proverbs that refer to them.
3. They are marked with brevity and terseness. Proverbs always make use few words. In most
cases, it will just be a sentence. E.g. “No man is an Island.” It is quite short yet it says a lot.
4. They are imbued with wisdom. All proverbs are full of knowledge. In fact, wise people in Africa
are respected because of their knowledge of proverbs which they use to solve problems.
Proverbs are used to advise people.
5. They express their truth in an indirect manner. E.g., “Never look a gift horse in the mouth.” The
horse refers to a gift. The message in this proverb is that it is very bad manners for one to
inspect a present to see if it fits his or her standards. One should just be polite and grateful.

Idioms

An idiom is a group of words that is used together to produce meaning that may not be got if the words
were used separately. For example, ‘a drop in the ocean’. These five words make an idiom which implies
a very small amount. However, if each of these words was used alone, the meaning that we have here
would not be realized. Examples of idioms include:

- on the back foot … at a disadvantage

- bad mouth … say negative things about someone

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 - eat humble pie … accept that you are wrong and behave regretfully
- flogging a dead horse … talking about something that no one is interested in.

Riddles

Riddles fall in the class of oral literature materials popularly referred to as short forms. One obvious
characteristic of riddles is that they are preceded by a formula which opens the riddling session. For
instance, among the Tonga People in Zambia, there is the challenger and the respondent.

Challenger says: Nkaako (There you are)

Respondent says: Kakazya (Bring it on)

Riddles are an important art form in Africa. They are mainly used to communicate ideas, values and
beliefs of the community in few words. Like proverbs, they are brief and are a product of a deep
appreciation of the environment.

Functions of Riddles

1. contribute a lot in training children to appreciate their environment and culture

2. promote and develop critical thinking
3. pass on indigenous knowledge
4. are mainly used for entertainment and stimulating thinking.
5. are used to teach language especially pronunciation.
6. are used to teach listening skills.

Recognition and Interpretation of Riddles

To recognize riddles and interpret them, we need to bear in mind the following:

a. They bear different names depending on the community.

b. They are word games and puzzles that expect the recipient to discover answer.
c. They are performed as contests.
d. They begin with a formula which signals the audience that a riddle is coming.
e. Some are interrogative in the sense that they are stated as questions.
f. Some are epigrammatic in the sense that they are presented as a series of puzzles.

Examples of riddles:

Tonga: Ng’anda yaba Neene inyina mpulungwido a mulyango. (Ndiji)

The house of my grandfather has no window nor a door.
Answer: An egg.

Nyanja: Uku luphiri uku luphiri pakati palinjira. (Matako)

This side is hill and this side is a hill.
Answer: Buttocks
(learners to give plenty of riddle examples from their respective languages)

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Praise Poetry

Praise means to express admiration for someone or something. Praise poems are written to kings,
great people, livestock as well as inanimate objects. Praise poetry is characterized by bold
imagery expressed in carefully selected language. Praise poems are created so that young people
can know who they are, who their ancestors are, why they are loved and what special gifts they
bring to the tribe and the world. It is often a celebration of heritage, family, and place – a
celebration of who we are and where we come from.

These poems are either sung or chanted. They are sometimes accompanied by musical
instruments.

(learners with the guide of the teacher to give examples of Praise Poetry from their respective
languages)

TYPES OF WRITTEN LITERATURE

There are three basic types of written literature:

1. Prose
2. Drama
3. Poetry

Each type of literature has a unique style and structure. Structure refers to the way the writer has
arranged or organized the text. Style refers to the way that writer uses language to create meaning.

1. Prose

The word prose comes from the Latin word prosa, which means straightforward. Prose is laid out in a
relatively straightforward manner as opposed to poetry or drama which has to follow rigid structures.
Prose could be narrative (fiction) or it could be expository (non-fiction). Expository prose refers to the
type of writing which informs and explains ideas whereas narrative prose is writing that entertains by
telling a story. Prose also refers to texts which communicate ideas in ordinary written or spoken
language. Prose can be written in a number of forms including short stories, novels or novellas. The
writer of prose may be referred to as a novelist, a short story writer or simply as a writer.

Characteristics of Prose

i. The language of prose is the kind of language that most people would use on a day to day
basis.
ii. Prose is written in sentences and paragraphs.
iii. Prose writers also think about arrangement or structure of their words, sentences and
paragraphs.
iv. Prose writers use a variety of techniques to make their stories interesting. These techniques
could be: flash backs, direct speech, description, symbolism.

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 v. Prose writers also use figurative language to create interesting images. Within the
descriptions, they could use images (similes, metaphors, and personification).

Prose example: (Refer to Lit. Achievers 10 Pgs: 27-30).

2. Drama/Play

The word drama comes from the Greek word drama which means play, action or deed. This makes
sense because in a play, on stage, we are always presented with actions. Drama, just like poetry, must
be arranged in a certain manner. The writer of plays is called a playwright.

Characteristics of drama/play

i. Drama may be written but it is meant to be performed in front of an audience.

ii. Drama is written in the form of dialogue. The whole story unfolds in the form of dialogue
which is spoken by characters.
iii. Names or titles of the characters are written in the margin of the paper, on the left and the
speech follows on the right.
iv. A play is organized into different sections, like paragraphs in prose or stanzas in poetry.
Different sections in a play are called moments, scenes and acts. Many Moments make a
Scene. Many Scenes make an Act, and a number of Acts make up a Play. Different plays have
different number of Scenes and Acts. E.g. Some plays only have one Act and these are called
One-Act plays.
v. Plays usually have stage directions. Stage directions are words or instructions written in the
play but not meant to be spoken. These instructions help to indicate which movements or
actions are required or which props are needed. They also help the reader to understand
what is going on much more clearly. They are usually in brackets and/ or italics.
vi. Some playwrights include a variety of techniques to make their plays interesting. They can
use songs, dances, mimes, asides, soliloquies and monologues within the play so that it is
not monotonous.

Some technical words in drama:

Act: a part of a Play.

Scene: a part of an Act.
Monologue: many lines spoken by one character alone. A monologue can also be a soliloquy.
Soliloquy: a monologue spoken by a character and not meant to be heard by any other
character on stage. It is only meant for the audience.
Aside: words spoken in a conversation by a character but directed to the audience
instead of to the other character being spoken to.
Props: items used on stage.

Examples of Drama/play:
(Refer to Lit. Achievers 10 Pgs: 31-35; Kongi’s Harvest, The Government Inspector, etc)

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 3. Poetry

The word poem comes from the Greek work poeima, which means a thing made, composed or created.
Poems are words of literature in which words are arranged to sound pleasant to the ear and to express
ideas, emotions and thoughts. Poems are written in a specific style. The lines and the language of the
poem must conform to certain rules. The writer of a poem is called a poet.

What is poetry? What are poems?

Poetry is a specific literary form of conveying language in a compact form. As it is usually so dense with
words, to amplify the poet’s purpose and meaning, poetry can sometimes be hard to understand. Yet
poetry is written to entertain, to remember, to evoke emotions and feelings, just like prose or drama.
Poetry can also tell stories, or teach (think of nursery rhymes or the alphabet rhyme). Poetry can come
in a variety of forms; some poems are highly structured and governed by specific rules, whilst others are
free verse, or blank verse, structured only by the poet’s imagination.

Characteristics of Poems

i. Poems are written in lines

ii. Lines grouped together are called stanzas. Stanzas are to poems what paragraphs are to
prose.
iii. The lines in a poem do not have to be accurately constructed grammatical sentences.
iv. The lines in a poem may or may not rhyme.
v. Poets can organize lines in different ways. E.g. a poet may decide to write fourteen lines
which rhyme in a specific pattern. This fourteen line poem is called a sonnet. A poet can
decide to write five stanzas with each stanza comprising two lines. A poem with five lines is
called a quintain/quintet. A poem formed by six six-line stanzas and closing with a three-
line stanza is called a sestina.
vi. The words in a poem are chosen and arranged carefully by the poet so that they create a
powerful effect on the reader or listener.
vii. Poets try to use words as creatively as possible to express their emotions, ideas and feelings.
viii. Most poems have rhythm. Rhythm is created by using lines with the same number of
syllables.
ix. Poets use figurative language. This means that the words used can have a deeper meaning
and not just a surface meaning.
x. Poetic language is full of interesting images and this is achieved by the use of figurative
language.
xi. Most importantly, poems have a sound quality. The words are chosen and organized so that
they have a pleasant rhythm. The voice that speaks in a poem is called the persona.

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HOW TO ANALYZE POEMS: A CPD PRESENTATION AT CHINIKA SECONDARY SCHOOL IN 2019

By MALUMANI, KELLY.

How to approach a poem

• First, read the title – answer the following questions in note form next to the title or on a
separate piece of paper with the title written down:

• a) What’s your first impression of the title?

• b) What do you think the poem will be about?

• c) How does the poem sound to you, from the title – boring, interesting, worrying, no thoughts
at all?

• Read the poem through once – read it slowly, preferably out loud, and in a normal speaking
voice, not a sing-song voice. Answer the following questions in note form under the heading
First Impressions:

• a) What are your first impressions?

• b) What is the poem about, what is the gist of the poem?

• c) Can you see any themes in the poem?

1. Try to figure out the meaning of the poem

Ask yourself questions like: What happens in the poem? What is the poet trying to say? How forcefully
does he/she say it? Which lines bring out the meaning of the poem?

2. Imagery is a common technique used by poets to get their meaning across

Ask yourself: Which images have been chosen? Are they all related? Is there one overall image or are
several different images used? What feeling is given by which image? Evaluate the poet's images.

3. Look for Symbols

The poet may use images that suggest certain concepts like love, youth, and death. What meaning do
these symbols contribute, and how effective are they?

4. Look at the poet’s choice of words (DICTION)

The poet’s choice of words is usually very important. Try to determine why the poet used particular
words and whether or not these words stand out. Determine how these particular words contribute to

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the meaning of the poem. Also, look for words that are repeated. What effect does this add to the
poem?

5. Determine the voice and tone of voice of the poem

Does the poet take on another persona? What is the poet’s mood (angry, regretful, suicidal,
humorous....) What words or images bring out this mood? What is the poet’s relationship with the
reader? Is the poet trying to persuade, to amuse, or is he/she reflecting on the state of the world?

6. Determine the Poem’s Structure

Is it in regular stanzaic form (two or more equal clusters of lines) or irregular form?

7. Look for a Rhyme Scheme

Does the rhyme scheme have any significance? Does the rhyme scheme draw attention to certain words
or ideas? Is the poem in free verse (without a rhyming scheme)?

8. Determine the Poem’s type

Is the poem a lyric? A sonnet? A narrative? What is the significance of this type of poem? What
characteristics of this type of poem are found?

Figurative language

What figurative language is used? Figurative language is used to describe in a non-literal way. Figurative
words compare in a more abstract and imaginative way than literal words (these are without
embellishment or deeper interpretation).

Conclusion

All of the above points could be discussed when analyzing a poem. However, don't just go through these
points mechanically. Each poem is unique, so you’ll have to decide which points are most important for
your poem.

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ORAL POETRY

Oral poems or songs refer to verbal expression of feelings, ideas and thoughts. They are accompanied by
movement and dance. The performer may also dress in costumes.

There are different types of oral poems, namely: sacred poetry, dirges, work poetry, lullabies, political
poetry, love poetry, praise poetry, singing games, wedding, etc.

Some of the special features of poetry include:

1. Short lines
2. Simple vocabulary
3. Repetition
4. Figurative Language

When studying an oral poem:

1. Classify the oral poem

2. Understand the subject of the poem and identify the persona
3. Look at the arrangement of the poem, e.g., do we have repetition phrases? Is there rhyme in the
song/poem?
4. What stylistic devices has the poem employed?
5. Are there any figures of speech?
6. What message is conveyed by the poem?

Look at the poem/song below:

A Kikuyu Lullaby

Who has beaten Irungu in

my presence?
May he enclose his home with
thorny bushes;
His home cannot be popular
Urururu! Irungu!
Stop crying our Irungu,
I will prepare fat and ointment
for you.
I will give you bananas and gruel
Urururu Irungu!

(Popular culture of east Africa: Oral Literature, Longman, 1972)

1. Classify the poem above. Illustrate.

2. Who is the persona? Why?
3. What would you do to bring out emotions and meaning of the poem?
4. What stylistic devices can you identify in the poem?

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Rhyme in Poetry

Rhyme is the use in proximity of two or more words in which the last syllables have the same sound.

Study this poem from Shakespeare’s piece

Measure for Measure.

Take O take those lips away,

That so sweetly were forsworn;
And those eyes the break of day,
Lights that do mislead the morn!
But my kisses bring again,
Bring again
Seals of love, but sealed in vain
Sealed in rain

The rhyming words in the poem above are away and day, forsworn and morn; again, vain and rain.
These words that have similar sounds at the end of the lines rhyme.

Rhyme Scheme

This is a pattern created by words that rhyme in a poem. We identify a rhyme scheme by looking at the
pattern formed by the rhyming words.

When rhyme is used at the end of the lines, it is referred to as end rhyme.

Example

Take O take those lips away,

That so sweetly were forsworn;
And those eyes the break of day,
Lights that do mislead the morn!

When rhyme occurs in the course of the line, it is referred to as internal rhyme.

Example

The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew.

Alliteration

It is also known as consonance. It is the repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of
words, when the words follow each other closely.

Example

They sold sea shells. (The sound s is alliterative.)

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God gives bread and butter. (There is alliteration of the sound g in God and gives and b in bread and
butter.)

The underlined letters alliterate creating some musicality which makes the sentences easy to remember.

The stanza below contains alliteration. Read through and identify instances of alliteration.

Listen – listen
Listen to the palpable rhythm
Of the periodic pestle
Plunging in proud perfection
Into the cardinal cavity
Of maternal mortar
Like the planting heart
Of the virgin bride
With the silver hymen,
Of the approaching stamp of late athleting cows
Hurrying home to their bleating calves

(A selection of East African Poetry, Longman, 2001)

The following sounds from the above poem are alliterative.

Listen – listen
periodic pestle
Plunging in proud perfection
cardinal cavity
maternal mortar
Hurrying home
Alliteration creates rhyme in the poem. It expresses the intensity and effect of the pounding and the
excitement that is being compared to the panting heart of a virgin bride.

Assonance

This is the repetition of similar vowel sounds in words that follow each other closely in a poem.
Examples: prove and move, spirit and merit, and heaven and given. The vowel sounds in the pairs given
rhyme, employing assonance.

Read the poem below and identify instances of alliteration and assonance.

The end begins: words

Words words words

Words without end
Words without end
We stand and watch
On fireless fireplaces.
Heads of clan stand and stare

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They come and go
Some die by beheading
Clans have no heads
They wait in pain for peace
But peace for scattered skeletons
Reeks of bloody emptiness.
Down the countryside I know
Under their feet
Bleeds, starves and dies
Under the strain of gunpowder excreted.
We are maimed daily
And the mime continues
This time again without words.

(A selection of East African Poetry, Longman, 2001)

Attitude

This is the poet’s feelings towards a certain topic, idea or situation or even a person. Attitude must not
just be identified as negative or positive. One must choose an adjective that specifically identifies the
attitude. Such words include: hostile, indifferent, critical, despising, scornful, respectful, dismissive, etc.
For instance, a poet who detests abortion will use a tone that depicts the matter negatively if they
choose to write a poem on the topic.

Tone

Tone is the author’s attitude or feelings toward the characters, the topic or the readers as expressed by
the persona. Tone can be ironic, serious, satirical, sad, condescending, happy or bitter, among others.

Look at how tone is expressed in the following poem:

War is Kind

Do not weep, maiden, for war is kind

Because your lover threw wild hands toward the sky
And the affrighted steed ran on alone,
Do not weep.
War is kind.
Hoarse, booming drums of the regiment,
Little souls who thirst for fight,
These men were born to drill and die,
The unexplained glory flies above them,
Great is the battle god, great, and his kingdom
A field where a thousand corpses lie.
Do not weep, babe, for war is kind.
Because your father tumbled in the yellow trenches,

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 Raged at his breast, gulped and died,
Do not weep.
War is kind.

Swift blazing flag of the regiment,

Eagle with crest of red and gold,
These men were born to drill and die,
Point for them the virtue of slaughter,
Make plain to them the excellence of killing
And a field where a thousand corpses lie.
Mother whose heart hung humble as a button
A the bright splendid shroud of your son,
Do not weep.
War is kind.

(Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry and Drama, McGrawHill, 2000)

The tone in the poem above is ironic. How do we know? The details of death in battle are the exact
opposite of the consoling refrain. Do not weep, War is Kind. In addition, military glory is made to sound
hollow and false. We can tell that the persona does not glorify military victory. The persona reflects on
its brutality, well captured in images of slaughter.

Note that tone is not always the same through out a poem.

Mood and Atmosphere

These two terms are closely related in poetry. Mood is the internal feelings the persona of the poem
may have and the feelings of the poem may evoke in a reader, whereas atmosphere is the air within the
environment of the poem’s setting. Atmosphere may have something to do with the weather, or
temperature within which the poem stands, e.g., a gloomy atmosphere, a rainy atmosphere as opposed
to the dull mood the persona may have in the poem, or the cheerful mood the poet may create.

Mood may be sad, happy, triumphant, relief, horrific, melancholic, solemn, resigned, nostalgic, etc.
Sometimes tone and mood can be described by the same adjectives in a particular poem it is often
possible to distinguish between the two terms. Note that the mood is not necessarily the same
throughout a poem.

Read the following poem and answer the questions that follow.

My Papa’s Waltz

The whiskey on your breath

Could make a small boy dizzy;
But I hang on like death:
Such waltzing was not easy.

We romped until the pans

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Slid from the kitchen shelf;
My mother’s countenance
Could not unfrown itself.
The hand that held my wrist
Was battered on one knuckle;
At every step you missed
My right ear scraped a buckle.

You beat time on my head

With a palm caked hard by dirt,
Then waltzed me off to bed.
Still clinging to your shirt.

(Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry and Drama, McGrawHill, 2000)

What is the mood of this poem? What details contribute to the mood?

RECOGNISING AND DISTINGUISHING TYPES OF LITERARY GENRES

A genre is a stylistic category or sort, especially of literature or other artworks. In other words, literary
genres refers to literary terms. These include comedy, e.g. Mr. Bin, tragedy, e.g. the death of Mr.
Mwanawasa (SC), satire, e.g. Animal Farm, among others.

a. Comedy
Comedy refers to dramatic work that is light and humorous or satirical in tone. It is some
entertainment composed of jokes, satire or humorous performances. The primary aim of
comedy is to entertain the audience; to make
b. Tragedy
Tragedies deal with serious problems which are universal and recognizable to all. The outcome
is usually death for the protagonist and in some cases even other characters. The work is
characterized by conflicts or problems which cannot be reversed or resolved and these leave the
audience feeling very disturbed and sad. The audience experiences fear and pity for the
character because of the serious conflict that the character experiences.
c. Satire
A satire’s main purpose is to try make the audience or the public change its behavior. It is
humorous therefore a comedy. Satire attacks corrupt institutions and individuals but not in a
direct way. It makes the corruption and other vices look very laughable therefore making the
public look down on these vices. The language is witty and ironic. It uses exaggeration to make
its audience see the truth.

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IMAGERY AND FIGURES OF SPEECH

- Figures of speech are a common feature of literary language.

- They involve transference of meaning, i.e. they encompass various uses of language which
depart from the usual order or significance in order to achieve special effects of meaning.
- Figures of speech enhances oration of images.
- Imagery simply means the use of descriptive or picturesque language.
- Figures of speech are specific types of imagery. These can be grouped into: (a) comparison
(b) exaggeration (c) contrast

1. Comparison Imagery
- Comparison imagery include metaphor, simile, symbolism, metonymy, synecdoche and
allusion
i) Metaphor
- A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things without using the word
like or as.
- A metaphor therefore is an indirect covert comparison.
- E.g. Read the pair of sentences below:
(a) College education is very important.
(b) College education is the key to many opportunities in life.
- Which sentence has more impact? Why?
- These sentences say exactly the same thing but differently.
- The first sentence uses plain language while the second uses imagery, specifically a figure of
speech known as metaphor.
- The metaphor, based on comparison, brings an object to life by comparing two usually
unrelated things: college education and a key.
- Note that the metaphor does not say that college education is like a key; instead it says that
college education is the key.
ii) simile
- A simile is a figure of speech comparing dissimilar things using words such as ‘like’ or ‘as’.
- A simile is a direct, covert comparison.
iii) Symbolism
- A symbol is an object that represents as idea.
- E.g.
a) light might symbolize hope or knowledge or life.
b) sunrise may symbolize a new beginning or hope.
c) water may symbolize life (rain, food).
iv) Metonymy
- In metonymy, the name of one thing is used to refer to another with which it is commonly
associated, i.e. one thing is seen in terms of another, with which it is associated.
- Eg
a) Lusaka City Council has been blamed.

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 b) State House has said.
c) Zambia has said.
- Lusaka City Council, used this way, refers to the mayor, councilors and council officers.
- State House refers to the president and the staff.
- Zambia refers to the government of Zambia.
v) Synecdoche
- Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a speaker or writer uses a part to signify a whole
thing.
- E.g.
a) Give me a hand.
b) He asked for her hand in marriage.
c) Lend me your ears.
- In the above sentences, the first means to help and it appeals to the whole person not just
the hand.
- The second means that the speaker wants to marry the woman, the whole woman;
- And the third means that the speaker wants the other person’s full attention.
- Metonymy and synecdoche are commonly used language devices in everyday speech as
well as poetry.
vi) Allusion
- An allusion is a reference to a well-known person, place, thing or idea.
- It makes a comparison between what is being spoken about and the one being referred to.
- It also assumes a bond of knowledge between the speaker and the reader.
- Writers mean a lot of detail simply by referring to something of place
- E.g. Zambia was colonized by Britain.
- Allusion to colonialism carries a lot of pain, denial, exploitation, suffering, abuse of natives
and human rights, death and the eventual struggle for freedom.

2. Exaggeration Imagery
- To exaggerate is to make something greater or minor than it actually is.
- Exaggeration includes hyperbole, apostrophe, personification and understatement.
i) Hyperbole
- Hyperbole is a literary style where something is exaggerated or given more weight than it
deserves.
- Remember that in hyperbole, the particular thing being mentioned could actually happen
but the comparison attributed to it is unlikely.
- Eg.
a) We walked until we had no feet left.
b) The baby’s all-night screams were even heard in the neighbouring villages.
c) Cynthia is the prettiest girl in the whole world.
d) Waiting for that boy is like waiting for the dead to serve you tea.
e) Her screams could have woken up the dead.
f) I called you a million times this morning but you couldn’t pick the phone.

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 a) When we dropped pineapple peelings, the ants summoned each other quickly for an
all-month impromptu feast.
- In each of these statements, the picture has been blown out of proportion and
consequently stretched the reader’s imagination.
ii) Understatement
- Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.
- In understatement, something is stated in a lighter way than it should be.

Exercise
Rewrite the sentences below, giving more weight to the italicized words.
1. Hitler was a bad man. He was more than bad; he was evil, heinous.
2. The news about their death made me sad.
3. School girls and boys who have casual sex will get into trouble.
4. Hurricane Katrina caused problems.
5. People who are jobless for years experience some economic discomfort.

iii) Personification
- This when human qualities are given to inanimate objects or non-human things with the
effect that the personified thing is brought close to human experience and therefore more
familiar.
- Eg.
i) The rain carried a lot of mud as it rolled down the valley.
ii) The stove was whimpering softly as the food simmered.
iii) The whistling of the strong wind means that the tropical storm is approaching fast.
iv) The car came and stood right at our gate blocking entry completely.
v) My hair has refused to grow despite the enormous amount of money I have
squandered on it this year.
- Identify and explain the instances of personification in the above sentences.

iv) Apostrophe
- An apostrophe is an exaggeration imagery where dead, absent people or non-living objects
are addressed as though they were alive and would respond.
- Usually during a funeral there is shock and so much grief that the bereaved speak to the
dead and even turn their anger on the corpse.
- Or on occasion when you accidentally knock your leg or head on a wall or object, you ask it
why it hurt you.
- Clearly you won’t get any answers but apostrophe serves to console and allow people to
come to terms with their loss and pain.

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3. Contrast imagery
- Includes paradox, antithesis and irony.
i) Paradox
- Paradox is a statement that is absurd and contradictory and cannot literally happen.
- Paradoxical statements have deeper meaning, and cannot just be dismissed as entirely
untrue. Thus, a closer examination is required to get that meaning.
- E.g. From the Bible, you have statements such as ‘To find yourself you must lose yourself’.
What does it mean in the context of the Bible?

Exercise
- Explain the meaning of the following paradoxical statements:
1. Martin’s wife was a mere baby when she first had a miscarriage.
2. My mother is the man of our household.
3. Some students sit in class but aren’t in class at all.
4. One must die in order to be truly born.
5. Blessed are the poor.

ii) Antithesis
- Antithesis involves sharply juxtaposing words or clauses, as well as ideas, in order to
emphasize both parts of the contrast.
- If well used, antithesis provides a balance at both the level of structure and ideas so that
the two sides directly play off one another.
- A good example is in the Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar. Brutus, one of the characters in
the play asserts: Not that I loved Caesar less, but I loved Rome more.
iii) Irony
- This is a figure of speech that uses words that imply the opposite of what they seem to say.
- When you use irony, you are using contrast because you say one thing but mean something
entirely different.
- There are different types of irony:
1. Verbal Irony
- It occurs when a speaker’s intention is the opposite of what he or she is saying.
- E.G. a character stepping out into freezing winter weather and saying, “What a hot weather
we are having!”
2. Situational Irony
- It occurs when the actual result of a situation is totally different from what you would
expect the result to be; it is getting the opposite results of what you expected.
- E.G. Something good happens to you-you pass the exam with flying colours-but your sister
gets annoyed with you is situational irony because what is expected is that people
(especially your family members) become happy when something good happens, but
instead she is annoyed, which makes a situational irony.

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 3. Dramatic Irony
- It occurs when the audience knows a key piece of information that a character in a play,
movie or novel does not know.
- This is the type of irony that makes us yell, “DON’T GO IN THERE!!” during a scary movie.

….from golden tips

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RECOGNISING AND DISTINGUISHING TYPES OF LITERARY GENRES

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ELEMENTS OF A STORY

…Add hambayi notes

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